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"content": "\u003cp>Meet the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucsfmissionbayhospitals.org/articles/high-tech-tug-robots-do-heavy-lifting-at-mission-bay.html\" target=\"_blank\">Tugs\u003c/a> — a team of 27 robots now zooming around the hallways of the new University of California-San Francisco hospital at Mission Bay. They look a bit like R2D2, dragging a platform around behind them. Instead of drones, think of them more as little flatbed trucks, ferrying carts of stuff around the vast hospital complex — food, linens, medications, medical waste and garbage. And they do it more efficiently than humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"“pullquote alignright\">Using TUG robots allowed UCSF to hire about 30 fewer workers during an expansion.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“This one is going up to one of the floors. It’s carrying meals that were ordered in probably the last 20 minutes,” said Dan Henroid, who is in charge of this elite fleet, as he pointed to a robot motoring by him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Henroid, who is also director of nutrition and food services for the USCF Medical Center, says each Tug travels about 35 miles each day. Over the past year, they have made more than 157,000 trips through the hospital.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Henroid said no one in the hospital has lost a job to the robots. UCSF was in the midst of a hiring spree for the new hospital, and the Tugs allowed him to hire about 30 fewer workers than he would have otherwise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He added that the robots are really just carting things from one point to another, something most humans would not find particularly rewarding. “The Tug has a job to do, and it’s sort of a thankless job. So, I think, better to have a robot doing it, perhaps, than a human.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not everyone in the hospital is such a big fan of the Tugs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I think they’re helpful. I think they’re also kind of a pain,” said Mardi Thompson, a nurse in the neonatal intensive care unit. “I’ve seen them run into computers; I’ve seen them run into glass doors; I’ve seen them run into each other.” Sometimes, she said, two Tugs get stuck near the nurses’ station, each one waiting for the other to pass. The nurses call that a “Tug of war.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She says over the past year, the robots have gotten better. But for Thompson, there’s still the issue of jobs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Definitely there are jobs lost, which is kind of interesting to me because with the economy the way it is, you’d think people need jobs. And then we have these robots doing them,” said Thompson.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_121045\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 370px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-121045\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/03/tug-3.jpg\" alt=\"The UCSF Benioff Children’s Hospital in San Francisco, Calif., is experimenting with different types of skins on the tugs. (Heidi de Marco/KHN)\" width=\"370\" height=\"554\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The UCSF Benioff Children’s Hospital in San Francisco, Calif., is experimenting with different types of skins on the tugs. (Heidi de Marco/KHN) \u003ccite>(Heidi de Marco/KHN)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Overall, the Tug program has cost UCSF about $6 million, including the changes required to hospital infrastructure to accommodate the robots. But Henroid said they have still saved the hospital money. “The cost of transporting materials and supplies waste is an overhead cost. So the more you can do you that efficiently, the less cost you have,” he explained.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>About 120 hospitals throughout the U.S. are using Tugs, according to manufacturer \u003ca href=\"http://www.aethon.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Aethon\u003c/a> in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For some departments, such as the bustling hospital kitchen where the Tugs pick up carts loaded with trays of food and drop off dirty dishes, employees have eagerly adopted their automated co-workers. “In nutrition food services, we named all of ours for fruit — so we have Apple, Pear, Blueberry, Orange and Grape,” explained Henroid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Tugs are kind of cute, but also a little unnerving, as they shuttle past other hospital workers like they own the joint. Each one is carefully programmed to stay out of the way, said Henroid, but sometimes it feels as if one could mow down a bystander.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a moment of bravery, a visitor decided to step in a Tug’s path. It headed straight for her, but stopped suddenly a safe distance away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=REEzJfGRaZE\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Henroid seemed pleased: “You have faith! See, it stopped 2 feet away from you. You thought it was gonna run into you.” The Tugs have sensors along their base that can tell if anything is in their way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The robots have very little contact with patients. They mostly stay in the hallways or nurses’ stations, where human workers pick up their goods and deliver them to patients in person. When the kids in the children’s hospital catch a glance, however, it’s quite a scene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Medical-surgical unit coordinator Michael Eckenrode pointed out a half dozen plastic toy vehicles nearby, including a cab and a bike.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The children like to climb aboard and ride them around the unit. “When the robots come the kids start screaming ‘Robots’ and they follow them down the hall. And it goes down around the corner and opens the elevator and gets on by itself. So that’s like a magic thing for them,” said Eckenrode.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rogelio Diaz-Ramirez, an adorable three-year-old, was in the hospital with a lung infection, but he couldn’t stop smiling at just the thought of seeing a robot for the first time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re going to search for a robot!” said nurse Sonia Salinas in Spanish, as she took Rogelio’s hand and led him through the hallway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Salinas spotted a Tug coming down the corridor. “Robot! Come on! Run, Run!” she told Rogelio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When he caught up, Rogelio looked awestruck. Salinas showed him how to press the big green and red buttons on top that make the Tug go and stop. Until it’s time for the Tug to attend to its next assignment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Say Goodbye. Goodbye, Tuggy!” she told him. “Adios!” said Rogelio with a wave.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This story was produced in collaboration with APM’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.marketplace.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Marketplace\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> “This story was produced by \u003ca href=\"http://khn.org/\">Kaiser Health News\u003c/a>, which publishes California Healthline, a service of the California Health Care Foundation.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Meet the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucsfmissionbayhospitals.org/articles/high-tech-tug-robots-do-heavy-lifting-at-mission-bay.html\" target=\"_blank\">Tugs\u003c/a> — a team of 27 robots now zooming around the hallways of the new University of California-San Francisco hospital at Mission Bay. They look a bit like R2D2, dragging a platform around behind them. Instead of drones, think of them more as little flatbed trucks, ferrying carts of stuff around the vast hospital complex — food, linens, medications, medical waste and garbage. And they do it more efficiently than humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"“pullquote alignright\">Using TUG robots allowed UCSF to hire about 30 fewer workers during an expansion.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“This one is going up to one of the floors. It’s carrying meals that were ordered in probably the last 20 minutes,” said Dan Henroid, who is in charge of this elite fleet, as he pointed to a robot motoring by him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Henroid, who is also director of nutrition and food services for the USCF Medical Center, says each Tug travels about 35 miles each day. Over the past year, they have made more than 157,000 trips through the hospital.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Henroid said no one in the hospital has lost a job to the robots. UCSF was in the midst of a hiring spree for the new hospital, and the Tugs allowed him to hire about 30 fewer workers than he would have otherwise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He added that the robots are really just carting things from one point to another, something most humans would not find particularly rewarding. “The Tug has a job to do, and it’s sort of a thankless job. So, I think, better to have a robot doing it, perhaps, than a human.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not everyone in the hospital is such a big fan of the Tugs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I think they’re helpful. I think they’re also kind of a pain,” said Mardi Thompson, a nurse in the neonatal intensive care unit. “I’ve seen them run into computers; I’ve seen them run into glass doors; I’ve seen them run into each other.” Sometimes, she said, two Tugs get stuck near the nurses’ station, each one waiting for the other to pass. The nurses call that a “Tug of war.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She says over the past year, the robots have gotten better. But for Thompson, there’s still the issue of jobs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Definitely there are jobs lost, which is kind of interesting to me because with the economy the way it is, you’d think people need jobs. And then we have these robots doing them,” said Thompson.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_121045\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 370px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-121045\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/03/tug-3.jpg\" alt=\"The UCSF Benioff Children’s Hospital in San Francisco, Calif., is experimenting with different types of skins on the tugs. (Heidi de Marco/KHN)\" width=\"370\" height=\"554\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The UCSF Benioff Children’s Hospital in San Francisco, Calif., is experimenting with different types of skins on the tugs. (Heidi de Marco/KHN) \u003ccite>(Heidi de Marco/KHN)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Overall, the Tug program has cost UCSF about $6 million, including the changes required to hospital infrastructure to accommodate the robots. But Henroid said they have still saved the hospital money. “The cost of transporting materials and supplies waste is an overhead cost. So the more you can do you that efficiently, the less cost you have,” he explained.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>About 120 hospitals throughout the U.S. are using Tugs, according to manufacturer \u003ca href=\"http://www.aethon.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Aethon\u003c/a> in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For some departments, such as the bustling hospital kitchen where the Tugs pick up carts loaded with trays of food and drop off dirty dishes, employees have eagerly adopted their automated co-workers. “In nutrition food services, we named all of ours for fruit — so we have Apple, Pear, Blueberry, Orange and Grape,” explained Henroid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Tugs are kind of cute, but also a little unnerving, as they shuttle past other hospital workers like they own the joint. Each one is carefully programmed to stay out of the way, said Henroid, but sometimes it feels as if one could mow down a bystander.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a moment of bravery, a visitor decided to step in a Tug’s path. It headed straight for her, but stopped suddenly a safe distance away.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/REEzJfGRaZE'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/REEzJfGRaZE'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>Henroid seemed pleased: “You have faith! See, it stopped 2 feet away from you. You thought it was gonna run into you.” The Tugs have sensors along their base that can tell if anything is in their way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The robots have very little contact with patients. They mostly stay in the hallways or nurses’ stations, where human workers pick up their goods and deliver them to patients in person. When the kids in the children’s hospital catch a glance, however, it’s quite a scene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Medical-surgical unit coordinator Michael Eckenrode pointed out a half dozen plastic toy vehicles nearby, including a cab and a bike.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The children like to climb aboard and ride them around the unit. “When the robots come the kids start screaming ‘Robots’ and they follow them down the hall. And it goes down around the corner and opens the elevator and gets on by itself. So that’s like a magic thing for them,” said Eckenrode.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rogelio Diaz-Ramirez, an adorable three-year-old, was in the hospital with a lung infection, but he couldn’t stop smiling at just the thought of seeing a robot for the first time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re going to search for a robot!” said nurse Sonia Salinas in Spanish, as she took Rogelio’s hand and led him through the hallway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Salinas spotted a Tug coming down the corridor. “Robot! Come on! Run, Run!” she told Rogelio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When he caught up, Rogelio looked awestruck. Salinas showed him how to press the big green and red buttons on top that make the Tug go and stop. Until it’s time for the Tug to attend to its next assignment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Say Goodbye. Goodbye, Tuggy!” she told him. “Adios!” said Rogelio with a wave.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This story was produced in collaboration with APM’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.marketplace.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Marketplace\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> “This story was produced by \u003ca href=\"http://khn.org/\">Kaiser Health News\u003c/a>, which publishes California Healthline, a service of the California Health Care Foundation.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>We all know ancestors give us our hair color, but the roots of gray hair have been less clear. Is it genetics, or stress?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Marie Antoinette supposedly went completely white the night before they lopped off her head. And our presidents seem to go gray much faster than those of us with less weighty roles.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out you can blame Mom and Dad, at least a bit. Scientists say they've identified the first gene for gray hair.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The variant, dubbed IRF4, is also associated with blonde or lighter-colored hair. That makes sense, because melanin is the pigment that paints hair with the chestnut, golden or raven hues of youth. With age, the melanocytes that produce the color in hair follicles can slow down. And you start going gray.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You think about hair graying as the absence of melanin,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://iris.ucl.ac.uk/iris/browse/profile?upi=KADHI79\">Kaustubh Adhikari\u003c/a>, a statistical genetics postdoc at University College London and lead author of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160301/ncomms10815/full/ncomms10815.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160301/ncomms10815/full/ncomms10815.html\">study\u003c/a>, which was published Tuesday in \u003cem>Nature Communications\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gray hair is more common in people of European origin, as is lighter hair. That makes sense, Adhikari says. \"You would sort of think of hair graying as an unintended consequence of selecting for this hair color.\" In other words, if you decide to marry a blonde, don't be surprised if your kids someday turn gray.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>People of Asian and African ancestry also go gray, but less often than do Europeans. \"You would expect that they would have genes that influence graying,\" Adhikari says. \"We just haven't found them yet.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists discovered the gray gene by studying the scalp and facial hair of 6,630 volunteers in Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Mexico and Peru. The researchers took photographs and asked about natural hair color. The participants had a mix of European, Native American and African ancestry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then the scientists performed genetic analyses called genome-wide association scans that look for common variants, and matched them with appearance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ten new variants popped out; gray hair was matched with one. Others influence unibrow, balding, eyebrow thickness and hair structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, genetics isn't necessarily destiny; Kaustubh figures that the IRF4 variant accounts for about 30 percent of gray hair, with environmental factors including perhaps stress accounting for the rest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2016 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"http://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=This+Gene+Could+Turn+Your+Hair+Gray&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\" alt=\"\">\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>We all know ancestors give us our hair color, but the roots of gray hair have been less clear. Is it genetics, or stress?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Marie Antoinette supposedly went completely white the night before they lopped off her head. And our presidents seem to go gray much faster than those of us with less weighty roles.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out you can blame Mom and Dad, at least a bit. Scientists say they've identified the first gene for gray hair.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The variant, dubbed IRF4, is also associated with blonde or lighter-colored hair. That makes sense, because melanin is the pigment that paints hair with the chestnut, golden or raven hues of youth. With age, the melanocytes that produce the color in hair follicles can slow down. And you start going gray.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You think about hair graying as the absence of melanin,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://iris.ucl.ac.uk/iris/browse/profile?upi=KADHI79\">Kaustubh Adhikari\u003c/a>, a statistical genetics postdoc at University College London and lead author of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160301/ncomms10815/full/ncomms10815.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160301/ncomms10815/full/ncomms10815.html\">study\u003c/a>, which was published Tuesday in \u003cem>Nature Communications\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gray hair is more common in people of European origin, as is lighter hair. That makes sense, Adhikari says. \"You would sort of think of hair graying as an unintended consequence of selecting for this hair color.\" In other words, if you decide to marry a blonde, don't be surprised if your kids someday turn gray.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>People of Asian and African ancestry also go gray, but less often than do Europeans. \"You would expect that they would have genes that influence graying,\" Adhikari says. \"We just haven't found them yet.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists discovered the gray gene by studying the scalp and facial hair of 6,630 volunteers in Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Mexico and Peru. The researchers took photographs and asked about natural hair color. The participants had a mix of European, Native American and African ancestry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then the scientists performed genetic analyses called genome-wide association scans that look for common variants, and matched them with appearance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ten new variants popped out; gray hair was matched with one. Others influence unibrow, balding, eyebrow thickness and hair structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, genetics isn't necessarily destiny; Kaustubh figures that the IRF4 variant accounts for about 30 percent of gray hair, with environmental factors including perhaps stress accounting for the rest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2016 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"http://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=This+Gene+Could+Turn+Your+Hair+Gray&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\" alt=\"\">\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>One of the best ways to understand Zika virus might be to deliberately inject it into volunteers.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">Scientists are trying to decide whether it's ethical to ask volunteers to take a shot of Zika virus to help search for a vaccine.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>That idea may sound a little crazy, but it's not unprecedented. And some researchers are hoping the approach could help speed up the search for an effective Zika vaccine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now, a bunch of labs are pursuing different ways of making a vaccine against Zika, mostly because of the concern that the virus might be linked to the birth defect called \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/microcephaly.html\">microcephaly\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the \u003ca href=\"http://www.