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"content": "\u003cp>One of NASA’s most popular and successful missions has hit a disabling technical snag, the agency \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/news/keplerm-20130515.html\">announced\u003c/a> Wednesday. A reaction wheel on the Kepler spacecraft has become stuck, say NASA engineers. Without it, scientists can’t aim the telescope as precisely as they need to.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Kepler space observatory was launched on March 6, 2009 on a search to disprove the notion that Earth is unique in the universe. Over four years, Kepler \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/science/space/keplers-tally-of-planets.html\">found\u003c/a> more than 100 planets orbiting distant stars. In April, Kepler scientists announced they had found two planets roughly Earth-sized and in the so-called “Goldilocks zone” where liquid water may flow on the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2797\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2797\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/742539main_Kepler-62MorningStar_3x4_1024-768_SCALE.jpg\" alt=\"The artist's concept depicts NASA's Kepler misssion's smallest habitable zone planet. (Credit: NASA Ames)\" width=\"640\" height=\"361\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The artist’s concept depicts NASA’s Kepler misssion’s smallest habitable zone planet. (Credit: NASA Ames)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Kepler, which is based at NASA Ames, near Mountain View, has special significance to Bay Area scientists, including \u003ca href=\"http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/team/coi/geoffMarcy/\">Geoffrey Marcy\u003c/a>, a professor of astronomy at UC Berkeley and a co-investigator on the Kepler project. Reached in his office today, Marcy told me Kepler’s failure has had him in tears.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How are you? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Terrible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So it’s as bad as it sounds?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yeah. We knew the friction in Reaction Wheel Four was getting worse and worse. It was [moving] in a sort of hurk-jerky motion. And that’s a tell-tale sign of failure\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Since the time of the ancient Greek philosophers, people have wondered whether there were other Earth-like planets. Kepler is the mission that answered that question.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is there really nothing that can be done to fix it?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The party line is “there are many things to try right now.” Engineers at NASA Ames are going to try and start up the reaction wheel, rock it back and forth – like when your car is stuck in the snow — forward, backwards, hoping it gets unstuck. So there’s hope, but not much.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You know, the spacecraft got its four year nominal mission. That’s all that was expected. But we were hoping for another four years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s this like for you?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I feel awful. I feel dizzy and my eyes are tearing up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You know, it feels funny to to speak emotionally about a telescope, but in the last 2,400 years, since the time of the ancient Greek philosophers, people have wondered whether there were other Earth-like planets. Kepler is the mission that answered that question. We found Earth-like planets by the hundreds. And now this beautiful instrument has died.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a loss for our species. That sounds dramatic, but we pride ourselves as a species of exploration, seeking answers beyond the horizon, answers about our place in the universe. And Kepler was answering those questions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2860\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 288px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/615219miniplanetarysystem_scale-288x162.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-2860\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/615219miniplanetarysystem_scale-288x162.jpg\" alt=\"This artist's concept depicts a small planetary system around a red dwarf. Credit: NASA Ames\" width=\"288\" height=\"162\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-2860\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This artist’s concept depicts a small planetary system around a red dwarf. Credit: NASA Ames\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What did Kepler find?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">We haven’t really identified, yet, an Earth-twin planet where we would say “yeah, that one looks like home.” \u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>We now have a very strong measurement of how common Earth-sized planets are, and how many might be habitable. We wanted another two-to-four years to pin it down. We’re left with a good answer, but it’s not as secure of an answer as we had hoped.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve found hundreds of Earth-sized- planets. But not a single planet that’s definitely like the Earth: rocky surface, liquid water, lukewarm temperature, suitable for biochemistry of life. We haven’t really identified, yet, an Earth-twin planet where we would say “yeah, that one looks like home.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>There is still a lot of Kepler data yet to be processed, right?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yes, and we’re going to be working nonstop. I’m working seven days a week, evenings; my grad students are working non-stop. We have a team here that uses the Keck telescope in Hawaii to measurer the properties of these planets – their orbits, what their atmospheres might be like. So we still have to answer those questions for the planets we’ve found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Could it be that the mythical Earth-twin planet is still in the data, waiting to be uncovered? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Absolutely. And we’re going to work even harder now that the data is even more precious. And we’re gonna try to search for intelligent signs of life on those planets, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Intelligent life? Tell me more. \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have funding [from the Templeton Foundation] for a search to look for laser beam transmissions from advanced civilizations. It’s a crazy project and I’m nearly sure I’ll fail. But I have to try.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The idea is you would use lasers to send a message from one civilization to another one on another planet. You can’t stream cable; fiberoptics don’t work over millions of miles. If alien civilizations are communicating with each other in some kinds of great galactic internet, maybe we can read their email.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>One of NASA’s most popular and successful missions has hit a disabling technical snag, the agency \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/news/keplerm-20130515.html\">announced\u003c/a> Wednesday. A reaction wheel on the Kepler spacecraft has become stuck, say NASA engineers. Without it, scientists can’t aim the telescope as precisely as they need to.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Kepler space observatory was launched on March 6, 2009 on a search to disprove the notion that Earth is unique in the universe. Over four years, Kepler \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/science/space/keplers-tally-of-planets.html\">found\u003c/a> more than 100 planets orbiting distant stars. In April, Kepler scientists announced they had found two planets roughly Earth-sized and in the so-called “Goldilocks zone” where liquid water may flow on the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2797\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2797\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/742539main_Kepler-62MorningStar_3x4_1024-768_SCALE.jpg\" alt=\"The artist's concept depicts NASA's Kepler misssion's smallest habitable zone planet. (Credit: NASA Ames)\" width=\"640\" height=\"361\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The artist’s concept depicts NASA’s Kepler misssion’s smallest habitable zone planet. (Credit: NASA Ames)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Kepler, which is based at NASA Ames, near Mountain View, has special significance to Bay Area scientists, including \u003ca href=\"http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/team/coi/geoffMarcy/\">Geoffrey Marcy\u003c/a>, a professor of astronomy at UC Berkeley and a co-investigator on the Kepler project. Reached in his office today, Marcy told me Kepler’s failure has had him in tears.