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"disqusTitle": "Stardust and Sunbreath in the Sutter's Mill Meteorite",
"title": "Stardust and Sunbreath in the Sutter's Mill Meteorite",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>On Sunday morning, April 22, 2012 a bright fireball streaked westward over the Reno-Tahoe area, rattling homes with a sonic boom. Shortly afterward, residents of El Dorado County heard the whistling sounds of falling meteorites. Weather radar tracked the hail of stones in midair, and the experts outlined a probable \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/\">strewnfield\u003c/a> centered on the site of Sutter's Mill, the place that launched the California Gold Rush in 1848. Soon a meteorite rush began as the story hit the news. Today, eight months later, the journal \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> has published intimate details about this leftover piece from the solar system's infancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorites are samples of the asteroids, which orbit the sun in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. Today, after more than 4 billion years of collisions with each other, they are mostly broken chunks of rock and iron. A handful of the largest asteroids still have \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/planets/a/aa_asteroidgeo.htm\">their original form of little planets\u003c/a>, with iron cores and rocky mantles like Earth or the Moon, although they're pretty banged up. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back in April it made me thrill to hear that the Sutter's Mill rocks were of the type called carbonaceous chondrite (\"CON-drite\"). This is older stuff that escaped processing in a mini-planet asteroid. It lets us peek beyond the birth of the planets to the original cloud of interstellar gas and stardust—the nebula—that first formed the sun and solar system. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to the \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper, the Sutter's Mill meteorite started out as a rock the size of a minivan, 2 to 4 meters across. It entered the atmosphere at 28.6 kilometers per second, twice as fast as most meteorites. The rock shattered from the shock at an altitude of 30 miles, producing an explosion of about 4 kilotons yield. Thousands of pieces quickly slowed down to ballistic speed, getting a thin blowtorched crust during the second or two they were supersonic. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48061\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-skin/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48061\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-skin\" width=\"600\" height=\"408\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48061\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin-400x272.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crinkly fusion crust (top) and interior of a Sutter's Mill meteorite fragment. Image courtesy Robert Beauford, University of Arkansas\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists from the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center, led by meteor specialist Peter Jenniskens, made an aerial survey of the strewnfield, looking for craters, and found none. For that they hired the airship Eureka in one of the Bay Area zeppelin's most unusual missions. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.airshipventures.com/\">Alas, the Eureka is no more.\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Carbonaceous chondrites look a lot like asphalt, and some are soft enough to cut with a knife. The Sutter's Mill stones are harder than that, though—more like old asphalt. So far, less than a kilogram of meteorite material has been collected. The biggest piece weighs 205 grams, or just over 7 ounces. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48062\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-top/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48062\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-top\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48062\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Specimen number SM2 of the Sutter's Mill meteorite fall was run over by a car before NASA scientist Peter Jenniskens found it on April 24, 2012. The largest grain is a centimeter across. Image: P. Jenniskens (SETI Institute) and Eric James (NASA Ames) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The tarry black color marks it as carbonaceous (it's about 2.5 percent carbon), and the little round grains inside are chondrules, tiny droplets made of the minerals olivine and pyroxene that condensed out of the hot nebula. Those are what define a chondrite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper describes the Sutter's Mill meteorites as typical of their class, the CM class. The chondrules have been partly erased by reactions with water. These reactions produced minerals that sound surprising to a geologist: clays, dolomite, calcite, serpentine. These tend to disappear when things get rough, geologically speaking, and are not the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">silicate minerals and iron metal\u003c/a> you find in most meteorites. The fact that these minerals are preserved means that the material made it through the entire history of the solar system without being heated beyond about 500°C.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The same is true of the carbon-bearing fraction; indeed, some bits of rock appear never to have gotten hotter than about 150°C, or the heat of a moderate oven. Other parts hold high-temperature grains. About 2 percent of the carbon appears to be in microscopic grains of diamond and silicon carbide: ancient stardust created in supernova explosions. Other parts of the carbon fraction hold a whisper of neon and argon from the sun, blown into it by the solar wind as the asteroid drifted in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The stone is made of broken fragments (a breccia) that was once the outer surface (regolith) of a small asteroid. Between the fragments is very fine grained material. The image below gives a sense of how complex this stuff is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48063\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 531px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermetsm47-iron/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48063\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermetSM47-iron-531x360.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermetSM47-iron\" width=\"531\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-48063\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">X-ray map of iron abundance in meteorite fragment SM47. From supplementary figure S13A of the Science paper. Click the image to see the 1000-pixel version.