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/vrc/pages/default.aspx/Pages/default.aspx\">Vaccine Research Center\u003c/a> at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases in Maryland, scientists are creating different versions of a DNA-based vaccine. \"Which one is the best one? We are testing it in animals, using that to select our top candidate,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.niaid.nih.gov/labsandresources/labs/aboutlabs/vrc/virology/pages/virologycore.aspx\">Wing-Pui Kong\u003c/a>, a virologist at the center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If any vaccine candidate looks good in animal tests, it could then go for initial safety testing in people. After that, scientists somehow have to show that the immune response elicited by the vaccine will actually protect people from getting infected with Zika.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's no easy task, and no one can say for sure how long it will take.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Most vaccine development efforts are measured in decades,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.niaid.nih.gov/labsandresources/labs/aboutlabs/vrc/viralpathogenesislaboratory/pages/graham.aspx\">Dr. Barney Graham\u003c/a>, deputy director of the NIAID vaccine research center. \"Almost every vaccine we have for a viral disease has come several decades after the discovery of the virus.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New technology does make it much easier to quickly develop a vaccine concept and test it in animals, he notes, \"but you can't really have it for public use and distribution until you're able to prove efficacy. Proving that a vaccine works often takes very large organized field trials.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those kinds of field trials are difficult, time-consuming, and sometimes just impossible. By the time an Ebola vaccine was ready to go into a large study, for example, the outbreak in West Africa was winding down. Not enough people were being exposed to Ebola to prove that a vaccine would protect them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What's more, when researchers do manage to do a big clinical trial, it frequently reveals that their vaccine is a dud.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, to see if a potential Zika vaccine really can protect people, scientists would like to do this: Give volunteers a candidate vaccine, and then later inject Zika virus into them, to see what happens. That could produce real answers fast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The limitations would be you'd have to do this in young people who were volunteering to do this and who were not going to get pregnant,\" says Graham.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some ways, this is a blast from the past. In the 1950s, soon after Zika was discovered, one intrepid scientist injected it into his arm, to see if it could make people sick. He just got a slight fever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After all, if you're not pregnant, \"Zika itself is a pretty mild illness,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.jhsph.edu/faculty/directory/profile/1358/anna-durbin\">Dr. Anna Durbin\u003c/a>, an expert on vaccine clinical trials at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This fall, we'll likely see safety tests of a potential Zika vaccine in about 20 to 50 people here in the United States. \"And then the big question is, what is our next step?\" says Durbin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ideally, she says, you could ask for volunteers to be exposed to Zika in a controlled setting. Researchers could compare two groups: people who get the virus alone compared to people who get a candidate vaccine and then the virus later on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We would admit them to our inpatient unit, where they have 24-hour care,\" says Durbin. And they'd use a low dose of the virus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her group has already done this kind of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26424605\">study\u003c/a> to evaluate a potential vaccine for dengue, a closely related virus. Dengue can cause serious illness, but one particular dengue virus just causes a rash. And people did agree to be injected with it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That let Durbin and her colleagues show that the dengue vaccine really seemed to protect people from infection, making them feel more confident about moving forward with larger trials.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We would like to develop a similar model for Zika,\" Durbin says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the situation with Zika is a little more complicated. That's because, in addition to the possible connection with microcephaly in fetuses, Zika infection in adults may be linked to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/gbs/detail_gbs.htm#3139_1\">Guillain-Barre syndrome\u003c/a> — a disorder in which the immune system attacks the nervous system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We do not want to put people at risk for that,\" says Durbin, \"because these are normal, healthy people.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, people already face a small risk of getting Guillain-Barre from more mundane infections, like diarrheal diseases or the flu. And it's still unclear how often this actually happens with Zika.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's something scientists are trying to understand now, to help them figure out whether it would be ethical to ask people to take a shot of Zika virus to help search for a vaccine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2016 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"http://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=Why+Scientists+Hope+To+Inject+Some+People+With+Zika+Virus&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\" alt=\"\">\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>One of the best ways to understand Zika virus might be to deliberately inject it into volunteers.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">Scientists are trying to decide whether it's ethical to ask volunteers to take a shot of Zika virus to help search for a vaccine.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>That idea may sound a little crazy, but it's not unprecedented. And some researchers are hoping the approach could help speed up the search for an effective Zika vaccine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now, a bunch of labs are pursuing different ways of making a vaccine against Zika, mostly because of the concern that the virus might be linked to the birth defect called \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/microcephaly.html\">microcephaly\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the \u003ca href=\"http://www.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/vrc/pages/default.aspx/Pages/default.aspx\">Vaccine Research Center\u003c/a> at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases in Maryland, scientists are creating different versions of a DNA-based vaccine. \"Which one is the best one? We are testing it in animals, using that to select our top candidate,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.niaid.nih.gov/labsandresources/labs/aboutlabs/vrc/virology/pages/virologycore.aspx\">Wing-Pui Kong\u003c/a>, a virologist at the center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If any vaccine candidate looks good in animal tests, it could then go for initial safety testing in people. After that, scientists somehow have to show that the immune response elicited by the vaccine will actually protect people from getting infected with Zika.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's no easy task, and no one can say for sure how long it will take.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Most vaccine development efforts are measured in decades,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.niaid.nih.gov/labsandresources/labs/aboutlabs/vrc/viralpathogenesislaboratory/pages/graham.aspx\">Dr. Barney Graham\u003c/a>, deputy director of the NIAID vaccine research center. \"Almost every vaccine we have for a viral disease has come several decades after the discovery of the virus.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New technology does make it much easier to quickly develop a vaccine concept and test it in animals, he notes, \"but you can't really have it for public use and distribution until you're able to prove efficacy. Proving that a vaccine works often takes very large organized field trials.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those kinds of field trials are difficult, time-consuming, and sometimes just impossible. By the time an Ebola vaccine was ready to go into a large study, for example, the outbreak in West Africa was winding down. Not enough people were being exposed to Ebola to prove that a vaccine would protect them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What's more, when researchers do manage to do a big clinical trial, it frequently reveals that their vaccine is a dud.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, to see if a potential Zika vaccine really can protect people, scientists would like to do this: Give volunteers a candidate vaccine, and then later inject Zika virus into them, to see what happens. That could produce real answers fast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The limitations would be you'd have to do this in young people who were volunteering to do this and who were not going to get pregnant,\" says Graham.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some ways, this is a blast from the past. In the 1950s, soon after Zika was discovered, one intrepid scientist injected it into his arm, to see if it could make people sick. He just got a slight fever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After all, if you're not pregnant, \"Zika itself is a pretty mild illness,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.jhsph.edu/faculty/directory/profile/1358/anna-durbin\">Dr. Anna Durbin\u003c/a>, an expert on vaccine clinical trials at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This fall, we'll likely see safety tests of a potential Zika vaccine in about 20 to 50 people here in the United States. \"And then the big question is, what is our next step?\" says Durbin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ideally, she says, you could ask for volunteers to be exposed to Zika in a controlled setting. Researchers could compare two groups: people who get the virus alone compared to people who get a candidate vaccine and then the virus later on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We would admit them to our inpatient unit, where they have 24-hour care,\" says Durbin. And they'd use a low dose of the virus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her group has already done this kind of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26424605\">study\u003c/a> to evaluate a potential vaccine for dengue, a closely related virus. Dengue can cause serious illness, but one particular dengue virus just causes a rash. And people did agree to be injected with it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That let Durbin and her colleagues show that the dengue vaccine really seemed to protect people from infection, making them feel more confident about moving forward with larger trials.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We would like to develop a similar model for Zika,\" Durbin says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the situation with Zika is a little more complicated. That's because, in addition to the possible connection with microcephaly in fetuses, Zika infection in adults may be linked to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/gbs/detail_gbs.htm#3139_1\">Guillain-Barre syndrome\u003c/a> — a disorder in which the immune system attacks the nervous system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We do not want to put people at risk for that,\" says Durbin, \"because these are normal, healthy people.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, people already face a small risk of getting Guillain-Barre from more mundane infections, like diarrheal diseases or the flu. And it's still unclear how often this actually happens with Zika.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's something scientists are trying to understand now, to help them figure out whether it would be ethical to ask people to take a shot of Zika virus to help search for a vaccine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2016 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"http://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=Why+Scientists+Hope+To+Inject+Some+People+With+Zika+Virus&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\" alt=\"\">\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "More Evidence Older Dads May Father Kids With Genetic Diseases",
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"content": "\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26858415\">new study \u003c/a>from researchers at the University of Oxford has essentially taken genetic snapshots of the sperm in the testicles of 14 men of various ages. The results give us a clearer picture of why the children of older dads are at a higher risk for genetic diseases like schizophrenia, autism, dwarfism and even some late-onset cancers.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">A clearer picture of why children of older men are at higher risk for autism, dwarfism and other diseases.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>It has been known for a while that the older a man gets, the more genetic differences or mutations crop up in his sperm's DNA. This is because men make sperm at a furious rate, with sperm cells dividing constantly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As new sperm cells are made, their DNA needs to be copied. And while astonishingly accurate, the machinery is not perfect, resulting in an occasional mistake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What the new study helps to explain is why some of these mistakes are more common than others. It turns out that \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask411\">natural selection\u003c/a> of sperm in the testicle plays a big role in at least some of these errors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>It’s a Jungle in There\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_118645\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-118645\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-800x447.jpg\" alt=\"The most competitive sperm may not be the best one for the future health of the resulting child.\" width=\"800\" height=\"447\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-800x447.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-400x224.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-768x429.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-1180x659.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm.jpg 1920w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-960x537.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The most competitive sperm may not be the best one for the future health of the resulting child. \u003ccite>(Pixabay)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Inside the testicle there is a set of stem cells that eventually become sperm. These are the cells that need to keep dividing to produce the \u003ca href=\"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/03/100318-men-sperm-1500-stem-cells-second-male-birth-control/\">1,500 sperm\u003c/a> that the average male makes each \u003cem>second\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After these cells split, they need to grow big enough to divide again. This is where the trouble can start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If one of these stem cells happens to pick up a mutation that makes it grow a bit faster than the other stem cells around it, then that stem cell will become more common over time. It will divide faster and outcompete its non-mutated brethren.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This seems to be what is happening in a slew of rarer genetic conditions like dwarfism, and syndromes like Apert, Crouzon, and Pfeiffer. Each is caused by a mutation in a gene that makes the stem cell divide more quickly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So this is one reason these mutations are more common in the sperm of older men. The longer the mutated stem cell has to grow and divide, the more of them there will be.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words: the older the man, the higher the concentration of mutant stem cells in his testicles, the study found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And the more of these mutated sperm cells there are, the higher the risk that one will eventually fertilize an egg.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Men Are From Mars\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is important to note that all men pass on mutated DNA to their kids. It is just that older men pass on DNA with \u003cem>more\u003c/em> mutations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is very different from women. They too pass on mutated DNA, but the amount doesn’t really change much with age. A 20-year-old mother and a 40-year-old mother will pass on the same number of DNA changes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because while sperm are constantly being made, eggs are not. A woman is most likely born with all the eggs she will ever have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means the eggs of a 20-year-old mom have undergone the same amount of DNA copying as that of a 40-year-old.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now of course that is not to say the children of older moms are not at higher risk for genetic problems. In older mothers, an extra or missing chromosome can lead to genetic conditions like Down syndrome or Turner syndrome.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26858415\">new study \u003c/a>from researchers at the University of Oxford has essentially taken genetic snapshots of the sperm in the testicles of 14 men of various ages. The results give us a clearer picture of why the children of older dads are at a higher risk for genetic diseases like schizophrenia, autism, dwarfism and even some late-onset cancers.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">A clearer picture of why children of older men are at higher risk for autism, dwarfism and other diseases.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>It has been known for a while that the older a man gets, the more genetic differences or mutations crop up in his sperm's DNA. This is because men make sperm at a furious rate, with sperm cells dividing constantly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As new sperm cells are made, their DNA needs to be copied. And while astonishingly accurate, the machinery is not perfect, resulting in an occasional mistake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What the new study helps to explain is why some of these mistakes are more common than others. It turns out that \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask411\">natural selection\u003c/a> of sperm in the testicle plays a big role in at least some of these errors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>It’s a Jungle in There\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_118645\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-118645\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-800x447.jpg\" alt=\"The most competitive sperm may not be the best one for the future health of the resulting child.\" width=\"800\" height=\"447\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-800x447.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-400x224.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-768x429.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-1180x659.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm.jpg 1920w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/WinnerSperm-960x537.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The most competitive sperm may not be the best one for the future health of the resulting child. \u003ccite>(Pixabay)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Inside the testicle there is a set of stem cells that eventually become sperm. These are the cells that need to keep dividing to produce the \u003ca href=\"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/03/100318-men-sperm-1500-stem-cells-second-male-birth-control/\">1,500 sperm\u003c/a> that the average male makes each \u003cem>second\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After these cells split, they need to grow big enough to divide again. This is where the trouble can start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If one of these stem cells happens to pick up a mutation that makes it grow a bit faster than the other stem cells around it, then that stem cell will become more common over time. It will divide faster and outcompete its non-mutated brethren.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This seems to be what is happening in a slew of rarer genetic conditions like dwarfism, and syndromes like Apert, Crouzon, and Pfeiffer. Each is caused by a mutation in a gene that makes the stem cell divide more quickly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So this is one reason these mutations are more common in the sperm of older men. The longer the mutated stem cell has to grow and divide, the more of them there will be.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words: the older the man, the higher the concentration of mutant stem cells in his testicles, the study found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And the more of these mutated sperm cells there are, the higher the risk that one will eventually fertilize an egg.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Men Are From Mars\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is important to note that all men pass on mutated DNA to their kids. It is just that older men pass on DNA with \u003cem>more\u003c/em> mutations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is very different from women. They too pass on mutated DNA, but the amount doesn’t really change much with age. A 20-year-old mother and a 40-year-old mother will pass on the same number of DNA changes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because while sperm are constantly being made, eggs are not. A woman is most likely born with all the eggs she will ever have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means the eggs of a 20-year-old mom have undergone the same amount of DNA copying as that of a 40-year-old.