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How are you? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Terrible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So it’s as bad as it sounds?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yeah. We knew the friction in Reaction Wheel Four was getting worse and worse. It was [moving] in a sort of hurk-jerky motion. And that’s a tell-tale sign of failure\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Since the time of the ancient Greek philosophers, people have wondered whether there were other Earth-like planets. Kepler is the mission that answered that question.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is there really nothing that can be done to fix it?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The party line is “there are many things to try right now.” Engineers at NASA Ames are going to try and start up the reaction wheel, rock it back and forth – like when your car is stuck in the snow — forward, backwards, hoping it gets unstuck. So there’s hope, but not much.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You know, the spacecraft got its four year nominal mission. That’s all that was expected. But we were hoping for another four years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s this like for you?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I feel awful. I feel dizzy and my eyes are tearing up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You know, it feels funny to to speak emotionally about a telescope, but in the last 2,400 years, since the time of the ancient Greek philosophers, people have wondered whether there were other Earth-like planets. Kepler is the mission that answered that question. We found Earth-like planets by the hundreds. And now this beautiful instrument has died.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a loss for our species. That sounds dramatic, but we pride ourselves as a species of exploration, seeking answers beyond the horizon, answers about our place in the universe. And Kepler was answering those questions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2860\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 288px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/615219miniplanetarysystem_scale-288x162.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-2860\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/615219miniplanetarysystem_scale-288x162.jpg\" alt=\"This artist's concept depicts a small planetary system around a red dwarf. Credit: NASA Ames\" width=\"288\" height=\"162\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-2860\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This artist’s concept depicts a small planetary system around a red dwarf. Credit: NASA Ames\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What did Kepler find?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">We haven’t really identified, yet, an Earth-twin planet where we would say “yeah, that one looks like home.” \u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>We now have a very strong measurement of how common Earth-sized planets are, and how many might be habitable. We wanted another two-to-four years to pin it down. We’re left with a good answer, but it’s not as secure of an answer as we had hoped.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve found hundreds of Earth-sized- planets. But not a single planet that’s definitely like the Earth: rocky surface, liquid water, lukewarm temperature, suitable for biochemistry of life. We haven’t really identified, yet, an Earth-twin planet where we would say “yeah, that one looks like home.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>There is still a lot of Kepler data yet to be processed, right?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yes, and we’re going to be working nonstop. I’m working seven days a week, evenings; my grad students are working non-stop. We have a team here that uses the Keck telescope in Hawaii to measurer the properties of these planets – their orbits, what their atmospheres might be like. So we still have to answer those questions for the planets we’ve found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Could it be that the mythical Earth-twin planet is still in the data, waiting to be uncovered? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Absolutely. And we’re going to work even harder now that the data is even more precious. And we’re gonna try to search for intelligent signs of life on those planets, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Intelligent life? Tell me more. \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have funding [from the Templeton Foundation] for a search to look for laser beam transmissions from advanced civilizations. It’s a crazy project and I’m nearly sure I’ll fail. But I have to try.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The idea is you would use lasers to send a message from one civilization to another one on another planet. You can’t stream cable; fiberoptics don’t work over millions of miles. If alien civilizations are communicating with each other in some kinds of great galactic internet, maybe we can read their email.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Federal officials are preparing for a bad fire season, especially in California and along the rest of the Pacific Coast. It’s already begun in California, with nearly 40,000 acres having burned since the beginning of the year, thanks to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/story/2013/05/03/120287/light_sierra_snowpack_raises_specter_of_water_shortages?category=science\">very dry winter\u003c/a> statewide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2654\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2654\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/RS4767_SpringsFireLarge-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"springs fire ventura wildfire\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Springs Fire in Ventura County burned more than 25,000 acres earlier this month. (Dan Rhodes/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Very little precipitation has occurred since the beginning of 2013,” Jeremy Sullens of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nifc.gov/\">National Interagency Fire Center\u003c/a> said on a press call this morning. “In fact in some areas, specifically California, we’ve seen less than 25 percent of the annual precipitation we’d expect for the year so far.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[box size=small align=right color=white]\u003cstrong>Track Current Fire Stats\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://cdfdata.fire.ca.gov/incidents/incidents_stats?year=2013\">In CalFire’s jurisdiction\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.inciweb.org/state/5/#\">On Forest Service land\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>[/box]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack said the US Forest Service is facing a worse-than-usual season with a smaller-than-usual fire-fighting force.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a result of a sequester and across-the-board cuts that have been applied, we’ll have about 500 fewer firefighters [nationally] at the Forest Service than we would otherwise have,” he said. “That may impact about 50 engines that we would otherwise have.” That’s about 5 percent below the usual staffing level. About 20 million acres in California are managed by the Forest Service.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the state’s rural areas are covered by CalFire, the state wildland firefighting agency, which has also seen budget cuts in recent years. This year, they started \u003ca href=\"http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-calfire-staffing-20130416,0,6135117.story\">beefing up staffing early\u003c/a>, in response to the early fires.