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Two specimens were collected before a rainstorm passed through. This pristine material proved unexpectedly rich in calcium sulfide (CaS), which disappeared after a single rainfall. Formate, acetate, sulfate and chloride likewise were quickly washed out. Another delicate fraction is the natural, non-biological amino acids that carbonaceous chondrites are famous for. In the Sutter's Mill stones the amino acids were less abundant than in other CM-class meteorites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These results don't tell a big new story or topple old theories; they're simply more data for the experts to chew on. But the paper is impressive for the state-of-the-art lab techniques used on these little stones. The text alone (not counting the 72-page supplement) cites results from X-ray tomography, helium pycnometry, magnetic susceptibility tests, backscattered electron mapping, neutron tomography, whole-rock chemistry, thermoluminescence, Raman spectrometry, powder diffractometry, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, ion chromatography, gas chromatography mass spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection and time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The paper has 71 authors from 44 different institutions who call themselves the \u003ca href=\"http://asima.seti.org/sm/\">Sutter's Mill Meteorite Consortium\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Working backward from the impact, the authors used radar frames, infrasound evidence, and photos taken by witnesses to estimate the size and orbit of the original rock. Its off-center orbit had carried it out near Jupiter at one end, where it must have originated as part of an asteroid, and close to Mercury at the other. There are some asteroids out there with light signatures close to that of the Sutter's Mill object. One of them is 1999 JU3, the target of the upcoming \u003ca href=\"http://b612.jspec.jaxa.jp/hayabusa2/e/index_e.html\">Hayabusa-2 asteroid sampling mission\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The rare meteorite that fell in the Sierra foothills this spring yielded a rich harvest of scientific data.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>On Sunday morning, April 22, 2012 a bright fireball streaked westward over the Reno-Tahoe area, rattling homes with a sonic boom. Shortly afterward, residents of El Dorado County heard the whistling sounds of falling meteorites. Weather radar tracked the hail of stones in midair, and the experts outlined a probable \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/\">strewnfield\u003c/a> centered on the site of Sutter's Mill, the place that launched the California Gold Rush in 1848. Soon a meteorite rush began as the story hit the news. Today, eight months later, the journal \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> has published intimate details about this leftover piece from the solar system's infancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorites are samples of the asteroids, which orbit the sun in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. Today, after more than 4 billion years of collisions with each other, they are mostly broken chunks of rock and iron. A handful of the largest asteroids still have \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/planets/a/aa_asteroidgeo.htm\">their original form of little planets\u003c/a>, with iron cores and rocky mantles like Earth or the Moon, although they're pretty banged up. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back in April it made me thrill to hear that the Sutter's Mill rocks were of the type called carbonaceous chondrite (\"CON-drite\"). This is older stuff that escaped processing in a mini-planet asteroid. It lets us peek beyond the birth of the planets to the original cloud of interstellar gas and stardust—the nebula—that first formed the sun and solar system. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to the \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper, the Sutter's Mill meteorite started out as a rock the size of a minivan, 2 to 4 meters across. It entered the atmosphere at 28.6 kilometers per second, twice as fast as most meteorites. The rock shattered from the shock at an altitude of 30 miles, producing an explosion of about 4 kilotons yield. Thousands of pieces quickly slowed down to ballistic speed, getting a thin blowtorched crust during the second or two they were supersonic. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48061\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-skin/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48061\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-skin\" width=\"600\" height=\"408\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48061\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-skin-400x272.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crinkly fusion crust (top) and interior of a Sutter's Mill meteorite fragment. Image courtesy Robert Beauford, University of Arkansas\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists from the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center, led by meteor specialist Peter Jenniskens, made an aerial survey of the strewnfield, looking for craters, and found none. For that they hired the airship Eureka in one of the Bay Area zeppelin's most unusual missions. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.airshipventures.com/\">Alas, the Eureka is no more.\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Carbonaceous chondrites look a lot like asphalt, and some are soft enough to cut with a knife. The Sutter's Mill stones are harder than that, though—more like old asphalt. So far, less than a kilogram of meteorite material has been collected. The biggest piece weighs 205 grams, or just over 7 ounces. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48062\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermeteor-top/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48062\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermeteor-top\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48062\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermeteor-top-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Specimen number SM2 of the Sutter's Mill meteorite fall was run over by a car before NASA scientist Peter Jenniskens found it on April 24, 2012. The largest grain is a centimeter across. Image: P. Jenniskens (SETI Institute) and Eric James (NASA Ames) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The tarry black color marks it as carbonaceous (it's about 2.5 percent carbon), and the little round grains inside are chondrules, tiny droplets made of the minerals olivine and pyroxene that condensed out of the hot nebula. Those are what define a chondrite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Science\u003c/i> paper describes the Sutter's Mill meteorites as typical of their class, the CM class. The chondrules have been partly erased by reactions with water. These reactions produced minerals that sound surprising to a geologist: clays, dolomite, calcite, serpentine. These tend to disappear when things get rough, geologically speaking, and are not the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">silicate minerals and iron metal\u003c/a> you find in most meteorites. The fact that these minerals are preserved means that the material made it through the entire history of the solar system without being heated beyond about 500°C.