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now of course that is not to say the children of older moms are not at higher risk for genetic problems. In older mothers, an extra or missing chromosome can lead to genetic conditions like Down syndrome or Turner syndrome.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>One in four babies has \u003ca href=\"http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20101006006722/en/Digital-Birth-Online-World\" target=\"_blank\">a digital footprint\u003c/a> before it's even born, which isn't surprising if you've ever seen a sonogram photo on Facebook.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trend continues as we grow up. A host of activities—from buying groceries with a credit card to texting friends—leaves a trace in cyberspace.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">Watch the health segments below\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>This information can be helpful, as when \u003ca href=\"http://www.medicaldaily.com/reddit-user-fitbit-data-pregnancy-symptoms-372880\">Fitbit data revealed \u003c/a>a couple was expecting, or not so much, as when a 23andMe test \u003ca href=\"http://www.vox.com/2014/9/9/5975653/with-genetic-testing-i-gave-my-parents-the-gift-of-divorce-23andme\" target=\"_blank\">led to a couple's divorce\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The increasing power of all this information is the subject of PBS' hour-long special: \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/show/human-face-big-data/\">The Human Face of Big Data\u003c/a>,\" which airs Wednesday.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Featuring more than 30 leading voices and pioneers in the fields of data science, artificial intelligence, technology and digital medicine, \"The Human Face of Big Data\" is a galvanizing yet cautionary tale. Several experts predict a world where privacy ceases to exist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">What I’m really worried about is the cost to democracy; today it’s nearly impossible to be truly anonymous,\" \u003ca href=\"http://www.media.mit.edu/\" target=\"_blank\">MIT Media Lab\u003c/a> Director Joi Ito says in the film.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Perhaps most striking in the documentary: how big data is rapidly being applied to health care.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\"We talk a lot in the movie about medicine,\" says director and producer Sandy Smolan. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\"Now that the cost of getting your DNA sequenced has dropped so low, it’s only a matter of years before hospitals compile medicine for you.\" \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">Smolan says precision will make today's health care system seem woefully antiquated.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\"We’ll look back at this period and say, 'How barbaric, we just prescribed medicine and hope it worked.'\"\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca name=\"clips\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The film explores four public health advances fueled by big data:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Google Flu Trends. \u003c/strong>The search engine used real time search results to \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Flu_Trends\" target=\"_blank\">predict infectious outbreaks\u003c/a>, such as the flu, which previously took several weeks for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to track.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEDt89eQ64o&ab_channel=PBS\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Monitoring health. \u003c/strong>If millions of people tracked their health continuously, producing huge amount of physiological information, what would that enable? \"There's a company right now in Boston that can actually predict you're going to get depressed, two days before you get depressed,\" says journalist Rick Smolan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ZKsqr2RUjw&ab_channel=PBS\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Heartbeat data saves infants.\u003c/strong> Data scientist Carolyn McGregor aggregated data from medical equipment to predict the onset of life-threatening infections in premature babies before physical symptoms appeared.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNccLBzR_I4&ab_channel=UOIT\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Whole genome sequencing and personalized medicine\u003c/strong>. Digitizing our genome could revolutionize personal health care. In the film, a daughter tests for mutations in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics/brca-fact-sheet#q1\" target=\"_blank\">BRCA2 gene\u003c/a>, to see if she inherited the mutation from her mom, which would lead to an increased risk for breast cancer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6FMIbgCtys\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Mapping the spread of malaria.\u003c/strong> The organization Ushahidi worked with a communications network to map malaria hotspots in Kenya. Since 2000, Malaria infections are down 25 percent worldwide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zHCnLkTHSAk]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week, \u003ca href=\"http://hereandnow.wbur.org/\">Here & Now\u003c/a>’s Jeremy Hobson spoke with executive producer Rick Smolan and Shwetak Patel, a computer science and engineering professor at the University of Washington, who appears in the film. Listen below:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe width=\"100%\" height=\"124\" scrolling=\"no\" frameborder=\"no\" src=\"//embed.wbur.org/player/hereandnow/2016/02/24/human-face-of-big-data-pbs\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>One in four babies has \u003ca href=\"http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20101006006722/en/Digital-Birth-Online-World\" target=\"_blank\">a digital footprint\u003c/a> before it's even born, which isn't surprising if you've ever seen a sonogram photo on Facebook.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trend continues as we grow up. A host of activities—from buying groceries with a credit card to texting friends—leaves a trace in cyberspace.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">Watch the health segments below\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>This information can be helpful, as when \u003ca href=\"http://www.medicaldaily.com/reddit-user-fitbit-data-pregnancy-symptoms-372880\">Fitbit data revealed \u003c/a>a couple was expecting, or not so much, as when a 23andMe test \u003ca href=\"http://www.vox.com/2014/9/9/5975653/with-genetic-testing-i-gave-my-parents-the-gift-of-divorce-23andme\" target=\"_blank\">led to a couple's divorce\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The increasing power of all this information is the subject of PBS' hour-long special: \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/show/human-face-big-data/\">The Human Face of Big Data\u003c/a>,\" which airs Wednesday.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Featuring more than 30 leading voices and pioneers in the fields of data science, artificial intelligence, technology and digital medicine, \"The Human Face of Big Data\" is a galvanizing yet cautionary tale. Several experts predict a world where privacy ceases to exist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">What I’m really worried about is the cost to democracy; today it’s nearly impossible to be truly anonymous,\" \u003ca href=\"http://www.media.mit.edu/\" target=\"_blank\">MIT Media Lab\u003c/a> Director Joi Ito says in the film.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Perhaps most striking in the documentary: how big data is rapidly being applied to health care.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\"We talk a lot in the movie about medicine,\" says director and producer Sandy Smolan. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\"Now that the cost of getting your DNA sequenced has dropped so low, it’s only a matter of years before hospitals compile medicine for you.\" \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">Smolan says precision will make today's health care system seem woefully antiquated.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\"We’ll look back at this period and say, 'How barbaric, we just prescribed medicine and hope it worked.'\"\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca name=\"clips\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The film explores four public health advances fueled by big data:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Google Flu Trends. \u003c/strong>The search engine used real time search results to \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Flu_Trends\" target=\"_blank\">predict infectious outbreaks\u003c/a>, such as the flu, which previously took several weeks for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to track.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/lEDt89eQ64o'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/lEDt89eQ64o'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Monitoring health. \u003c/strong>If millions of people tracked their health continuously, producing huge amount of physiological information, what would that enable? \"There's a company right now in Boston that can actually predict you're going to get depressed, two days before you get depressed,\" says journalist Rick Smolan.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/-ZKsqr2RUjw'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/-ZKsqr2RUjw'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Heartbeat data saves infants.\u003c/strong> Data scientist Carolyn McGregor aggregated data from medical equipment to predict the onset of life-threatening infections in premature babies before physical symptoms appeared.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/WNccLBzR_I4'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/WNccLBzR_I4'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Whole genome sequencing and personalized medicine\u003c/strong>. Digitizing our genome could revolutionize personal health care. In the film, a daughter tests for mutations in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics/brca-fact-sheet#q1\" target=\"_blank\">BRCA2 gene\u003c/a>, to see if she inherited the mutation from her mom, which would lead to an increased risk for breast cancer.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/V6FMIbgCtys'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/V6FMIbgCtys'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Mapping the spread of malaria.\u003c/strong> The organization Ushahidi worked with a communications network to map malaria hotspots in Kenya. Since 2000, Malaria infections are down 25 percent worldwide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/zHCnLkTHSAk'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/zHCnLkTHSAk'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week, \u003ca href=\"http://hereandnow.wbur.org/\">Here & Now\u003c/a>’s Jeremy Hobson spoke with executive producer Rick Smolan and Shwetak Patel, a computer science and engineering professor at the University of Washington, who appears in the film. 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"disqusTitle": "How CRISPR Made it Onto 'The X-Files'",
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"content": "\u003cp>\"The X-Files\" revival has gotten some \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/27/arts/television/x-files-ratings-stay-strong.html\" target=\"_blank\">big ratings\u003c/a>. Clearly a lot of fans (if \u003ca href=\"http://variety.com/2016/tv/features/the-x-files-season-finale-review-my-struggle-ii-1201712181/\" target=\"_blank\">not\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"http://www.vox.com/2016/2/24/11104426/the-x-files-finale-recap-bad\" target=\"_blank\">critics\u003c/a>) are over the moon at its return, as this Twitter search on \"\u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/search?q=x-files%20best%20show%20ever&src=typd\" target=\"_blank\">X-Files Best Show Ever\u003c/a>\" will attest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As much as we'd love to jump on the bandwagon and cover the infiltration of alien DNA in our genome, the funding isn't quite there, yet. Luckily, the inclusion of CRISPR/Cas9 as a major plot point in the season finale Monday does give us a convenient excuse to get in on the action.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CRISPR/Cas9, as we have been \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/tag/crispr/\" target=\"_blank\">writing about\u003c/a>, is a cutting-edge gene-editing technique that has been heralded as a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">breakthrough technology\u003c/a>, inspiring \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2016/02/22/gene-editing-coming-to-a-kitchen-counter-near-you/\" target=\"_blank\">high expectations for\u003c/a> -- as well as \u003ca href=\"https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/feb/12/rogue-scientists-could-exploit-gene-editing-technology-experts-warn\" target=\"_blank\">warnings about\u003c/a> -- potential uses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_118123\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 338px\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-118123 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-338x600.jpg\" alt=\"X-Files science advisor Anne Simon and David Duchovny in Vancouver, August 2015.\" width=\"338\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-338x600.jpg 338w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-400x711.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-768x1365.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-664x1180.jpg 664w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-960x1707.jpg 960w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504.jpg 1080w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 338px) 100vw, 338px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">X-Files science advisor Anne Simon and David Duchovny in Vancouver, August 2015. \u003ccite>(Courtesy Anne Simon)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Anne Simon, a University of Maryland virologist who also happens to be a science advisor on \"The X-Files,\" has taken note. She co-wrote the finale's story, along with microbiologist Margaret Fearon and show creator Chris Carter. The plot involves humans who are stripped of their immune systems. This is accomplished via CRISPR/Cas9.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"He asked me to come up with something that would kill off everybody,\" she said of Carter Wednesday. \"That took a lot of thought. It had to be something simple enough to get across to the public. I began thinking if you just got rid of the \u003ca href=\"http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/ADA\" target=\"_blank\">ADA gene\u003c/a> -- I teach this -- you would not have an immune system. That’s the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">Boy in the Bubble syndrome\u003c/a>. The idea is that a long time ago [the aliens and human conspirators] must have put something in our genome that would get rid of the gene.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(In the show, the mechanism for introducing alien DNA into the human genome is the smallpox vaccine, which \"doubtless made \u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/jenny-mccarthy-were-not-an-anti-vaccine-movement-were-pro-safe-vaccine/\" target=\"_blank\">Jenny McCarthy\u003c/a> the happiest 'X-Files' viewer of the night,\" \u003ca href=\"https://www.yahoo.com/tv/x-files-finale-review-ep-6-my-struggle-141222649.html\" target=\"_blank\">wrote\u003c/a> a Yahoo! TV critic.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Simon said she and co-writer Fearon had to do a lot of explaining to Carter as to how CRISPR works.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Between the two of us we’re trying to explain it to him on the phone and showing him YouTube videos and stuff, and he \u003cem>kind\u003c/em> of gets it.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She said she looked at the script every day to check on the science. \"It really is accurate. I was happy at the end.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Accurate within the bounds of sci-fi/conspiracy theory, of course. Simon said she suggested the story have the mass gene deletion triggered by the increase in CO2 -- global warming. But Carter opted to make the triggering mechanism ... \u003ca href=\"http://thevane.gawker.com/why-i-write-about-and-debunk-the-chemtrail-conspiracy-1581896346\" target=\"_blank\">chemtrails\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Chris wanted to use chemtrails, which is \u003ca href=\"http://thevane.gawker.com/why-i-write-about-and-debunk-the-chemtrail-conspiracy-1581896346\" target=\"_blank\">big in conspiracy theories\u003c/a>. I don’t even know what it is,\" Simon said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She first connected with Carter, back in the day, through a family connection. \"He needed to talk to a biologist. I thought, 'We'll get the microscopes right.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At one point, Carter named a character after Simon, but her fictional self was short-lived. \"I had visions of her being Scully and Mulder’s partner, and helping them solve cases scientifically. And then I get killed off. \"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She thinks the character of Dana Scully has been great for encouraging female scientists.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"She has been a wonderful draw for young people. I hear from so many people over Twitter who say they went into science because of 'The X-Files.'\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether the show comes back for more episodes is still an open question. But the signs are \u003ca href=\"http://www.ew.com/article/2016/01/29/x-files-ratings\" target=\"_blank\">encouraging\u003c/a>. FOX, no doubt, is suggesting we all stay tuned.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\"The X-Files\" revival has gotten some \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/27/arts/television/x-files-ratings-stay-strong.html\" target=\"_blank\">big ratings\u003c/a>. Clearly a lot of fans (if \u003ca href=\"http://variety.com/2016/tv/features/the-x-files-season-finale-review-my-struggle-ii-1201712181/\" target=\"_blank\">not\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"http://www.vox.com/2016/2/24/11104426/the-x-files-finale-recap-bad\" target=\"_blank\">critics\u003c/a>) are over the moon at its return, as this Twitter search on \"\u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/search?q=x-files%20best%20show%20ever&src=typd\" target=\"_blank\">X-Files Best Show Ever\u003c/a>\" will attest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As much as we'd love to jump on the bandwagon and cover the infiltration of alien DNA in our genome, the funding isn't quite there, yet. Luckily, the inclusion of CRISPR/Cas9 as a major plot point in the season finale Monday does give us a convenient excuse to get in on the action.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CRISPR/Cas9, as we have been \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/tag/crispr/\" target=\"_blank\">writing about\u003c/a>, is a cutting-edge gene-editing technique that has been heralded as a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">breakthrough technology\u003c/a>, inspiring \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2016/02/22/gene-editing-coming-to-a-kitchen-counter-near-you/\" target=\"_blank\">high expectations for\u003c/a> -- as well as \u003ca href=\"https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/feb/12/rogue-scientists-could-exploit-gene-editing-technology-experts-warn\" target=\"_blank\">warnings about\u003c/a> -- potential uses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_118123\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 338px\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-118123 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-338x600.jpg\" alt=\"X-Files science advisor Anne Simon and David Duchovny in Vancouver, August 2015.\" width=\"338\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-338x600.jpg 338w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-400x711.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-768x1365.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-664x1180.jpg 664w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504-960x1707.jpg 960w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2017/02/duchovny-e1456426674504.jpg 1080w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 338px) 100vw, 338px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">X-Files science advisor Anne Simon and David Duchovny in Vancouver, August 2015. \u003ccite>(Courtesy Anne Simon)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Anne Simon, a University of Maryland virologist who also happens to be a science advisor on \"The X-Files,\" has taken note. She co-wrote the finale's story, along with microbiologist Margaret Fearon and show creator Chris Carter. The plot involves humans who are stripped of their immune systems. This is accomplished via CRISPR/Cas9.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"He asked me to come up with something that would kill off everybody,\" she said of Carter Wednesday. \"That took a lot of thought. It had to be something simple enough to get across to the public. I began thinking if you just got rid of the \u003ca href=\"http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/ADA\" target=\"_blank\">ADA gene\u003c/a> -- I teach this -- you would not have an immune system. That’s the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">Boy in the Bubble syndrome\u003c/a>. The idea is that a long time ago [the aliens and human conspirators] must have put something in our genome that would get rid of the gene.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(In the show, the mechanism for introducing alien DNA into the human genome is the smallpox vaccine, which \"doubtless made \u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/jenny-mccarthy-were-not-an-anti-vaccine-movement-were-pro-safe-vaccine/\" target=\"_blank\">Jenny McCarthy\u003c/a> the happiest 'X-Files' viewer of the night,\" \u003ca href=\"https://www.yahoo.com/tv/x-files-finale-review-ep-6-my-struggle-141222649.html\" target=\"_blank\">wrote\u003c/a> a Yahoo! TV critic.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Simon said she and co-writer Fearon had to do a lot of explaining to Carter as to how CRISPR works.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\"Between the two of us we’re trying to explain it to him on the phone and showing him YouTube videos and stuff, and he \u003cem>kind\u003c/em> of gets it.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She said she looked at the script every day to check on the science. \"It really is accurate. I was happy at the end.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Accurate within the bounds of sci-fi/conspiracy theory, of course. Simon said she suggested the story have the mass gene deletion triggered by the increase in CO2 -- global warming. But Carter opted to make the triggering mechanism ... \u003ca href=\"http://thevane.gawker.com/why-i-write-about-and-debunk-the-chemtrail-conspiracy-1581896346\" target=\"_blank\">chemtrails\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Chris wanted to use chemtrails, which is \u003ca href=\"http://thevane.gawker.com/why-i-write-about-and-debunk-the-chemtrail-conspiracy-1581896346\" target=\"_blank\">big in conspiracy theories\u003c/a>. I don’t even know what it is,\" Simon said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She first connected with Carter, back in the day, through a family connection. \"He needed to talk to a biologist. I thought, 'We'll get the microscopes right.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At one point, Carter named a character after Simon, but her fictional self was short-lived. \"I had visions of her being Scully and Mulder’s partner, and helping them solve cases scientifically. And then I get killed off. \"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She thinks the character of Dana Scully has been great for encouraging female scientists.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"She has been a wonderful draw for young people. I hear from so many people over Twitter who say they went into science because of 'The X-Files.'\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether the show comes back for more episodes is still an open question. But the signs are \u003ca href=\"http://www.ew.com/article/2016/01/29/x-files-ratings\" target=\"_blank\">encouraging\u003c/a>. FOX, no doubt, is suggesting we all stay tuned.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Levels Of Flame Retardant In Breast Milk Are Down in California Women",