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Federal officials are preparing for a bad fire season, especially in California and along the rest of the Pacific Coast. It’s already begun in California, with nearly 40,000 acres having burned since the beginning of the year, thanks to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/story/2013/05/03/120287/light_sierra_snowpack_raises_specter_of_water_shortages?category=science\">very dry winter\u003c/a> statewide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2654\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2654\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/RS4767_SpringsFireLarge-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"springs fire ventura wildfire\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Springs Fire in Ventura County burned more than 25,000 acres earlier this month. (Dan Rhodes/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Very little precipitation has occurred since the beginning of 2013,” Jeremy Sullens of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nifc.gov/\">National Interagency Fire Center\u003c/a> said on a press call this morning. “In fact in some areas, specifically California, we’ve seen less than 25 percent of the annual precipitation we’d expect for the year so far.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[box size=small align=right color=white]\u003cstrong>Track Current Fire Stats\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://cdfdata.fire.ca.gov/incidents/incidents_stats?year=2013\">In CalFire’s jurisdiction\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.inciweb.org/state/5/#\">On Forest Service land\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>[/box]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack said the US Forest Service is facing a worse-than-usual season with a smaller-than-usual fire-fighting force.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a result of a sequester and across-the-board cuts that have been applied, we’ll have about 500 fewer firefighters [nationally] at the Forest Service than we would otherwise have,” he said. “That may impact about 50 engines that we would otherwise have.” That’s about 5 percent below the usual staffing level. About 20 million acres in California are managed by the Forest Service.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the state’s rural areas are covered by CalFire, the state wildland firefighting agency, which has also seen budget cuts in recent years. This year, they started \u003ca href=\"http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-calfire-staffing-20130416,0,6135117.story\">beefing up staffing early\u003c/a>, in response to the early fires.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"headTitle": "Airborne Lasers Yield Better Measure of California’s Water Supply | KQED",
"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"audio-wrap\">\n\u003ch2>Listen:\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/science/2013/05/2013-05-13-science.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>California has had one weird winter this year: lots of snow and rain early, and almost none since January. It’s in years like this that it’s especially crucial to know just how much water to expect from melting Sierra snows — runoff that provides about a third of the state’s water supply. Current estimates combine patchy measurements with a kind of sophisticated guesswork. But that may be about to change with new technology that’s currently being tested.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2527\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2527\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/swe-640x360-e1368218832481.jpg\" alt=\"Map generated with data from the ASO showing snow water equivalent on Mt. Lyell in Yosemite National Park in early April. Red areas have the most water. (Courtesy NASA.)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map generated with data from the ASO showing snow-water equivalent on Mt. Lyell in Yosemite National Park in early April. Red areas have the most water. (Image: NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch4>The Limits of Statistics\u003c/h4>\n\u003cp>A funny thing happened when I accompanied Frank Gehrke out on the regular Sierra snow survey this month. He and a group of reporters made their way out to one of the meadows near South Lake Tahoe where he conducts the monthly manual survey in the winter and spring. But this time, there was nothing to do.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“A reservoir operator has to be nimble and take action now.”\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“There’s not even a patch of snow we can seek out and measure,” he said. It wasn’t a surprise — he knew it had all melted already.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Normally he’d stick an aluminum tube into the snow and weigh it to calculate the amount of water in the snow, or the snow-water equivalent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That’s been the procedure really since about 1910,” said Gehrke, who’s been doing it for years as the \u003ca href=\"http://cdec.water.ca.gov/snow/\">snow survey\u003c/a> chief for the California Department of Water Resources (DWR). But that’s a little difficult when, as on this day, spring had sprung at the survey site.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>DWR uses a combination of manual surveys and remote electronic sensors that feed a statistical model to project how much water there will be for cities and farms throughout the state when the snow melts each summer. But they never really know, exactly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That can get nerve-wracking for water managers like Bruce McGurk, who used to run San Francisco’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=92\">Hetch Hetchy Reservoir\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I wouldn’t quite call it chicken,” McGurk said. “But you sure are watching. You’re hedging; you’re always being aware. You can’t be too full too early.” That would put people downstream at risk if there were a big late-season storm. On the other hand, managers need to keep enough in storage, to get through the dry summer. “A reservoir operator has to be nimble and take action now,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2544\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 384px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-2544 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/IMG_5027-e1368221337628.jpg\" alt=\"ASO NASA DWR water snow twin otter\" width=\"384\" height=\"288\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tom Painter of NASA and Frank Gehrke of DWR in front of the Twin Otter. (Molly Samuel/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Which is why McGurk is excited about the project he’s working on with NASA, DWR and the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, which runs Hetch Hetchy.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch4>Going Airborne\u003c/h4>\n\u003cp>It’s called the \u003ca href=\"http://aso.jpl.nasa.gov/\">Airborne Snow Observatory\u003c/a>, or ASO: an airplane outfitted with instruments that give scientists a better understanding of the snowpack than they’ve ever had before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s kind of like looking at your TV screen,” said Tom Painter of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory at CalTech, the principal investigator on the project. “Your TV screen is the mountain basin,” he explained. And the way we’re currently measuring the snow in the mountains is by just looking at a few points — ike a screen that’s blank except for a few illuminated pixels — and using statistics to complete the picture.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we’re doing,” said Painter, “is turning on the entire TV set. We’re allowing you to see every one of the pixels.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The end result is a set of more comprehensive maps showing how much water is really up there, in the mountains. This is the first month of the three-year, four million-dollar project, funded by NASA and DWR. Right now, they’re focusing on a watershed in the Rockies and the Tuolumne River in Yosemite, which feeds into Hetch Hetchy. It’s a test phase, to work out the kinks.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch4>The Plane\u003c/h4>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2553\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 1024px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-large wp-image-2553\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/twinotter640x360-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"lidar spectrometer twin otter\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Twin Otter used for the ASO is mounted with a spectrometer, a camera and lidar device. (Molly Samuel/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The maps are created with two high-tech tools mounted in a DeHavilland Twin Otter, a Canadian-built aircraft frequently used for research flights. Painter offered a tour of the gear mounted inside.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The lidar lets us know the snow depth,” he said. Lidar is a laser that measures distance — really accurately, and really quickly. (If you’ve ever been pulled over by a police officer using a “radar” gun, you’re familiar with the technology.) By multiplying snow depth and snow density — the density calculation comes from manual surveys — you get the all-important snow water equivalent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The spectrometer here, the black box, this allows us to know how much \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/climatewatch/2010/04/29/whats-an-albedo-and-why-you-should-care/\">sunlight is being absorbed\u003c/a> by the snow surface,” he said. That tells scientists when the snow will melt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“(The maps) are really beautiful,” Painter says. “The spatial distribution of snow water equivalent is — maybe it’s an acquired taste — but I think it’s fascinating and quite beautiful.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2535\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2535\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/Picture2-e1368219677597.jpg\" alt=\"Data from the spectrometer draped on snow-on digital elevation surface shows snow-covered areas and the granite of Mt. Lyell's peak. (Courtesy NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"408\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Data from the spectrometer draped over topographical information from the lidar shows snow-covered areas and the granite of Mt. Lyell’s peak. The storied Lyell Glacier is visible in the upper left portion of the image. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The scenery from the plane isn’t bad, either. On a sample flight in the Lake Tahoe area, flight operator Cate Heneghan, who usually works on NASA space missions, marveled at the famously clear water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s greens and blues,” she said over the crackly headset. “You know, you see pictures, but you always wonder: is it color enhanced? But then you come here and see it in real life and you go, ‘Whoop, no, I guess it’s not color enhanced.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heneghan operates the scientific instruments and coordinates between the plane’s pilots and Gehrke and Painter, who work in the back. The plane crisscrosses the watershed, measuring the depth of the snow and how much light it’s reflecting, down to the half-meter.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch4>Big Snow Data\u003c/h4>\n\u003cp>After the flight, a team from NASA works around the clock to process all that data. The goal is to run weekly flights, with a 24-hour turnaround time, so it’s relevant to reservoir managers. McGurk is a consultant on the project, coordinating between NASA and Hetch Hetchy.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“People are going to start to think, ‘Wow, I don’t know how they operated before this.’”\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Yeah we all get real excited when the images start to come back and everybody goes ‘Woah, cool look at that,’” he laughed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These tools are becoming increasingly important. Painter says that statistical models rely on historical data. And with a changing climate, the future is going to look less and less like the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“With these physical measurements, you don’t have to rely on what happened last year,” he explained. “What happened over last 10 years, what happened over the last 20 years, has no bearing on your ability to model the snow-melt in this year.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gehrke, elder statesman of California snow surveys, welcomed the change. He said this program, along with new stations that measure \u003ca href=\"https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.10151415328907449.1073741832.95205192448&type=1\">atmospheric rivers\u003c/a> and a program that supports better coordination between water managers is bringing in a next generation of water management in California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You know, it’s sort of like the internet,” he said. “Initially, it’s like, ‘Yeah, whatever, who cares.’ And all of a sudden, it’s now like, people can hardly go anywhere without it. And I think that’s what we’re going to find, as all of this starts to build out, people are going to start to think, ‘Wow, I don’t know how they operated before this.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With this new data, water managers will be better able to plan for water supply, flood control, hydropower and the environment. And scientists will be able to use this deluge of data, too, to learn more about the alpine environment, one of the places most threatened by climate change.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Snow runoff from the Sierra Nevada provides about a third of the state's water supply. Current estimates of how much water is in the mountains combine patchy measurements with a kind of sophisticated guesswork. But that may be about to change with new technology that's currently being tested.",
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"description": "Snow runoff from the Sierra Nevada provides about a third of the state's water supply. Current estimates of how much water is in the mountains combine patchy measurements with a kind of sophisticated guesswork. But that may be about to change with new technology that's currently being tested.",
"title": "Airborne Lasers Yield Better Measure of California's Water Supply | KQED",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cdiv class=\"audio-wrap\">\n\u003ch2>Listen:\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/science/2013/05/2013-05-13-science.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>California has had one weird winter this year: lots of snow and rain early, and almost none since January. It’s in years like this that it’s especially crucial to know just how much water to expect from melting Sierra snows — runoff that provides about a third of the state’s water supply. Current estimates combine patchy measurements with a kind of sophisticated guesswork. But that may be about to change with new technology that’s currently being tested.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2527\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2527\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/swe-640x360-e1368218832481.jpg\" alt=\"Map generated with data from the ASO showing snow water equivalent on Mt. Lyell in Yosemite National Park in early April. Red areas have the most water. (Courtesy NASA.)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map generated with data from the ASO showing snow-water equivalent on Mt. Lyell in Yosemite National Park in early April. Red areas have the most water. (Image: NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch4>The Limits of Statistics\u003c/h4>\n\u003cp>A funny thing happened when I accompanied Frank Gehrke out on the regular Sierra snow survey this month. He and a group of reporters made their way out to one of the meadows near South Lake Tahoe where he conducts the monthly manual survey in the winter and spring. But this time, there was nothing to do.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“A reservoir operator has to be nimble and take action now.”\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“There’s not even a patch of snow we can seek out and measure,” he said. It wasn’t a surprise — he knew it had all melted already.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Normally he’d stick an aluminum tube into the snow and weigh it to calculate the amount of water in the snow, or the snow-water equivalent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That’s been the procedure really since about 1910,” said Gehrke, who’s been doing it for years as the \u003ca href=\"http://cdec.water.ca.gov/snow/\">snow survey\u003c/a> chief for the California Department of Water Resources (DWR). But that’s a little difficult when, as on this day, spring had sprung at the survey site.