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"content": "\u003cp>Levels of harmful flame-retardant chemicals in women’s breast milk have dropped by nearly 40 percent since California’s decade-old ban on these chemicals took effect, \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653515303659\" target=\"_blank\">according to a new study\u003c/a> by state environmental scientists.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'It shows that regulatory and public health interventions do work.'\u003ccite>Dr. Barbara Lee, Calif. Department of Toxic Substances Control\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>The chemicals, called PBDEs, were widely used for decades in household products including furniture, crib mattresses and televisions. They tend to leach out of products like furniture and can settle in household dust, tainting homes and offices and accumulating in both people and animals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They persist in body fluids and fat for years, and are associated with neurological and thyroid disorders. In particular, researchers have linked fetal exposure to high levels of PBDEs to IQ deficits and hyperactivity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California phased out the use of two of the main types of PBDEs in 2006. There is no federal ban on PBDEs, but the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has worked with manufacturers to phase out production. The European Union banned PBDEs in 2004, but the chemicals may be present in products imported from other countries or U.S. products manufactured before the mid-2000s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study, sponsored by the California Department of Toxic Substances Control and conducted by researchers from the agency’s Environmental Chemistry Laboratory in Berkeley, was published in the peer-reviewed journal \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653515303659\" target=\"_blank\">Chemosphere\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists measured PBDE levels in the breast milk of 66 first-time mothers recruited at a Santa Rosa clinic between 2009 and 2012. They compared the levels to another group of 82 first-time mothers from around the state, tested in 2003-2005, before the ban took effect — and found a 39 percent decline.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study’s results echo those from a previous department study showing a similar decline in PBDE levels in the blood of San Francisco women.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s really wonderful news,” said Barbara Lee, director of the department. “It shows that regulatory and public health interventions do work.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the study revealed other sobering data: PBDE levels in the post-ban group of mothers remained high enough that nearly 30 percent of their breastfed babies would be exposed to the chemicals at levels above what the EPA says is safe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tracey Woodruff, professor and director of the Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment at the UC San Francisco School of Medicine, said she was pleased by the study’s results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s one more piece of evidence that the state did the right thing” in banning PBDEs. But, she said, the chemicals are “like that bad houseguest that hangs around.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We made a mistake by using them in the beginning. You can’t pull the genie back into the lamp,” Woodruff said. “We still have people with exposures that are going to be problematic — and we’re going to be seeing problems for years.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This story was produced by\u003ca href=\"http://californiahealthline.org/news/levels-of-flame-retardant-in-breast-milk-are-down/\" target=\"_blank\"> California Healthline\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Levels of harmful flame-retardant chemicals in women’s breast milk have dropped by nearly 40 percent since California’s decade-old ban on these chemicals took effect, \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653515303659\" target=\"_blank\">according to a new study\u003c/a> by state environmental scientists.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'It shows that regulatory and public health interventions do work.'\u003ccite>Dr. Barbara Lee, Calif. Department of Toxic Substances Control\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>The chemicals, called PBDEs, were widely used for decades in household products including furniture, crib mattresses and televisions. They tend to leach out of products like furniture and can settle in household dust, tainting homes and offices and accumulating in both people and animals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They persist in body fluids and fat for years, and are associated with neurological and thyroid disorders. In particular, researchers have linked fetal exposure to high levels of PBDEs to IQ deficits and hyperactivity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California phased out the use of two of the main types of PBDEs in 2006. There is no federal ban on PBDEs, but the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has worked with manufacturers to phase out production. The European Union banned PBDEs in 2004, but the chemicals may be present in products imported from other countries or U.S. products manufactured before the mid-2000s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study, sponsored by the California Department of Toxic Substances Control and conducted by researchers from the agency’s Environmental Chemistry Laboratory in Berkeley, was published in the peer-reviewed journal \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653515303659\" target=\"_blank\">Chemosphere\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists measured PBDE levels in the breast milk of 66 first-time mothers recruited at a Santa Rosa clinic between 2009 and 2012. They compared the levels to another group of 82 first-time mothers from around the state, tested in 2003-2005, before the ban took effect — and found a 39 percent decline.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study’s results echo those from a previous department study showing a similar decline in PBDE levels in the blood of San Francisco women.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s really wonderful news,” said Barbara Lee, director of the department. “It shows that regulatory and public health interventions do work.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the study revealed other sobering data: PBDE levels in the post-ban group of mothers remained high enough that nearly 30 percent of their breastfed babies would be exposed to the chemicals at levels above what the EPA says is safe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tracey Woodruff, professor and director of the Program on Reproductive Health and the Environment at the UC San Francisco School of Medicine, said she was pleased by the study’s results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s one more piece of evidence that the state did the right thing” in banning PBDEs. But, she said, the chemicals are “like that bad houseguest that hangs around.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We made a mistake by using them in the beginning. You can’t pull the genie back into the lamp,” Woodruff said. “We still have people with exposures that are going to be problematic — and we’re going to be seeing problems for years.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This story was produced by\u003ca href=\"http://californiahealthline.org/news/levels-of-flame-retardant-in-breast-milk-are-down/\" target=\"_blank\"> California Healthline\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "What Offers Better Immunity: The Flu Vaccine or the Flu Itself?",
"title": "What Offers Better Immunity: The Flu Vaccine or the Flu Itself?",
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"content": "\u003cp>This year’s flu season has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-february-flu-20160211-story.html\" target=\"_blank\">fairly mild\u003c/a> so far, as predicted. But also as \u003ca href=\"http://fortune.com/2015/12/17/flu-season-february/\">predicted\u003c/a>, flu cases have been picking up, in line with the expected February peak this year. The most \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/flu/weekly/summary.htm\">recent report\u003c/a> from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention shows an increase in influenza-like illnesses and notes that it’s never too late to get vaccinated.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">The big problem with immunity you might get from having the flu ... is that you have to actually get the flu. It can be a serious illness.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>But the flu vaccines varies widely in its effectiveness from year to year. So, how worthwhile is it, really? You could instead take your chances with the flu, and if you get it, you’ll have even better immunity to the flu in the future anyway, right?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately, it’s not that simple.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are two things to unpack here: how effective the flu vaccine is and whether getting the flu might protect someone more than the vaccine from future illness. Both of these start with understanding the virus itself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What makes the flu virus so confusing and tricky is it mutates,” explained Dr. Kawsar R. Talaat with the Center For Immunization Research at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. “When it makes copies of itself, it does so sloppily, and there are mistakes made,” Talaat said. “Some of those mistakes don’t work — the virus doesn’t leave the cell or dies — but occasionally in the copying process, it allows the virus to be a little bit better at infecting the next person.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The influenza virus also mutates very rapidly, explained Litjen Tan, Ph.D., chief strategy officer for the \u003ca href=\"http://www.immunize.org/\">Immunization Action Coalition\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“With flu, we’re dealing with a very cool virus,” Tan said. “It’s got these great ways of switching around its genes so it can look different, and it wants to look different so it can better evade the immune system.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These rapid mutations account for the different strains among the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/viruses/types.htm\" target=\"_blank\">four basic types\u003c/a> of flu viruses that infect humans. That variety of strains partly explains the variation in the flu vaccine’s effectiveness. To make an effective vaccine, public health officials must predict which strains will be circulating almost a year ahead of time, all while the virus is a moving target.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The vaccine’s effectiveness falls short for other reasons too, Talaat said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A person's \"immune response to flu vaccine is not perfect, so effectiveness will never be 100 percent even if the strains perfectly match,” Talaat said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Further, even if strains or antibodies match well, each new vaccine’s ability to induce an immune response varies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Finally, individuals respond differently to the vaccine. Older adults do not mount as strong a defense because their immune systems are older. Infants don’t mount a strong response because their immune systems aren’t fully developed yet. And if you're in the middle -- being sick, tired, sleep-deprived or otherwise run down in some way may affect how well your own body responds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then there’s the evidence suggesting \u003ca href=\"http://www.statnews.com/2015/11/11/flu-shots-reduce-effectiveness/\" target=\"_blank\">annual flu shots are less effective\u003c/a> when you’ve had one the previous year. One possible explanation for this is that the body’s response to a previous year’s vaccine blunts the response the following year, Tan said, but scientists are still trying to understand it. A blunted immune response from the vaccine, however, still offers more protection than not getting the vaccine at all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Until we get a true handle on what the mechanism could be, the current recommendation is the best one we have,” Tan said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At this point you might be thinking -- maybe I'll just take the immunity I would get from contracting the flu itself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_152607\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-152607 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/stateofhealth/wp-content/uploads/sites/27/2016/02/RS12665_20141017_vaccines_jt_002-400x267.jpg\" alt='A student gets a \"flu mist\" vaccine at a campaign at hi Oakland elementary school. The Centers for Disease Control says people ages 2-49 can get this nasal spray vaccine.' width=\"400\" height=\"267\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A student gets a \"flu mist\" vaccine during a clinic at his Oakland elementary school. The Centers for Disease Control says people ages 2-49 can get this nasal spray vaccine. \u003ccite>(James Tensuan/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That might make some sense — except it requires actually getting sick, and the flu is not a mild illness.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The first problem with this idea is that you can get really, really sick and die from the flu,” Talaat said. “If you get the flu vaccine, even if it doesn’t protect you from getting sick, hopefully it protects you from severe disease and from death. It tends to mitigate the illness somewhat.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is true that a flu infection will stimulate the immune system more strongly than the vaccine will, said Tan, but that comes with a price.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a country, we don’t think flu is a big deal, but it is deceivingly serious,” Tan said. Deaths from flu each year \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/disease/us_flu-related_deaths.htm\" target=\"_blank\">vary widely\u003c/a>, but they’re always in the thousands, \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5933a1.htm\" target=\"_blank\">ranging from 3,000 to 49,000\u003c/a> people a year in the U.S. “It makes absolutely no sense when we have proven safe and effective vaccine against flu -- and all these other diseases -- that we don’t use them,” Tan said. “It’s like throwing the dice with your child’s, your own or your grandparent’s life.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even aside from that gamble, however, the immunity gained from a bout of the flu only protects against that particular subtype and won’t last long because of those rapid mutations described above.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Getting the flu and surviving is the best immunity against that particular strain of flu, but that’s just one of the four lineages, and it drifts. That one may be circulating for only three or four years,” Talaat said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Are you willing to get the flu every three or four years to maintain immunity to it? That doesn’t make a lot of sense.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>This year’s flu season has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-february-flu-20160211-story.html\" target=\"_blank\">fairly mild\u003c/a> so far, as predicted. But also as \u003ca href=\"http://fortune.com/2015/12/17/flu-season-february/\">predicted\u003c/a>, flu cases have been picking up, in line with the expected February peak this year. The most \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/flu/weekly/summary.htm\">recent report\u003c/a> from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention shows an increase in influenza-like illnesses and notes that it’s never too late to get vaccinated.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">The big problem with immunity you might get from having the flu ... is that you have to actually get the flu. It can be a serious illness.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>But the flu vaccines varies widely in its effectiveness from year to year. So, how worthwhile is it, really? You could instead take your chances with the flu, and if you get it, you’ll have even better immunity to the flu in the future anyway, right?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unfortunately, it’s not that simple.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are two things to unpack here: how effective the flu vaccine is and whether getting the flu might protect someone more than the vaccine from future illness. Both of these start with understanding the virus itself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What makes the flu virus so confusing and tricky is it mutates,” explained Dr. Kawsar R. Talaat with the Center For Immunization Research at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. “When it makes copies of itself, it does so sloppily, and there are mistakes made,” Talaat said. “Some of those mistakes don’t work — the virus doesn’t leave the cell or dies — but occasionally in the copying process, it allows the virus to be a little bit better at infecting the next person.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The influenza virus also mutates very rapidly, explained Litjen Tan, Ph.D., chief strategy officer for the \u003ca href=\"http://www.immunize.org/\">Immunization Action Coalition\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“With flu, we’re dealing with a very cool virus,” Tan said. “It’s got these great ways of switching around its genes so it can look different, and it wants to look different so it can better evade the immune system.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These rapid mutations account for the different strains among the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/viruses/types.htm\" target=\"_blank\">four basic types\u003c/a> of flu viruses that infect humans. That variety of strains partly explains the variation in the flu vaccine’s effectiveness. To make an effective vaccine, public health officials must predict which strains will be circulating almost a year ahead of time, all while the virus is a moving target.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The vaccine’s effectiveness falls short for other reasons too, Talaat said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A person's \"immune response to flu vaccine is not perfect, so effectiveness will never be 100 percent even if the strains perfectly match,” Talaat said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Further, even if strains or antibodies match well, each new vaccine’s ability to induce an immune response varies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Finally, individuals respond differently to the vaccine. Older adults do not mount as strong a defense because their immune systems are older. Infants don’t mount a strong response because their immune systems aren’t fully developed yet. And if you're in the middle -- being sick, tired, sleep-deprived or otherwise run down in some way may affect how well your own body responds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then there’s the evidence suggesting \u003ca href=\"http://www.statnews.com/2015/11/11/flu-shots-reduce-effectiveness/\" target=\"_blank\">annual flu shots are less effective\u003c/a> when you’ve had one the previous year. One possible explanation for this is that the body’s response to a previous year’s vaccine blunts the response the following year, Tan said, but scientists are still trying to understand it. A blunted immune response from the vaccine, however, still offers more protection than not getting the vaccine at all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Until we get a true handle on what the mechanism could be, the current recommendation is the best one we have,” Tan said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At this point you might be thinking -- maybe I'll just take the immunity I would get from contracting the flu itself.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_152607\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-152607 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/stateofhealth/wp-content/uploads/sites/27/2016/02/RS12665_20141017_vaccines_jt_002-400x267.jpg\" alt='A student gets a \"flu mist\" vaccine at a campaign at hi Oakland elementary school. The Centers for Disease Control says people ages 2-49 can get this nasal spray vaccine.' width=\"400\" height=\"267\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A student gets a \"flu mist\" vaccine during a clinic at his Oakland elementary school. The Centers for Disease Control says people ages 2-49 can get this nasal spray vaccine. \u003ccite>(James Tensuan/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That might make some sense — except it requires actually getting sick, and the flu is not a mild illness.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The first problem with this idea is that you can get really, really sick and die from the flu,” Talaat said. “If you get the flu vaccine, even if it doesn’t protect you from getting sick, hopefully it protects you from severe disease and from death. It tends to mitigate the illness somewhat.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is true that a flu infection will stimulate the immune system more strongly than the vaccine will, said Tan, but that comes with a price.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a country, we don’t think flu is a big deal, but it is deceivingly serious,” Tan said. Deaths from flu each year \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/disease/us_flu-related_deaths.htm\" target=\"_blank\">vary widely\u003c/a>, but they’re always in the thousands, \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5933a1.htm\" target=\"_blank\">ranging from 3,000 to 49,000\u003c/a> people a year in the U.S. “It makes absolutely no sense when we have proven safe and effective vaccine against flu -- and all these other diseases -- that we don’t use them,” Tan said. “It’s like throwing the dice with your child’s, your own or your grandparent’s life.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even aside from that gamble, however, the immunity gained from a bout of the flu only protects against that particular subtype and won’t last long because of those rapid mutations described above.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Getting the flu and surviving is the best immunity against that particular strain of flu, but that’s just one of the four lineages, and it drifts. That one may be circulating for only three or four years,” Talaat said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Are you willing to get the flu every three or four years to maintain immunity to it? That doesn’t make a lot of sense.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "No Excuse For Failing to Report Medical Research Results (Commentary)",