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>DWR uses a combination of manual surveys and remote electronic sensors that feed a statistical model to project how much water there will be for cities and farms throughout the state when the snow melts each summer. But they never really know, exactly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That can get nerve-wracking for water managers like Bruce McGurk, who used to run San Francisco’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=92\">Hetch Hetchy Reservoir\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I wouldn’t quite call it chicken,” McGurk said. “But you sure are watching. You’re hedging; you’re always being aware. You can’t be too full too early.” That would put people downstream at risk if there were a big late-season storm. On the other hand, managers need to keep enough in storage, to get through the dry summer. “A reservoir operator has to be nimble and take action now,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2544\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 384px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-2544 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/IMG_5027-e1368221337628.jpg\" alt=\"ASO NASA DWR water snow twin otter\" width=\"384\" height=\"288\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tom Painter of NASA and Frank Gehrke of DWR in front of the Twin Otter. (Molly Samuel/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Which is why McGurk is excited about the project he’s working on with NASA, DWR and the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, which runs Hetch Hetchy.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch4>Going Airborne\u003c/h4>\n\u003cp>It’s called the \u003ca href=\"http://aso.jpl.nasa.gov/\">Airborne Snow Observatory\u003c/a>, or ASO: an airplane outfitted with instruments that give scientists a better understanding of the snowpack than they’ve ever had before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s kind of like looking at your TV screen,” said Tom Painter of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory at CalTech, the principal investigator on the project. “Your TV screen is the mountain basin,” he explained. And the way we’re currently measuring the snow in the mountains is by just looking at a few points — ike a screen that’s blank except for a few illuminated pixels — and using statistics to complete the picture.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we’re doing,” said Painter, “is turning on the entire TV set. We’re allowing you to see every one of the pixels.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The end result is a set of more comprehensive maps showing how much water is really up there, in the mountains. This is the first month of the three-year, four million-dollar project, funded by NASA and DWR. Right now, they’re focusing on a watershed in the Rockies and the Tuolumne River in Yosemite, which feeds into Hetch Hetchy. It’s a test phase, to work out the kinks.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch4>The Plane\u003c/h4>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2553\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 1024px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-large wp-image-2553\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/twinotter640x360-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"lidar spectrometer twin otter\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Twin Otter used for the ASO is mounted with a spectrometer, a camera and lidar device. (Molly Samuel/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The maps are created with two high-tech tools mounted in a DeHavilland Twin Otter, a Canadian-built aircraft frequently used for research flights. Painter offered a tour of the gear mounted inside.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The lidar lets us know the snow depth,” he said. Lidar is a laser that measures distance — really accurately, and really quickly. (If you’ve ever been pulled over by a police officer using a “radar” gun, you’re familiar with the technology.) By multiplying snow depth and snow density — the density calculation comes from manual surveys — you get the all-important snow water equivalent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The spectrometer here, the black box, this allows us to know how much \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/climatewatch/2010/04/29/whats-an-albedo-and-why-you-should-care/\">sunlight is being absorbed\u003c/a> by the snow surface,” he said. That tells scientists when the snow will melt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“(The maps) are really beautiful,” Painter says. “The spatial distribution of snow water equivalent is — maybe it’s an acquired taste — but I think it’s fascinating and quite beautiful.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2535\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2535\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/Picture2-e1368219677597.jpg\" alt=\"Data from the spectrometer draped on snow-on digital elevation surface shows snow-covered areas and the granite of Mt. Lyell's peak. (Courtesy NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"408\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Data from the spectrometer draped over topographical information from the lidar shows snow-covered areas and the granite of Mt. Lyell’s peak. The storied Lyell Glacier is visible in the upper left portion of the image. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The scenery from the plane isn’t bad, either. On a sample flight in the Lake Tahoe area, flight operator Cate Heneghan, who usually works on NASA space missions, marveled at the famously clear water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s greens and blues,” she said over the crackly headset. “You know, you see pictures, but you always wonder: is it color enhanced? But then you come here and see it in real life and you go, ‘Whoop, no, I guess it’s not color enhanced.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heneghan operates the scientific instruments and coordinates between the plane’s pilots and Gehrke and Painter, who work in the back. The plane crisscrosses the watershed, measuring the depth of the snow and how much light it’s reflecting, down to the half-meter.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch4>Big Snow Data\u003c/h4>\n\u003cp>After the flight, a team from NASA works around the clock to process all that data. The goal is to run weekly flights, with a 24-hour turnaround time, so it’s relevant to reservoir managers. McGurk is a consultant on the project, coordinating between NASA and Hetch Hetchy.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“People are going to start to think, ‘Wow, I don’t know how they operated before this.’”\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Yeah we all get real excited when the images start to come back and everybody goes ‘Woah, cool look at that,’” he laughed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These tools are becoming increasingly important. Painter says that statistical models rely on historical data. And with a changing climate, the future is going to look less and less like the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“With these physical measurements, you don’t have to rely on what happened last year,” he explained. “What happened over last 10 years, what happened over the last 20 years, has no bearing on your ability to model the snow-melt in this year.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gehrke, elder statesman of California snow surveys, welcomed the change. He said this program, along with new stations that measure \u003ca href=\"https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.10151415328907449.1073741832.95205192448&type=1\">atmospheric rivers\u003c/a> and a program that supports better coordination between water managers is bringing in a next generation of water management in California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You know, it’s sort of like the internet,” he said. “Initially, it’s like, ‘Yeah, whatever, who cares.’ And all of a sudden, it’s now like, people can hardly go anywhere without it. And I think that’s what we’re going to find, as all of this starts to build out, people are going to start to think, ‘Wow, I don’t know how they operated before this.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With this new data, water managers will be better able to plan for water supply, flood control, hydropower and the environment. And scientists will be able to use this deluge of data, too, to learn more about the alpine environment, one of the places most threatened by climate change.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Can't Pop This: Bubble Scientists Reveal the Physics of Soap",
"headTitle": "Can’t Pop This: Bubble Scientists Reveal the Physics of Soap | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ciciWBz8m_Y\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MVLzkTuVmrw\">Calgon \u003c/a>can’t take you away from applied mathematics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a paper published Thursday in Science, UC Berkeley mathematicians James Sethian and Robert Saye \u003ca href=\"http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/05/09/heady-mathematics-describing-popping-bubbles-in-a-foam/\">reveal \u003c/a>algorithms that describe air pockets surrounded by liquid membranes and joined at plateau junctions (translation: a cluster of bubbles).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It took several years to do all the math, Sethian told me by phone from his office in Berkeley. The final product: a nifty computer-generated soap bubble that’s indistinguishable from the real thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Let’s start with the basics here. What’s a bubble?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A bubble is a pocket of air surrounded by a very thin membrane. And that membrane contains liquid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now if you imagine two bubbles, they’re going to connect together sharing a common, liquid wall. If you have three bubbles, a cluster, these bubbles share a membrane and they’re pulling on each other in an equilibrium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So that’s not a real bubble we’re seeing up there?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a computer calculation, but it’s not graphics. We’re solving the fundamental equations of motion that have to do with how bubbles drain, rupture, and then rearrange to a new position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>You plug that algorithm into a computer, and out comes the video. Cool! What’s that we see reflected in the bubbles?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve taken a sunset scene and computed how this would be reflected off this bubble cluster.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Your paper says that there are three kinds of equations at work in this video. I might rephrase that as “three things that bubbles do.” What are they?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d call them three stages:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Say you have a cluster of bubbles, as if you filled your kitchen sink full of dishwashing liquid. It may look for a minute that’s nothing going on there. But in fact, the fluid in those thin films [the walls of the bubble] is draining down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the liquid drains, it pools into the shared edges. Those are called “plateau junctions,” named after a mathematician named Plateau.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the walls finally becomes too thin and it pops. And now it’s gone. So if you think about it, these bubbles are no longer in an equilibrium. They have to move to a new position. They’re settling into a nice new place where everyone is equally pulling on each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2442\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2442\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/twobubbles_scale3.jpg\" alt=\"(Courtesy UC Berkeley)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">(Courtesy UC Berkeley)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So, in brief, the life cycle of a bubble is…\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They’re draining. Someone gets too thin and pops. That disturbs the equilibrium, so they all have to move to a new position, and then the cycle repeats itself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why can’t a cluster of liquid soap bubbles stay how it is forever?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Well in part, it’s gravity. Gravity will start pulling liquid down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But — and this gets a bit technical — the junctions are also sucking liquid out of the membranes due to a version of capillary pressure. In other words, because of the curvature of these junctions, there’s a pressure differential that causing the fluid to be pooled, or flowed into these plateau junctions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why is this process of bubble clusters reshaping themselves so hard to calculate?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One challenge is that these three processes happen on very, very different time scales.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The draining can take place over hundreds of seconds. The pop happens at hundreds of meters per second. That’s flying. And then the process of rearranging itself, to reach that new equilibrium, happens on the order of a tenth of a second or so. So these are vastly different timescales.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And the same thing is true on physical scales: The thickness of that membrane is on the order of tens to hundreds of nanometers to reach that new equilibrium. It’s tiny. But a cluster of bubbles is big, inches across.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So you’re trying to compute the solution to a problem in which the timescales are varying by six or so orders of magnitude, and the space scales are varying.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You with me?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>I am.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In mathematics, we call this a multi-scale problem. You have to find a way to decouple these scales from each other: to solve them separately, but then somehow let them talk to each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How long did it take to do this work?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve been working on developing these algorithms for, I’d say, three to five years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It took five days on a supercomputer called Hopper at Lawrence Berkeley Lab to do the calculation you’re seeing in this movie.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>And finally, what could this possibly have to do with bike helmets?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This work can help show how to optimally design solid foams, like polyurethane.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/ciciWBz8m_Y'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/ciciWBz8m_Y'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MVLzkTuVmrw\">Calgon \u003c/a>can’t take you away from applied mathematics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a paper published Thursday in Science, UC Berkeley mathematicians James Sethian and Robert Saye \u003ca href=\"http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2013/05/09/heady-mathematics-describing-popping-bubbles-in-a-foam/\">reveal \u003c/a>algorithms that describe air pockets surrounded by liquid membranes and joined at plateau junctions (translation: a cluster of bubbles).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It took several years to do all the math, Sethian told me by phone from his office in Berkeley. The final product: a nifty computer-generated soap bubble that’s indistinguishable from the real thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Let’s start with the basics here. What’s a bubble?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A bubble is a pocket of air surrounded by a very thin membrane. And that membrane contains liquid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now if you imagine two bubbles, they’re going to connect together sharing a common, liquid wall. If you have three bubbles, a cluster, these bubbles share a membrane and they’re pulling on each other in an equilibrium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So that’s not a real bubble we’re seeing up there?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a computer calculation, but it’s not graphics. We’re solving the fundamental equations of motion that have to do with how bubbles drain, rupture, and then rearrange to a new position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>You plug that algorithm into a computer, and out comes the video. Cool! What’s that we see reflected in the bubbles?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve taken a sunset scene and computed how this would be reflected off this bubble cluster.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Your paper says that there are three kinds of equations at work in this video. I might rephrase that as “three things that bubbles do.” What are they?