"title": "No Excuse For Failing to Report Medical Research Results (Commentary)",
"headTitle": "Future of You | KQED Future of You | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>In a study powered by the labor of medical students, my colleagues and I found that two-thirds of clinical trials led by scientists at our finest academic institutions didn't share their results publicly within two years of the study's completion.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">\"Not reporting results violates the basic principle of the scientific method. It hurts patients, society and science. It also dishonors the people who gave their consent and bore the risk of participating in the studies.\"\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Moreover, none of these research institutions has a good record of sharing results. Many are much worse than the average.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For all the focus on the need to speed up science for cures, we have a bottleneck at our nation's bastions of research excellence. Too many times, study results are neither reported on the government website dedicated to that purpose, \u003ca href=\"https://clinicaltrials.gov/\">clinicaltrials.gov\u003c/a>, nor published in a medical journal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our findings were \u003ca href=\"http://www.bmj.com/content/352/bmj.i637\">published\u003c/a> Wednesday in \u003cem>The BMJ,\u003c/em> formerly the British Medical Journal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The failure to share results is so pervasive that it seems inappropriate to blame individuals. Instead, it is a systemic problem. Academic medicine has fostered a culture in which the sharing of our results is considered discretionary, rather than mandatory. And if researchers decide to pass on sharing, there is no consequence to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not reporting results violates the basic principle of the \u003ca href=\"http://scienceinvestigators.wikispaces.com/The+Scientific+Method\">scientific method\u003c/a>. It hurts patients, society and science. It also dishonors the people who gave their consent and bore the risk of participating in the studies. Who would agree to be in a study with the knowledge that the results wouldn't be shared?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It seems a fair assumption that these studies were worth doing and were designed to generate meaningful information. Academics at leading universities led these studies. Human studies oversight boards at these institutions approved these studies. Given all that, the holding back of the results impedes progress toward scientific breakthroughs, corrupts the medical literature and wastes research funding.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I am a \u003ca href=\"http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h599.long\">strong advocate for data sharing and open science\u003c/a>. I believe that scientists share data in the spirit of advancing knowledge. But those goals are a step beyond what we are talking about here: simply sharing the results of the research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some people are intent on finding the underlying factors within the culture that has produced this behavior. I have heard people say that they aren't eager to publish results that seem weak or counter to what they believe. Some claim that other responsibilities occupied their time or that they ran out of research funds in the final stages.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I must admit that I don't care. I don't want to study this problem further. I just want to see it fixed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Posting results on clinicaltrials.gov, the government website, could be done in less than an hour. Publishing the results, with or without peer review, could be done if people are determined to do it. Sharing the results is just not that hard and should not be considered optional.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem isn't new. I first encountered the selective sharing of research findings during my work as an expert for plaintiffs in the Vioxx litigation 10 years ago and we subsequently published an \u003ca href=\"http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1108579\">article\u003c/a> about it. Before that experience I never imagined that people would conduct human studies and not share results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To investigate this issue further, colleagues and I took a broader look at research and found that this wasn't a problem unique to industry, but was pervasive throughout medicine. In a \u003ca href=\"http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000144\">2009 study\u003c/a>, we were shocked to see that results of only about half of trials were published within four years of study completion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our first reaction was that we couldn't be right. We pored over our results to be sure they were true. We published them with trepidation because despite repeated checks, we still thought that someone would find an error. How could it be so bad?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet, our conclusions were true and \u003ca href=\"http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=745938\">others\u003c/a> soon replicated the findings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we published \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22214755\">a study\u003c/a> that showed even results from studies funded by the National Institutes of Health commonly went unshared, our findings were met by disbelief at NIH until scientists there repeated the study and \u003ca href=\"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1300237\">found the same thing\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As these studies emerged, industry began to adopt \u003ca href=\"http://phrma.org/sites/default/files/pdf/PhRMAPrinciplesForResponsibleClinicalTrialDataSharing.pdf\">policies\u003c/a> to ensure reporting and publication. But not academic institutions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To zero in on this issue, the most recent study looks specifically at the performance of academic centers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I teach at Yale University and one of my students, Ray Chen (now a resident at the University of California, San Francisco), wanted to do a meaningful study as part of his degree. We began talking about researchers not sharing their results. We thought it would be useful to produce a national report card for the leading academic institutions. They are, after all, ultimately responsible for the studies conducted under their auspices.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We didn't want to embarrass anyone, but we felt that maybe some stellar performers could help enlighten the others about how to improve.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There was only one problem: It would take a lot of work. I mean, \u003cem>a lot\u003c/em> of work. There was no easy way to track down the information about study publications without going one by one and searching for them in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ray said that he thought he could recruit other medical students to help. They would have to spend hours tracking down whether studies led by people at the top academic institutions had shared results by reporting them on clinicaltrials.gov or publishing them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The students persevered, knowing that they might be questioning the practices of the powerful. And they were dismayed by what they found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What should be done about the problem? If I were a funder of research and the recipient academic institution didn't share the results, I would ask for a refund. If I were representing the interests of study participants, I would ask for apologies and forbid future research until there was a plan for sharing all results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's no excuse for not reporting all results within two years of finishing a study. And, I'd argue, the time should be much shorter. This is about taking science seriously and our commitment to move faster on behalf of patients and society.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is medical research. It is ultimately about providing practical benefit. We have a moral imperative to share what we learn. We need the systems in place that guarantee researchers adhere to the final step of the scientific method and share what they find.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the end, it would be particularly sweet if it were the labor of medical students that led the established researchers to correct their ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Harlan Krumholz is a cardiologist and the Harold H. Hines Jr. Professor of Medicine at Yale School of Medicine. He directs the Yale-New Haven Hospital Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation and is a co-director of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Clinical Scholars Program.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2016 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"http://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=Academic+Medical+Centers+Get+An+F+In+Sharing+Research+Results&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\" alt=\"\">\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>In a study powered by the labor of medical students, my colleagues and I found that two-thirds of clinical trials led by scientists at our finest academic institutions didn't share their results publicly within two years of the study's completion.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">\"Not reporting results violates the basic principle of the scientific method. It hurts patients, society and science. It also dishonors the people who gave their consent and bore the risk of participating in the studies.\"\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Moreover, none of these research institutions has a good record of sharing results. Many are much worse than the average.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For all the focus on the need to speed up science for cures, we have a bottleneck at our nation's bastions of research excellence. Too many times, study results are neither reported on the government website dedicated to that purpose, \u003ca href=\"https://clinicaltrials.gov/\">clinicaltrials.gov\u003c/a>, nor published in a medical journal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our findings were \u003ca href=\"http://www.bmj.com/content/352/bmj.i637\">published\u003c/a> Wednesday in \u003cem>The BMJ,\u003c/em> formerly the British Medical Journal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The failure to share results is so pervasive that it seems inappropriate to blame individuals. Instead, it is a systemic problem. Academic medicine has fostered a culture in which the sharing of our results is considered discretionary, rather than mandatory. And if researchers decide to pass on sharing, there is no consequence to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not reporting results violates the basic principle of the \u003ca href=\"http://scienceinvestigators.wikispaces.com/The+Scientific+Method\">scientific method\u003c/a>. It hurts patients, society and science. It also dishonors the people who gave their consent and bore the risk of participating in the studies. Who would agree to be in a study with the knowledge that the results wouldn't be shared?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It seems a fair assumption that these studies were worth doing and were designed to generate meaningful information. Academics at leading universities led these studies. Human studies oversight boards at these institutions approved these studies. Given all that, the holding back of the results impedes progress toward scientific breakthroughs, corrupts the medical literature and wastes research funding.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I am a \u003ca href=\"http://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h599.long\">strong advocate for data sharing and open science\u003c/a>. I believe that scientists share data in the spirit of advancing knowledge. But those goals are a step beyond what we are talking about here: simply sharing the results of the research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some people are intent on finding the underlying factors within the culture that has produced this behavior. I have heard people say that they aren't eager to publish results that seem weak or counter to what they believe. Some claim that other responsibilities occupied their time or that they ran out of research funds in the final stages.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I must admit that I don't care. I don't want to study this problem further. I just want to see it fixed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Posting results on clinicaltrials.gov, the government website, could be done in less than an hour. Publishing the results, with or without peer review, could be done if people are determined to do it. Sharing the results is just not that hard and should not be considered optional.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem isn't new. I first encountered the selective sharing of research findings during my work as an expert for plaintiffs in the Vioxx litigation 10 years ago and we subsequently published an \u003ca href=\"http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1108579\">article\u003c/a> about it. Before that experience I never imagined that people would conduct human studies and not share results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To investigate this issue further, colleagues and I took a broader look at research and found that this wasn't a problem unique to industry, but was pervasive throughout medicine. In a \u003ca href=\"http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000144\">2009 study\u003c/a>, we were shocked to see that results of only about half of trials were published within four years of study completion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our first reaction was that we couldn't be right. We pored over our results to be sure they were true. We published them with trepidation because despite repeated checks, we still thought that someone would find an error. How could it be so bad?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet, our conclusions were true and \u003ca href=\"http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=745938\">others\u003c/a> soon replicated the findings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we published \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22214755\">a study\u003c/a> that showed even results from studies funded by the National Institutes of Health commonly went unshared, our findings were met by disbelief at NIH until scientists there repeated the study and \u003ca href=\"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1300237\">found the same thing\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As these studies emerged, industry began to adopt \u003ca href=\"http://phrma.org/sites/default/files/pdf/PhRMAPrinciplesForResponsibleClinicalTrialDataSharing.pdf\">policies\u003c/a> to ensure reporting and publication. But not academic institutions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To zero in on this issue, the most recent study looks specifically at the performance of academic centers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I teach at Yale University and one of my students, Ray Chen (now a resident at the University of California, San Francisco), wanted to do a meaningful study as part of his degree. We began talking about researchers not sharing their results. We thought it would be useful to produce a national report card for the leading academic institutions. They are, after all, ultimately responsible for the studies conducted under their auspices.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We didn't want to embarrass anyone, but we felt that maybe some stellar performers could help enlighten the others about how to improve.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There was only one problem: It would take a lot of work. I mean, \u003cem>a lot\u003c/em> of work. There was no easy way to track down the information about study publications without going one by one and searching for them in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ray said that he thought he could recruit other medical students to help. They would have to spend hours tracking down whether studies led by people at the top academic institutions had shared results by reporting them on clinicaltrials.gov or publishing them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The students persevered, knowing that they might be questioning the practices of the powerful. And they were dismayed by what they found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What should be done about the problem? If I were a funder of research and the recipient academic institution didn't share the results, I would ask for a refund. If I were representing the interests of study participants, I would ask for apologies and forbid future research until there was a plan for sharing all results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's no excuse for not reporting all results within two years of finishing a study. And, I'd argue, the time should be much shorter. This is about taking science seriously and our commitment to move faster on behalf of patients and society.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is medical research. It is ultimately about providing practical benefit. We have a moral imperative to share what we learn. We need the systems in place that guarantee researchers adhere to the final step of the scientific method and share what they find.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the end, it would be particularly sweet if it were the labor of medical students that led the established researchers to correct their ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Harlan Krumholz is a cardiologist and the Harold H. Hines Jr. Professor of Medicine at Yale School of Medicine. He directs the Yale-New Haven Hospital Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation and is a co-director of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Clinical Scholars Program.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2016 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"http://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=Academic+Medical+Centers+Get+An+F+In+Sharing+Research+Results&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\" alt=\"\">\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>[dl_subscribe]Donna Davis thought she had hit the jackpot with the two bags of mushrooms she collected in the woods of Sonoma County’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=453\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Salt Point State Park\u003c/a>. Instead, she ended up in the hospital, facing the possibility of a liver transplant, after mistakenly eating a poisonous mushroom known as the death cap.