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’d call them three stages:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Say you have a cluster of bubbles, as if you filled your kitchen sink full of dishwashing liquid. It may look for a minute that’s nothing going on there. But in fact, the fluid in those thin films [the walls of the bubble] is draining down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the liquid drains, it pools into the shared edges. Those are called “plateau junctions,” named after a mathematician named Plateau.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the walls finally becomes too thin and it pops. And now it’s gone. So if you think about it, these bubbles are no longer in an equilibrium. They have to move to a new position. They’re settling into a nice new place where everyone is equally pulling on each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2442\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2442\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/twobubbles_scale3.jpg\" alt=\"(Courtesy UC Berkeley)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">(Courtesy UC Berkeley)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So, in brief, the life cycle of a bubble is…\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They’re draining. Someone gets too thin and pops. That disturbs the equilibrium, so they all have to move to a new position, and then the cycle repeats itself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why can’t a cluster of liquid soap bubbles stay how it is forever?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Well in part, it’s gravity. Gravity will start pulling liquid down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But — and this gets a bit technical — the junctions are also sucking liquid out of the membranes due to a version of capillary pressure. In other words, because of the curvature of these junctions, there’s a pressure differential that causing the fluid to be pooled, or flowed into these plateau junctions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why is this process of bubble clusters reshaping themselves so hard to calculate?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One challenge is that these three processes happen on very, very different time scales.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The draining can take place over hundreds of seconds. The pop happens at hundreds of meters per second. That’s flying. And then the process of rearranging itself, to reach that new equilibrium, happens on the order of a tenth of a second or so. So these are vastly different timescales.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And the same thing is true on physical scales: The thickness of that membrane is on the order of tens to hundreds of nanometers to reach that new equilibrium. It’s tiny. But a cluster of bubbles is big, inches across.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So you’re trying to compute the solution to a problem in which the timescales are varying by six or so orders of magnitude, and the space scales are varying.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You with me?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>I am.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In mathematics, we call this a multi-scale problem. You have to find a way to decouple these scales from each other: to solve them separately, but then somehow let them talk to each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How long did it take to do this work?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve been working on developing these algorithms for, I’d say, three to five years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It took five days on a supercomputer called Hopper at Lawrence Berkeley Lab to do the calculation you’re seeing in this movie.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>And finally, what could this possibly have to do with bike helmets?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This work can help show how to optimally design solid foams, like polyurethane.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>“I’m gonna do everything humanly possible to get it done.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2330\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-2330\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/Brwon-4x3-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Governor Jerry Brown told the state's water managers a fix for the Delta is on the way. (Craig Miller/KQED)\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Governor Jerry Brown told the state’s water managers a fix for the Delta is on the way. (Craig Miller/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That was Governor Jerry Brown’s vow to the state’s water managers on Wednesday, asking for both their patience and their support.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He was referring, of course, to his \u003ca title=\"Quest - Delta tunnels\" href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/15/controversial-california-water-plan-takes-shape/\">ambitious proposal for tunnels\u003c/a> to bypass the environmentally beleaguered \u003ca title=\"Quest - Delta\" href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/audio/californias-deadlocked-delta-can-it-be-fixed/\">Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta\u003c/a>, switching yard for the biggest portion of California’s water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re gonna have a reliable water supply. We’re gonna build a big project. We’ve got the federal government moving along with us,” declared the Governor. The last remark may have been partially a reference to the agreement his administration signed Wednesday with federal agencies to set a formal deadline of October 1, for release of a draft version of the long-awaited \u003ca title=\"BDCP - main\" href=\"http://baydeltaconservationplan.com/Home.aspx\">Bay Delta Conservation Plan\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Brown made the comments during a brief, surprise appearance at the spring conference of the \u003ca title=\"ACWA - main\" href=\"http://www.acwa.com/\">Association of Californian Water Agencies\u003c/a> (ACWA) in Sacramento, which continues through the week.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2337\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 1024px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-large wp-image-2337\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/RS3305_delta120111-1024x682.jpg\" alt=\"The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Department of Water Resources)\" width=\"1024\" height=\"682\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Department of Water Resources) \u003ccite>(Department of Water Resources)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I just came by to tell you, we’re working on it,” he told a large luncheon gathering at the Sheraton ballroom, about a block from the Capitol. Explicitly exempting his predecessor, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Brown added that, where the Delta’s concerned, “there was a little bit of a drought in leadership for several governors. By the quirks of history, I’ve come back after 28 years.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Brown reflected that after the defeat of his own previous Delta conveyance proposal in a statewide referendum during his last term as governor, “it took several decades before people could really re-engage in this process and get something done.”\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“I didn’t come back here just to goof off. I like doing real things. I like doing big things… (But) 30 years ago, things were simpler.”\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>At moments, Brown spoke like a determined Don Quixote, tilting at the complexities of modern governance. “We’re gonna do everything. We’re gonna fix the fish, we’re gonna fix the levees…the salt’s gonna go out to the sea, and the water’s gonna flow and everything’s gonna work. But it takes a lot. It takes billions of dollars, it takes a lot of work.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some environmental groups and several Delta legislators are pushing back on Brown’s grand plan. In a statement, \u003ca title=\"Restore the Delta - main\" href=\"http://www.restorethedelta.org/\">Restore the Delta\u003c/a> head Barbara Barrigan-Parrilla, wrote:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>“The governor’s new Oct. 1 deadline is an attempt to thread the needle between pressure from the water-takers, who are threatening to stop paying for the BDCP, and the delay he faces because the science stubbornly still shows his tunnels would kill the Delta.”\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rather than relying on “bonds and these other complexities that take votes,” Brown said he would rely on laws passed during his father’s administration that gave broad powers to the state Department of Water Resources. “I didn’t come back here just to goof off. I like doing real things. I like doing big things.” But, he lamented, “30 years ago, things were simpler.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>“I’m gonna do everything humanly possible to get it done.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2330\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-2330\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/Brwon-4x3-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"Governor Jerry Brown told the state's water managers a fix for the Delta is on the way. (Craig Miller/KQED)\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Governor Jerry Brown told the state’s water managers a fix for the Delta is on the way. (Craig Miller/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That was Governor Jerry Brown’s vow to the state’s water managers on Wednesday, asking for both their patience and their support.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He was referring, of course, to his \u003ca title=\"Quest - Delta tunnels\" href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/15/controversial-california-water-plan-takes-shape/\">ambitious proposal for tunnels\u003c/a> to bypass the environmentally beleaguered \u003ca title=\"Quest - Delta\" href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/audio/californias-deadlocked-delta-can-it-be-fixed/\">Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta\u003c/a>, switching yard for the biggest portion of California’s water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re gonna have a reliable water supply. We’re gonna build a big project. We’ve got the federal government moving along with us,” declared the Governor. The last remark may have been partially a reference to the agreement his administration signed Wednesday with federal agencies to set a formal deadline of October 1, for release of a draft version of the long-awaited \u003ca title=\"BDCP - main\" href=\"http://baydeltaconservationplan.com/Home.aspx\">Bay Delta Conservation Plan\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Brown made the comments during a brief, surprise appearance at the spring conference of the \u003ca title=\"ACWA - main\" href=\"http://www.acwa.com/\">Association of Californian Water Agencies\u003c/a> (ACWA) in Sacramento, which continues through the week.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_2337\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 1024px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-large wp-image-2337\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/RS3305_delta120111-1024x682.jpg\" alt=\"The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Department of Water Resources)\" width=\"1024\" height=\"682\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Department of Water Resources) \u003ccite>(Department of Water Resources)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I just came by to tell you, we’re working on it,” he told a large luncheon gathering at the Sheraton ballroom, about a block from the Capitol. Explicitly exempting his predecessor, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Brown added that, where the Delta’s concerned, “there was a little bit of a drought in leadership for several governors. By the quirks of history, I’ve come back after 28 years.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
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"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
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"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
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"mindshift": {
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"order": 12
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"info": "\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.",
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"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Our weekly podcast explores how the media 'sausage' is made, casts an incisive eye on fluctuations in the marketplace of ideas, and examines threats to the freedom of information and expression in America and abroad. For one hour a week, the show tries to lift the veil from the process of \"making media,\" especially news media, because it's through that lens that we see the world and the world sees us",
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"perspectives": {
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"planet-money": {
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"info": "The economy explained. Imagine you could call up a friend and say, Meet me at the bar and tell me what's going on with the economy. Now imagine that's actually a fun evening.",
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"politicalbreakdown": {
"id": "politicalbreakdown",
"title": "Political Breakdown",
"tagline": "Politics from a personal perspective",
"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
"airtime": "THU 6:30pm-7pm",
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"possible": {
"id": "possible",
"title": "Possible",
"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
"airtime": "SUN 2pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.possible.fm/",
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"source": "Possible"
},
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},
"pri-the-world": {
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"title": "PRI's The World: Latest Edition",
"info": "Each weekday, host Marco Werman and his team of producers bring you the world's most interesting stories in an hour of radio that reminds us just how small our planet really is.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 2pm-3pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-World-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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},
"radiolab": {
"id": "radiolab",
"title": "Radiolab",
"info": "A two-time Peabody Award-winner, Radiolab is an investigation told through sounds and stories, and centered around one big idea. In the Radiolab world, information sounds like music and science and culture collide. Hosted by Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich, the show is designed for listeners who demand skepticism, but appreciate wonder. WNYC Studios is the producer of other leading podcasts including Freakonomics Radio, Death, Sex & Money, On the Media and many more.",
"airtime": "SUN 12am-1am, SAT 2pm-3pm",
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},
"reveal": {
"id": "reveal",
"title": "Reveal",
"info": "Created by The Center for Investigative Reporting and PRX, Reveal is public radios first one-hour weekly radio show and podcast dedicated to investigative reporting. Credible, fact based and without a partisan agenda, Reveal combines the power and artistry of driveway moment storytelling with data-rich reporting on critically important issues. The result is stories that inform and inspire, arming our listeners with information to right injustices, hold the powerful accountable and improve lives.Reveal is hosted by Al Letson and showcases the award-winning work of CIR and newsrooms large and small across the nation. In a radio and podcast market crowded with choices, Reveal focuses on important and often surprising stories that illuminate the world for our listeners.",
"airtime": "SAT 4pm-5pm",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/reveal300px.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.revealnews.org/episodes/",
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"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/reveal",
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"rss": "http://feeds.revealradio.org/revealpodcast"
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},
"rightnowish": {
"id": "rightnowish",
"title": "Rightnowish",
"tagline": "Art is where you find it",
"info": "Rightnowish digs into life in the Bay Area right now… ish. Journalist Pendarvis Harshaw takes us to galleries painted on the sides of liquor stores in West Oakland. We'll dance in warehouses in the Bayview, make smoothies with kids in South Berkeley, and listen to classical music in a 1984 Cutlass Supreme in Richmond. Every week, Pen talks to movers and shakers about how the Bay Area shapes what they create, and how they shape the place we call home.",
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 16
},
"link": "/podcasts/rightnowish",
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