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Between 2010 and 2015, five people died in California and 57 became sick after eating the unassuming greenish mushrooms, according to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calpoison.org/\">California Poison Control System\u003c/a>. One mushroom cap is enough to kill a human being, and they’re also poisonous to dogs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Dogs die in droves,” said Debbie Viess, of the \u003ca href=\"http://bayareamushrooms.org/mushroommonth/amanita_phalloides.html\">Bay Area Mycological Society\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With this year’s mushroom foraging season well underway, health workers and experts are warning aficionados to be careful of death caps, which are abundant in California and can easily be confused for other edible mushrooms, growing mainly under coast live oaks. And it’s not just amateurs who mistake death caps for edible mushrooms like \u003ca href=\"http://www.bayareamushrooms.org/mushroommonth/coccora.html\">coccora\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://nrcmushroom.org/mushroomprofile/Paddy_Straw_Mushroom/paddy_straw_mushroom.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">paddy straws\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524117\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524117\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524117\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Mature death caps in West Marin’s Point Reyes National Seashore in December.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mature death caps in West Marin’s Point Reyes National Seashore in December. \u003ccite>(Gabriela Quirós/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I’ve seen expert mycologists arguing good-naturedly about whether a mushroom they were looking at was the deadly one,” said Dr. Kent Olson, co-medical director of the San Francisco Division of the California Poison Control System. “At certain stages of development the mushrooms can be confused.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s what happened to Donna Davis, a 55-year-old life coach from San Francisco. On a misty December day in 2014, she and her boyfriend, Kent Anderson, headed into Salt Point State Park to collect mushrooms they could cook and eat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The forest was just damp and perfect,” said Davis. “You could smell the dirt, you could smell the mushrooms.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524114\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524114\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524114\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Donna Davis, of San Francisco, was poisoned in 2014 after eating a death cap mushroom by mistake.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Donna Davis, of San Francisco, was poisoned in 2014 after eating a death cap mushroom by mistake. \u003ccite>(Gabriela Quirós/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Davis filled two cloth bags with chanterelles, matsutakes and hedgehog mushrooms, all sought-after edible species. Later, she and Anderson, a more experienced mushroom forager than Davis, spread the mushrooms out on newspaper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We went through all of the mushrooms. And Kent found a couple of pieces that didn’t look right and he threw them out,” said Davis. “But I felt confident that the rest were all fine.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In hindsight, Davis thinks that she picked some young death cap mushrooms, which have a rounded yellowish-green cap, instead of picking hedgehog mushrooms, which are yellow and rounded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I really believe that my mistake was picking the mushroom before it was fully formed,” said Davis. “It’s much more difficult to identify it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524111\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524111\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524111\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Young death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in West Marin, California. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Young death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in West Marin, California. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Hedgehog and death cap mushrooms are fairly different-looking. While hedgehogs don’t have any gills—ribs under the mushroom cap—death caps do have gills.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It is easy for folks to make ID mistakes,” said Viess, “which is why I encourage strong caution for beginners.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mature \u003ca href=\"http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita%20phalloides\">death cap mushrooms\u003c/a> are “big, smooth and an olive green color,” said Cat Adams, a PhD student at the University of California, Berkeley who studies the mushrooms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you pull the adult mushroom out of the ground, it has “a cute little cup that holds it up,” said Adams. “And it definitely smells like food.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524110\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524110\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524110\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Death caps and mushrooms related to them have a piece of cup-shaped tissue at the bottom called a volva. This sac only becomes visible after the mushroom is completely pulled out of the soil. The volva can be wrapped tightly around the bottom of the mushroom, as in this photo, or hang more loosely.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Death caps and mushrooms related to them have a piece of cup-shaped tissue at the bottom called a volva. This sac only becomes visible after the mushroom is completely pulled out of the soil. The volva can be wrapped tightly around the bottom of the mushroom, as in this photo, or hang more loosely. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524109\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524109\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524109\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"A piece of tissue called the annulus helps identify the death cap mushroom. The annulus can be shaped like a little skirt, or like a ring, as in this photo.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A piece of tissue called the annulus helps identify the death cap mushroom. The annulus can be shaped like a little skirt, or like a ring, as in this photo. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524116\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524116\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524116\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Death cap mushrooms have gills from which they launch spores in order to reproduce.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Death cap mushrooms have gills from which they launch spores in order to reproduce. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>After her foraging trip in Sonoma, Davis made two pots of mushroom soup for herself, her boyfriend and a group of their friends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was amazingly delicious,” Davis said. So good, in fact, that she had two bowls.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Olson, of California Poison Control, said that for the first six to 12 hours after they eat the mushroom, victims of the death cap feel fine. During that time, a toxin in the mushroom is quietly injuring their liver cells. Patients then develop severe abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They can become very rapidly dehydrated from the fluid losses,” said Olson. Dehydration can cause kidney failure, which compounds the damage to the liver.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The afternoon after she ate the mushroom soup contaminated with death caps, Davis felt exhausted and started throwing up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I slept for three days,” said Davis. “I was kind of in and out of it, just drinking water and not being able to really hold anything down.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then she dragged herself to a mirror and saw she had turned yellow. That’s when she decided she should go to the hospital right away. Doctors put her on intravenous fluids. They also pumped her stomach full of activated charcoal to help absorb the poison out of her body, although some doctors question the usefulness of this treatment when many hours have elapsed since the poisoning occurred.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the most severe cases, the only way to save the patient is a liver transplant, said Olson. Davis didn’t end up needing one and went home before Christmas. But two people died from death cap poisoning in California in 2014. Last year, nine poisonings were reported to the California Poison Control System and all the victims survived.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Todd Mitchell, at Dominican Hospital, in Santa Cruz, is \u003ca href=\"https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT00915681\">conducting tests of the drug silibinin\u003c/a> to treat death cap poisoning. The drug, which is made out of common milk thistle and delivered intravenously, can protect a patient’s liver and make a transplant unnecessary.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mitchell said he has treated 78 patients since 2007 and hopes to receive approval for silibinin from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.fda.gov/\">Food and Drug Administration\u003c/a> by 2017.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After temporarily losing her taste for mushrooms, Davis is looking forward to foraging again. But she said she’ll be much more cautious.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I don’t need to collect all that I see,” she said. “I’m good with just, you know, a handful.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524115\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524115\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524115\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"University of Wisconsin, Madison, biologist Anne Pringle took samples of death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California, in December. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">University of Wisconsin, Madison, biologist Anne Pringle took samples of death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California, in December. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524108\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524108\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524108\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Biologist Anne Pringle, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, put slices of death cap mushrooms into a test tube at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Biologist Anne Pringle, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, put slices of death cap mushrooms into a test tube at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California. \u003ccite>(Gabriela Quirós/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Experts advise that even experienced mushroom foragers proceed with caution. Death caps are spreading in California, but not on the East Coast, said biologist \u003ca href=\"http://www.botany.wisc.edu/pringlelab/\">Anne Pringle\u003c/a>, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison. This could spell trouble for visitors to California who aren’t familiar with the deadly mushrooms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Assume nothing, and learn for several seasons before you eat any wild mushrooms,” said Viess, of the Bay Area Mycological Society. “Use good, regional books, find a mentor, and have your initial IDs checked by more knowledgeable and trusted identifiers.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In September 2015, German authorities reported \u003ca href=\"http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/29/germany-attributes-mushroom-poisonings-foraging-refugees\">the death of a 16-year-old refugee\u003c/a>, one of 40 to become sick after eating death cap mushrooms they had foraged in Germany.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In California, scientists have found that the death cap has been spreading throughout the state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pringle discovered that the mushroom arrived in California from Europe by genetically testing death cap samples collected in the 1930s and 40s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The first Californian collections that we confirmed as \u003cem>Amanita phalloides\u003c/em>,” said Pringle, using the mushroom’s scientific name, “were made from the Del Monte Hotel—now the Naval Postgraduate School—in Monterey, and on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley, in 1938 and in 1945.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pringle said that death caps likely snuck into California from Europe attached to the roots of imported plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524113\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524113\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524113\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Under the microscope, white filaments of death cap fungus are seen wrapped around a tree’s thin, pink root tips. In California, death cap fungi feed on the sugars of coast live oaks and pines and give them nutrients in exchange.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Under the microscope, white filaments of death cap fungus are seen wrapped around a tree’s thin, pink root tips. In California, death cap fungi feed on the sugars of coast live oaks and pines and give them nutrients in exchange. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As many fungi do, death caps live off of trees, in what’s called a mycorrhizal relationship. They send filaments deep down to the trees’ roots, where they attach to the very thin root tips. The fungi absorb sugars from the trees and give them nutrients in exchange.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re mutually dependent,” said Viess.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In California, death caps have established a very successful relationship with coast live oaks, said Pringle. Death caps have also been found under pines, and in Yosemite Valley under black oaks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through genetic testing, Pringle is trying to determine how long death caps live. If she finds that they’re short-lived, then it might be enough to pluck the mushrooms to prevent them from spreading their spores through the air and reproducing. This would eventually kill off the fungus filaments underground as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You’d have to do it intensively and do it when they’re young,” said Pringle. “It could be easy for someone’s backyard or a daycare center.” In fact, death caps can be found year-round in gardens that are regularly irrigated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524112\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524112\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524112\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Death caps under a tree at the University of California Botanical Garden, in Berkeley, California. Death caps are popping up in California year-round in irrigated areas like gardens. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Death caps under a tree at the University of California Botanical Garden, in Berkeley, California. Death caps are popping up in California year-round in irrigated areas like gardens. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One thing scientists don’t know much about is why death caps have evolved to be so poisonous.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What are they trying to poison?” asked biologist Tom Bruns, from the University of California, Berkeley. “We don’t know.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cat Adams, who is studying for her PhD in Bruns’ lab, is testing out a hypothesis. She thinks that the death cap’s toxins might help it stay free of tiny deadly fungi that would destroy its cap before it had a chance to release spores and reproduce.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Fungi protecting itself from other fungi,” said Adams.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>Donna Davis thought she had hit the jackpot with the two bags of mushrooms she collected in the woods of Sonoma County’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=453\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Salt Point State Park\u003c/a>. Instead, she ended up in the hospital, facing the possibility of a liver transplant, after mistakenly eating a poisonous mushroom known as the death cap.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Between 2010 and 2015, five people died in California and 57 became sick after eating the unassuming greenish mushrooms, according to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calpoison.org/\">California Poison Control System\u003c/a>. One mushroom cap is enough to kill a human being, and they’re also poisonous to dogs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Dogs die in droves,” said Debbie Viess, of the \u003ca href=\"http://bayareamushrooms.org/mushroommonth/amanita_phalloides.html\">Bay Area Mycological Society\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With this year’s mushroom foraging season well underway, health workers and experts are warning aficionados to be careful of death caps, which are abundant in California and can easily be confused for other edible mushrooms, growing mainly under coast live oaks. And it’s not just amateurs who mistake death caps for edible mushrooms like \u003ca href=\"http://www.bayareamushrooms.org/mushroommonth/coccora.html\">coccora\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://nrcmushroom.org/mushroomprofile/Paddy_Straw_Mushroom/paddy_straw_mushroom.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">paddy straws\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524117\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524117\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524117\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Mature death caps in West Marin’s Point Reyes National Seashore in December.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_mushrooms_mature-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mature death caps in West Marin’s Point Reyes National Seashore in December. \u003ccite>(Gabriela Quirós/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I’ve seen expert mycologists arguing good-naturedly about whether a mushroom they were looking at was the deadly one,” said Dr. Kent Olson, co-medical director of the San Francisco Division of the California Poison Control System. “At certain stages of development the mushrooms can be confused.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s what happened to Donna Davis, a 55-year-old life coach from San Francisco. On a misty December day in 2014, she and her boyfriend, Kent Anderson, headed into Salt Point State Park to collect mushrooms they could cook and eat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The forest was just damp and perfect,” said Davis. “You could smell the dirt, you could smell the mushrooms.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524114\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524114\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524114\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Donna Davis, of San Francisco, was poisoned in 2014 after eating a death cap mushroom by mistake.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Donna_Davis-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Donna Davis, of San Francisco, was poisoned in 2014 after eating a death cap mushroom by mistake. \u003ccite>(Gabriela Quirós/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Davis filled two cloth bags with chanterelles, matsutakes and hedgehog mushrooms, all sought-after edible species. Later, she and Anderson, a more experienced mushroom forager than Davis, spread the mushrooms out on newspaper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We went through all of the mushrooms. And Kent found a couple of pieces that didn’t look right and he threw them out,” said Davis. “But I felt confident that the rest were all fine.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In hindsight, Davis thinks that she picked some young death cap mushrooms, which have a rounded yellowish-green cap, instead of picking hedgehog mushrooms, which are yellow and rounded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I really believe that my mistake was picking the mushroom before it was fully formed,” said Davis. “It’s much more difficult to identify it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524111\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524111\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524111\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Young death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in West Marin, California. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAPS_YOUNG-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Young death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in West Marin, California. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Hedgehog and death cap mushrooms are fairly different-looking. While hedgehogs don’t have any gills—ribs under the mushroom cap—death caps do have gills.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It is easy for folks to make ID mistakes,” said Viess, “which is why I encourage strong caution for beginners.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mature \u003ca href=\"http://www.amanitaceae.org/?Amanita%20phalloides\">death cap mushrooms\u003c/a> are “big, smooth and an olive green color,” said Cat Adams, a PhD student at the University of California, Berkeley who studies the mushrooms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you pull the adult mushroom out of the ground, it has “a cute little cup that holds it up,” said Adams. “And it definitely smells like food.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524110\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524110\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524110\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Death caps and mushrooms related to them have a piece of cup-shaped tissue at the bottom called a volva. This sac only becomes visible after the mushroom is completely pulled out of the soil. The volva can be wrapped tightly around the bottom of the mushroom, as in this photo, or hang more loosely.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_VOLVA-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Death caps and mushrooms related to them have a piece of cup-shaped tissue at the bottom called a volva. This sac only becomes visible after the mushroom is completely pulled out of the soil. The volva can be wrapped tightly around the bottom of the mushroom, as in this photo, or hang more loosely. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524109\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524109\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524109\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"A piece of tissue called the annulus helps identify the death cap mushroom. The annulus can be shaped like a little skirt, or like a ring, as in this photo.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_DEATH_CAP_ANNULUS-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A piece of tissue called the annulus helps identify the death cap mushroom. The annulus can be shaped like a little skirt, or like a ring, as in this photo. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524116\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524116\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524116\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Death cap mushrooms have gills from which they launch spores in order to reproduce.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_cap_gills-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Death cap mushrooms have gills from which they launch spores in order to reproduce. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>After her foraging trip in Sonoma, Davis made two pots of mushroom soup for herself, her boyfriend and a group of their friends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was amazingly delicious,” Davis said. So good, in fact, that she had two bowls.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Olson, of California Poison Control, said that for the first six to 12 hours after they eat the mushroom, victims of the death cap feel fine. During that time, a toxin in the mushroom is quietly injuring their liver cells. Patients then develop severe abdominal pain, diarrhea and vomiting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They can become very rapidly dehydrated from the fluid losses,” said Olson. Dehydration can cause kidney failure, which compounds the damage to the liver.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The afternoon after she ate the mushroom soup contaminated with death caps, Davis felt exhausted and started throwing up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I slept for three days,” said Davis. “I was kind of in and out of it, just drinking water and not being able to really hold anything down.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then she dragged herself to a mirror and saw she had turned yellow. That’s when she decided she should go to the hospital right away. Doctors put her on intravenous fluids. They also pumped her stomach full of activated charcoal to help absorb the poison out of her body, although some doctors question the usefulness of this treatment when many hours have elapsed since the poisoning occurred.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the most severe cases, the only way to save the patient is a liver transplant, said Olson. Davis didn’t end up needing one and went home before Christmas. But two people died from death cap poisoning in California in 2014. Last year, nine poisonings were reported to the California Poison Control System and all the victims survived.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Todd Mitchell, at Dominican Hospital, in Santa Cruz, is \u003ca href=\"https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT00915681\">conducting tests of the drug silibinin\u003c/a> to treat death cap poisoning. The drug, which is made out of common milk thistle and delivered intravenously, can protect a patient’s liver and make a transplant unnecessary.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mitchell said he has treated 78 patients since 2007 and hopes to receive approval for silibinin from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.fda.gov/\">Food and Drug Administration\u003c/a> by 2017.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After temporarily losing her taste for mushrooms, Davis is looking forward to foraging again. But she said she’ll be much more cautious.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I don’t need to collect all that I see,” she said. “I’m good with just, you know, a handful.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524115\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524115\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524115\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"University of Wisconsin, Madison, biologist Anne Pringle took samples of death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California, in December. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Anne_Pringle_02-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">University of Wisconsin, Madison, biologist Anne Pringle took samples of death cap mushrooms at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California, in December. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524108\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524108\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524108\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Biologist Anne Pringle, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, put slices of death cap mushrooms into a test tube at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/Death_caps_in_test_tube-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Biologist Anne Pringle, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, put slices of death cap mushrooms into a test tube at Point Reyes National Seashore, in Marin County, California. \u003ccite>(Gabriela Quirós/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Experts advise that even experienced mushroom foragers proceed with caution. Death caps are spreading in California, but not on the East Coast, said biologist \u003ca href=\"http://www.botany.wisc.edu/pringlelab/\">Anne Pringle\u003c/a>, of the University of Wisconsin, Madison. This could spell trouble for visitors to California who aren’t familiar with the deadly mushrooms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Assume nothing, and learn for several seasons before you eat any wild mushrooms,” said Viess, of the Bay Area Mycological Society. “Use good, regional books, find a mentor, and have your initial IDs checked by more knowledgeable and trusted identifiers.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In September 2015, German authorities reported \u003ca href=\"http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/29/germany-attributes-mushroom-poisonings-foraging-refugees\">the death of a 16-year-old refugee\u003c/a>, one of 40 to become sick after eating death cap mushrooms they had foraged in Germany.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In California, scientists have found that the death cap has been spreading throughout the state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pringle discovered that the mushroom arrived in California from Europe by genetically testing death cap samples collected in the 1930s and 40s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The first Californian collections that we confirmed as \u003cem>Amanita phalloides\u003c/em>,” said Pringle, using the mushroom’s scientific name, “were made from the Del Monte Hotel—now the Naval Postgraduate School—in Monterey, and on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley, in 1938 and in 1945.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pringle said that death caps likely snuck into California from Europe attached to the roots of imported plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524113\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524113\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524113\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Under the microscope, white filaments of death cap fungus are seen wrapped around a tree’s thin, pink root tips. In California, death cap fungi feed on the sugars of coast live oaks and pines and give them nutrients in exchange.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_WHITE_FUNGUS_ENVELOPS_PINK_ROOT_TIPS-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Under the microscope, white filaments of death cap fungus are seen wrapped around a tree’s thin, pink root tips. In California, death cap fungi feed on the sugars of coast live oaks and pines and give them nutrients in exchange. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As many fungi do, death caps live off of trees, in what’s called a mycorrhizal relationship. They send filaments deep down to the trees’ roots, where they attach to the very thin root tips. The fungi absorb sugars from the trees and give them nutrients in exchange.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re mutually dependent,” said Viess.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In California, death caps have established a very successful relationship with coast live oaks, said Pringle. Death caps have also been found under pines, and in Yosemite Valley under black oaks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through genetic testing, Pringle is trying to determine how long death caps live. If she finds that they’re short-lived, then it might be enough to pluck the mushrooms to prevent them from spreading their spores through the air and reproducing. This would eventually kill off the fungus filaments underground as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You’d have to do it intensively and do it when they’re young,” said Pringle. “It could be easy for someone’s backyard or a daycare center.” In fact, death caps can be found year-round in gardens that are regularly irrigated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_524112\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-524112\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-524112\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Death caps under a tree at the University of California Botanical Garden, in Berkeley, California. Death caps are popping up in California year-round in irrigated areas like gardens. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-400x225.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2016/02/DL304Deadly_Mushroom_TWO_DEATH_CAPS-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Death caps under a tree at the University of California Botanical Garden, in Berkeley, California. Death caps are popping up in California year-round in irrigated areas like gardens. \u003ccite>(Josh Cassidy/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One thing scientists don’t know much about is why death caps have evolved to be so poisonous.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What are they trying to poison?” asked biologist Tom Bruns, from the University of California, Berkeley. “We don’t know.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cat Adams, who is studying for her PhD in Bruns’ lab, is testing out a hypothesis. She thinks that the death cap’s toxins might help it stay free of tiny deadly fungi that would destroy its cap before it had a chance to release spores and reproduce.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Fungi protecting itself from other fungi,” said Adams.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/143153591\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"yes\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Late last week we took note of this item from the UK's Telegraph:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003ca href=\"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/good-news/2016/02/11/brain-damaged-violinist-makes-music-for-first-time-in-27-years-w/\" target=\"_blank\">Brain damaged violinist makes music for first time in 27 years with mind-reading technology\u003c/a>.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That reads a bit like the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cracked.com/article_16310_12-comic-book-ads-that-taught-us-to-be-cynical.html\" target=\"_blank\">ads they used to run in old comic books\u003c/a>. But while \"mind-reading\" may be a little hyperbolic, the technology it describes is indeed on the wondrous side. Plus it made us tear up.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">\"At the end of the day, the technology allows people to make choices, switch things on and off.\"\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Brain Computer Music Interfacing is the subject of a short film (see above) that will debut at the Peninsula Arts Contemporary Music Festival next weekend at Plymouth University in England.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The violinist referenced in the Telegraph article is one of four severely disabled musicians who took part in a remarkable performance last year. Each of the participants suffers from \u003ca href=\"http://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/locked-in-syndrome/\" target=\"_blank\">locked-in syndrome\u003c/a>, which is possible to describe as the stuff of which nightmares are made. (If you've read or seen \"\u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Diving_Bell_and_the_Butterfly_(film)\" target=\"_blank\">The Diving Bell and the Butterfly\u003c/a>,\" you'll know what we mean.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"They cannot talk, cannot move at all,\" says Eduardo Miranda, who heads the Interdisciplinary Centre for Computer Music Research at Plymouth University. \"Some of them move their head a little bit, others communicate only through blinking eyes. That’s the thing that motivated us to do this project, to allow them to regain some sort of communication again through music.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114645\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-114645\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/Activating-Memory-2-800x359.jpg\" alt=\"Members of The Paramusical Ensemble choose musical phrases by staring at a screen then transmitting their choice, via brain signals, to musicians who then play the music. \" width=\"800\" height=\"359\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Members of The Paramusical Ensemble choose musical phrases by staring at a screen then transmitting their choice, via brain signals, to musicians who then play the music. \u003ccite>(Eduardo Miranda)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That was accomplished through a device, developed by Miranda and his assistant, Joel Eaton, that reads the electrical signals produced by the visual cortex in each musician's brain. These signals are produced when the musicians pick one square to focus on from a group of four, each filled with flashing lights. Each square appears next to a different musical phrase, and because each flashes at a different frequency, it triggers a distinct brain signal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If you have a light flashing at 20hz, another at 24hz, we can detect [which one you're looking at] in the brain signal,\" Miranda says. In this way, the disabled musicians each choose a snippet of music, written by Miranda. Another group of musicians then sees these choices on their own computer screens, so they can be played aloud. The title of the entire piece, composed by Miranda, is \"Activating Memory.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The groups of choices presented to the disabled musicians changed on average about every 10 seconds, Miranda says. Four musicians times four choices meant 16 potential combinations of music each time a new set was presented. Every time the piece is played, says Miranda, it would sound different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"These combinations will produce sometimes dissonance, sometimes consonance,\" he says. \"That is part of the game, so to speak.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the performance, Steve Thomas, one of the musicians with locked-in syndrome, communicated through a synthetic voice activated by blinking his eyes. \"It was great to hear the musician play the phrase I selected,\" he said. \"I tried to select music that was harmonious with the others. It's very cool.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miranda, who is a composer by training but also took the time to get a Ph.D. in artificial intelligence, said the next step in the development of Brain Computer Music Interfacing could be detecting the brain signatures that correspond to different moods or emotions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Is it possible to detect when you are feeling sad or happy?\" he wonders. \"That would be a fantastic tool for therapies to treat people who may suffer from depression. If the system is monitoring your brain and detects that [someone] is getting into a depressive state, let’s play some music that will make that change.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whoa, there -- my iTunes already shuffles me up \"\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6Sxv-sUYtM\" target=\"_blank\">Happy\u003c/a>\" way too much. But other uses could be on the horizon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"At the end of the day, the technology allows people to make choices, switch things on and off,\" Miranda says. \"You could use it to \u003ca href=\"https://jneuroengrehab.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-0003-11-7\" target=\"_blank\">drive a wheelchair\u003c/a> -- instead of having four musical phrases, you could say, 'go forward, backwards, left, right.'\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Go forward, indeed.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe src=\"https://player.vimeo.com/video/143153591\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"yes\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Late last week we took note of this item from the UK's Telegraph:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003ca href=\"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/good-news/2016/02/11/brain-damaged-violinist-makes-music-for-first-time-in-27-years-w/\" target=\"_blank\">Brain damaged violinist makes music for first time in 27 years with mind-reading technology\u003c/a>.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That reads a bit like the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cracked.com/article_16310_12-comic-book-ads-that-taught-us-to-be-cynical.html\" target=\"_blank\">ads they used to run in old comic books\u003c/a>. But while \"mind-reading\" may be a little hyperbolic, the technology it describes is indeed on the wondrous side. Plus it made us tear up.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">\"At the end of the day, the technology allows people to make choices, switch things on and off.\"\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Brain Computer Music Interfacing is the subject of a short film (see above) that will debut at the Peninsula Arts Contemporary Music Festival next weekend at Plymouth University in England.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The violinist referenced in the Telegraph article is one of four severely disabled musicians who took part in a remarkable performance last year. Each of the participants suffers from \u003ca href=\"http://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/locked-in-syndrome/\" target=\"_blank\">locked-in syndrome\u003c/a>, which is possible to describe as the stuff of which nightmares are made. (If you've read or seen \"\u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Diving_Bell_and_the_Butterfly_(film)\" target=\"_blank\">The Diving Bell and the Butterfly\u003c/a>,\" you'll know what we mean.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"They cannot talk, cannot move at all,\" says Eduardo Miranda, who heads the Interdisciplinary Centre for Computer Music Research at Plymouth University. \"Some of them move their head a little bit, others communicate only through blinking eyes. That’s the thing that motivated us to do this project, to allow them to regain some sort of communication again through music.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114645\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-114645\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/Activating-Memory-2-800x359.jpg\" alt=\"Members of The Paramusical Ensemble choose musical phrases by staring at a screen then transmitting their choice, via brain signals, to musicians who then play the music. \" width=\"800\" height=\"359\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Members of The Paramusical Ensemble choose musical phrases by staring at a screen then transmitting their choice, via brain signals, to musicians who then play the music. \u003ccite>(Eduardo Miranda)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That was accomplished through a device, developed by Miranda and his assistant, Joel Eaton, that reads the electrical signals produced by the visual cortex in each musician's brain. These signals are produced when the musicians pick one square to focus on from a group of four, each filled with flashing lights. Each square appears next to a different musical phrase, and because each flashes at a different frequency, it triggers a distinct brain signal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If you have a light flashing at 20hz, another at 24hz, we can detect [which one you're looking at] in the brain signal,\" Miranda says. In this way, the disabled musicians each choose a snippet of music, written by Miranda. Another group of musicians then sees these choices on their own computer screens, so they can be played aloud. The title of the entire piece, composed by Miranda, is \"Activating Memory.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The groups of choices presented to the disabled musicians changed on average about every 10 seconds, Miranda says. Four musicians times four choices meant 16 potential combinations of music each time a new set was presented. Every time the piece is played, says Miranda, it would sound different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"These combinations will produce sometimes dissonance, sometimes consonance,\" he says. \"That is part of the game, so to speak.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the performance, Steve Thomas, one of the musicians with locked-in syndrome, communicated through a synthetic voice activated by blinking his eyes. \"It was great to hear the musician play the phrase I selected,\" he said. \"I tried to select music that was harmonious with the others. It's very cool.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miranda, who is a composer by training but also took the time to get a Ph.D. in artificial intelligence, said the next step in the development of Brain Computer Music Interfacing could be detecting the brain signatures that correspond to different moods or emotions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Is it possible to detect when you are feeling sad or happy?\" he wonders. \"That would be a fantastic tool for therapies to treat people who may suffer from depression. If the system is monitoring your brain and detects that [someone] is getting into a depressive state, let’s play some music that will make that change.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whoa, there -- my iTunes already shuffles me up \"\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6Sxv-sUYtM\" target=\"_blank\">Happy\u003c/a>\" way too much. But other uses could be on the horizon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"At the end of the day, the technology allows people to make choices, switch things on and off,\" Miranda says. \"You could use it to \u003ca href=\"https://jneuroengrehab.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-0003-11-7\" target=\"_blank\">drive a wheelchair\u003c/a> -- instead of having four musical phrases, you could say, 'go forward, backwards, left, right.'\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Go forward, indeed.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Gene Editing: Coming to a Kitchen Counter Near You",
"title": "Gene Editing: Coming to a Kitchen Counter Near You",
"headTitle": "KQED Future of You | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>When you hear \"gene editing,\" do you think cancer cures? Designer babies? What about new fuel sources or drought-tolerant crops? Gene editing with a technique known as CRISPR/Cas9, hailed as a scientific \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">breakthrough\u003c/a>, could mean all those things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a possibility, of course, that CRISPR/Cas9 may not live up to expectations. That's happened before. Twenty-five years ago, recombinant DNA was supposed to transform society in a way that, well, didn't happen. But any past biotech disappointments are not stopping a slew of Bay Area CRISPR startups from taking the leap into the new world of DNA tinkering and synthetic biology. They are, in fact, everywhere, from biotech labs in Emeryville to kitchen counters in Burlingame.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It's something that people read about, it's something people see that's cutting edge,\" says Josiah Zayner, a former synthetic biologist at NASA. \"Yet it's so accessible, it's something that you can do in your home, on your kitchen table.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has considered himself a \"biohacker\" for a long time. Now it's his full-time job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114669\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 360px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114669\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/crispr-featureimage-e1455913319463.jpg\" alt='Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists.' width=\"360\" height=\"540\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>He's started a company called The Open Discovery Institute, or The ODIN (not coincidentally, the name of the Norse god connected with healing, knowledge and ... death). The point, he says, is to make science more accessible by providing low-cost supplies for people to practice gene editing at home. The first shipments from his \u003ca href=\"https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/diy-crispr-kits-learn-modern-science-by-doing#/\" target=\"_blank\">Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign\u003c/a> are expected this spring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You can learn about cutting-edge science by actually doing it,\" Zayner says. \"When I started experimenting with CRISPR I thought, 'That's pretty crazy!' I would definitely want that opportunity.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Zayner's kitchen I get a crash course in how this new kind of gene editing works. Zayner's kits have three major parts: the Cas9 protein (other forms can use other proteins), the \"guide\" RNA and the donor DNA. The Cas9 protein makes precise cuts in the sections of the DNA to which it's led by the guide RNA. Sensing the cut, the cell's own repair mechanisms will try to repair it, by inserting a new piece of DNA. If all goes well, it will add a section of the donated DNA containing the desired gene or genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So you kind of trick the cell into using your new piece of DNA instead of some other piece of DNA it finds, or the original piece of DNA,\" says Zayner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_115245\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 1280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-115245 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\" alt=\"CRISPR is Here\" width=\"1280\" height=\"850\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg 1280w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-400x266.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-800x531.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-768x510.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-1180x784.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-960x638.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003cem>Click on the image for a larger version\u003c/em>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To see the process in action, we insert a yeast mutation that will change its color from milky white to rusty red. We mix a chemical solution called a buffer (which helps the cell accept the DNA into its wall), the Cas9 protein, the guide RNA and the donor DNA together in a small plastic test tube.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So we're going to try to get this inside the yeast cells,\" Zayner says, holding up the clear fluid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has some yeast growing on an agar-filled culture plate in his fridge. We transfer the yeast with a thin plastic loop. We heat up the cells by putting the test tube in a warm bowl of water, then let them cool again and rest before spreading them on a plate to let them grow. The yeast only needs to grow a day or two to see if the experiment was successful. A few days later, Zayner says it was.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection?'\u003ccite>Josiah Zayner, The ODIN\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>This is fairly simple stuff. Zayner's editing kits are more about fostering an interest in science than creating a new breed of super-humans -- not that he necessarily would have a problem with that.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Gene editing is the next step for humanity,\" Zayner says. \"Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection? When we can decide what works best for humanity?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gene editing technology has made great strides in the three years since CRISPR/Cas9 burst onto the scientific scene. Despite the rapid pace of advances, many scientists are urging caution as the technology becomes easier to use and the experiments become more ambitious.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We haven't really had the conversation about humans and what's ethically appropriate or inappropriate,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/mildred-cho\" target=\"_blank\">Mildred Cho, \u003c/a>a bioethicist at Stanford University. She sees a huge potential for breakthroughs in gene editing, but also the possibility of misuse. \"And we haven't really had the conversation about widespread release of organisms that we won't be able to get back once they're released into the environment.\" Cho, however, says it's not up to scientists to decide such things. \"So far, those discussions have not been very widespread outside of the expert communities.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114670\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 240px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114670\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/RS18524_IMG_8357-sfi.jpg\" alt=\"Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \" width=\"240\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Yet Silicon Valley and the local biotech community are forging ahead. In San Francisco's Mission Bay neighborhood, \u003ca href=\"https://www.twistbioscience.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Twist Bioscience\u003c/a> is making the components of DNA and RNA that companies and academic researchers can use in their synthetic biology experiments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We started Twist to disrupt the DNA-writing market,\" says Emily Leproust, one of the co-founders. \"There is a massive demand. A huge demand.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Leproust says many drugs, antibiotics and vaccines begin from DNA, with engineered microbes used to make them. And in the area of industrial chemicals, many researchers and companies are modifying algae, yeast and E. coli to turn them into bio-factories that make specialty chemicals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Twist doesn't disclose the names of its clients. And in the interest of safety, Twist executives say, they restrict what sequences of DNA they'll sell, and to whom. But there are lots of local labs and companies using DNA in this way, and they're raising boatloads of money.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to CrunchBase.com, \u003ca href=\"http://www.zymergen.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Zymergen\u003c/a> in Emeryville has raised $44 million, \u003ca href=\"http://cariboubio.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Caribou Bioscience\u003c/a> in Berkeley $14 million, \u003ca href=\"http://www.sangamo.com/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Sangamo BioSciences\u003c/a> in Richmond about $74 million, and Twist itself more than $130 million.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why, Leproust says, it's good, today, to be in bio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If you were in the '50s, you wanted to be in space and aeronautics and in the '90s you wanted to be in computers. And nowadays you want to be in biology because that's where the next big economic growth is going to come from.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Time will tell. But local startups are betting and betting big on the new generation of gene editing.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "A slew of Bay Area startups and even individuals are taking the leap into the new world of DNA tinkering and synthetic biology. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>When you hear \"gene editing,\" do you think cancer cures? Designer babies? What about new fuel sources or drought-tolerant crops? Gene editing with a technique known as CRISPR/Cas9, hailed as a scientific \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">breakthrough\u003c/a>, could mean all those things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a possibility, of course, that CRISPR/Cas9 may not live up to expectations. That's happened before. Twenty-five years ago, recombinant DNA was supposed to transform society in a way that, well, didn't happen. But any past biotech disappointments are not stopping a slew of Bay Area CRISPR startups from taking the leap into the new world of DNA tinkering and synthetic biology. They are, in fact, everywhere, from biotech labs in Emeryville to kitchen counters in Burlingame.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It's something that people read about, it's something people see that's cutting edge,\" says Josiah Zayner, a former synthetic biologist at NASA. \"Yet it's so accessible, it's something that you can do in your home, on your kitchen table.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has considered himself a \"biohacker\" for a long time. Now it's his full-time job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114669\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 360px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114669\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/crispr-featureimage-e1455913319463.jpg\" alt='Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists.' width=\"360\" height=\"540\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>He's started a company called The Open Discovery Institute, or The ODIN (not coincidentally, the name of the Norse god connected with healing, knowledge and ... death). The point, he says, is to make science more accessible by providing low-cost supplies for people to practice gene editing at home. The first shipments from his \u003ca href=\"https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/diy-crispr-kits-learn-modern-science-by-doing#/\" target=\"_blank\">Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign\u003c/a> are expected this spring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You can learn about cutting-edge science by actually doing it,\" Zayner says. \"When I started experimenting with CRISPR I thought, 'That's pretty crazy!' I would definitely want that opportunity.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Zayner's kitchen I get a crash course in how this new kind of gene editing works. Zayner's kits have three major parts: the Cas9 protein (other forms can use other proteins), the \"guide\" RNA and the donor DNA. The Cas9 protein makes precise cuts in the sections of the DNA to which it's led by the guide RNA. Sensing the cut, the cell's own repair mechanisms will try to repair it, by inserting a new piece of DNA. If all goes well, it will add a section of the donated DNA containing the desired gene or genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So you kind of trick the cell into using your new piece of DNA instead of some other piece of DNA it finds, or the original piece of DNA,\" says Zayner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_115245\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 1280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-115245 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\" alt=\"CRISPR is Here\" width=\"1280\" height=\"850\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg 1280w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-400x266.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-800x531.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-768x510.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-1180x784.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-960x638.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003cem>Click on the image for a larger version\u003c/em>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To see the process in action, we insert a yeast mutation that will change its color from milky white to rusty red. We mix a chemical solution called a buffer (which helps the cell accept the DNA into its wall), the Cas9 protein, the guide RNA and the donor DNA together in a small plastic test tube.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So we're going to try to get this inside the yeast cells,\" Zayner says, holding up the clear fluid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has some yeast growing on an agar-filled culture plate in his fridge. We transfer the yeast with a thin plastic loop. We heat up the cells by putting the test tube in a warm bowl of water, then let them cool again and rest before spreading them on a plate to let them grow. The yeast only needs to grow a day or two to see if the experiment was successful. A few days later, Zayner says it was.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection?'\u003ccite>Josiah Zayner, The ODIN\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>This is fairly simple stuff. Zayner's editing kits are more about fostering an interest in science than creating a new breed of super-humans -- not that he necessarily would have a problem with that.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Gene editing is the next step for humanity,\" Zayner says. \"Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection? When we can decide what works best for humanity?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gene editing technology has made great strides in the three years since CRISPR/Cas9 burst onto the scientific scene. Despite the rapid pace of advances, many scientists are urging caution as the technology becomes easier to use and the experiments become more ambitious.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We haven't really had the conversation about humans and what's ethically appropriate or inappropriate,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/mildred-cho\" target=\"_blank\">Mildred Cho, \u003c/a>a bioethicist at Stanford University. She sees a huge potential for breakthroughs in gene editing, but also the possibility of misuse. \"And we haven't really had the conversation about widespread release of organisms that we won't be able to get back once they're released into the environment.\" Cho, however, says it's not up to scientists to decide such things. \"So far, those discussions have not been very widespread outside of the expert communities.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114670\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 240px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114670\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/RS18524_IMG_8357-sfi.jpg\" alt=\"Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \" width=\"240\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Yet Silicon Valley and the local biotech community are forging ahead. In San Francisco's Mission Bay neighborhood, \u003ca href=\"https://www.twistbioscience.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Twist Bioscience\u003c/a> is making the components of DNA and RNA that companies and academic researchers can use in their synthetic biology experiments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We started Twist to disrupt the DNA-writing market,\" says Emily Leproust, one of the co-founders. \"There is a massive demand. A huge demand.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Leproust says many drugs, antibiotics and vaccines begin from DNA, with engineered microbes used to make them. And in the area of industrial chemicals, many researchers and companies are modifying algae, yeast and E. coli to turn them into bio-factories that make specialty chemicals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Twist doesn't disclose the names of its clients. And in the interest of safety, Twist executives say, they restrict what sequences of DNA they'll sell, and to whom. But there are lots of local labs and companies using DNA in this way, and they're raising boatloads of money.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to CrunchBase.com, \u003ca href=\"http://www.zymergen.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Zymergen\u003c/a> in Emeryville has raised $44 million, \u003ca href=\"http://cariboubio.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Caribou Bioscience\u003c/a> in Berkeley $14 million, \u003ca href=\"http://www.sangamo.com/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Sangamo BioSciences\u003c/a> in Richmond about $74 million, and Twist itself more than $130 million.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why, Leproust says, it's good, today, to be in bio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If you were in the '50s, you wanted to be in space and aeronautics and in the '90s you wanted to be in computers. And nowadays you want to be in biology because that's where the next big economic growth is going to come from.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Time will tell. But local startups are betting and betting big on the new generation of gene editing.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
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"masters-of-scale": {
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"mindshift": {
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"order": 12
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5",
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"onourwatch": {
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"tagline": "Deeply-reported investigative journalism",
"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Our weekly podcast explores how the media 'sausage' is made, casts an incisive eye on fluctuations in the marketplace of ideas, and examines threats to the freedom of information and expression in America and abroad. For one hour a week, the show tries to lift the veil from the process of \"making media,\" especially news media, because it's through that lens that we see the world and the world sees us",
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"tagline": "Politics from a personal perspective",
"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
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"possible": {
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"title": "Possible",
"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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"source": "Possible"
},
"link": "/radio/program/possible",
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"pri-the-world": {
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"title": "PRI's The World: Latest Edition",
"info": "Each weekday, host Marco Werman and his team of producers bring you the world's most interesting stories in an hour of radio that reminds us just how small our planet really is.",
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"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-World-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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},
"radiolab": {
"id": "radiolab",
"title": "Radiolab",
"info": "A two-time Peabody Award-winner, Radiolab is an investigation told through sounds and stories, and centered around one big idea. In the Radiolab world, information sounds like music and science and culture collide. Hosted by Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich, the show is designed for listeners who demand skepticism, but appreciate wonder. WNYC Studios is the producer of other leading podcasts including Freakonomics Radio, Death, Sex & Money, On the Media and many more.",
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},
"reveal": {
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