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The same is true of the carbon-bearing fraction; indeed, some bits of rock appear never to have gotten hotter than about 150°C, or the heat of a moderate oven. Other parts hold high-temperature grains. About 2 percent of the carbon appears to be in microscopic grains of diamond and silicon carbide: ancient stardust created in supernova explosions. Other parts of the carbon fraction hold a whisper of neon and argon from the sun, blown into it by the solar wind as the asteroid drifted in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The stone is made of broken fragments (a breccia) that was once the outer surface (regolith) of a small asteroid. Between the fragments is very fine grained material. The image below gives a sense of how complex this stuff is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48063\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 531px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/20/stardust-and-sunbreath-in-the-sutters-mill-meteorite/suttermetsm47-iron/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48063\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/suttermetSM47-iron-531x360.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"suttermetSM47-iron\" width=\"531\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-48063\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">X-ray map of iron abundance in meteorite fragment SM47. From supplementary figure S13A of the Science paper. Click the image to see the 1000-pixel version.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Two specimens were collected before a rainstorm passed through. This pristine material proved unexpectedly rich in calcium sulfide (CaS), which disappeared after a single rainfall. Formate, acetate, sulfate and chloride likewise were quickly washed out. Another delicate fraction is the natural, non-biological amino acids that carbonaceous chondrites are famous for. In the Sutter's Mill stones the amino acids were less abundant than in other CM-class meteorites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These results don't tell a big new story or topple old theories; they're simply more data for the experts to chew on. But the paper is impressive for the state-of-the-art lab techniques used on these little stones. The text alone (not counting the 72-page supplement) cites results from X-ray tomography, helium pycnometry, magnetic susceptibility tests, backscattered electron mapping, neutron tomography, whole-rock chemistry, thermoluminescence, Raman spectrometry, powder diffractometry, Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, ion chromatography, gas chromatography mass spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection and time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The paper has 71 authors from 44 different institutions who call themselves the \u003ca href=\"http://asima.seti.org/sm/\">Sutter's Mill Meteorite Consortium\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Working backward from the impact, the authors used radar frames, infrasound evidence, and photos taken by witnesses to estimate the size and orbit of the original rock. Its off-center orbit had carried it out near Jupiter at one end, where it must have originated as part of an asteroid, and close to Mercury at the other. There are some asteroids out there with light signatures close to that of the Sutter's Mill object. One of them is 1999 JU3, the target of the upcoming \u003ca href=\"http://b612.jspec.jaxa.jp/hayabusa2/e/index_e.html\">Hayabusa-2 asteroid sampling mission\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "How Do California's Fracking Regulations Compare to Other States'?",
"title": "How Do California's Fracking Regulations Compare to Other States'?",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>UPDATE: California released \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservation.ca.gov/Index/Pages/Index.aspx\">draft fracking regulations\u003c/a> on December 18. Read a breakdown of the new regulations on \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/news/2012/12/18/calif-regulators-release-draft-fracking-regulations/#regulations\">KQED's News Fix blog\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48002\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 307px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/14/how-do-californias-fracking-regulations-compare-to-other-states/fracking121207/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48002\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-48002 \" title=\"fracking121207\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/fracking121207.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"307\" height=\"173\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/fracking121207.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/fracking121207-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 307px) 100vw, 307px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Workers at the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania. (MLADEN ANTONOV/AFP/Getty Images)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>California regulators are expected to release \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/california-prepares-first-fracking-regulations-joining-nationwide-debate\">new fracking regulations\u003c/a> by the end of the year. The state doesn't currently have fracking-specific rules, but some activity falls under the state's oil and gas regulations. Nationwide, regulations differ from state to state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I spoke with Nathan Richardson who is a resident scholar at \u003ca href=\"http://www.rff.org/Pages/default.aspx\">Resources for the Future\u003c/a>, a policy and economics think tank in Washington, D.C. to learn how California's current oil and gas rules compare to other states'. He’s working on a survey of state fracking regulations around the country. You can explore a \u003ca href=\"http://www.rff.org/centers/energy_economics_and_policy/Pages/Shale_Maps.aspx\">map comparing states\u003c/a> on different issues at RFF’s website.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is an edited version of the interview.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do California’s current regulations compare to other states’?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nOur survey is about fracking for shale gas and the majority of fracking occurring in California is for shale oil. But I think it’s still useful to talk about the shale gas regulations in California because a lot of these regulations apply to the process of getting oil and gas from the ground, not fracking in particular.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California’s regulations on shale gas are relatively unexceptional. If I wanted to pick out some things where California’s regulations are a little bit different from other states, one thing is that California relies somewhat heavily on its permit process. For casing and cementing in wells, for example, California jumps out as a state that uses a case-by-case approach, as opposed to a uniform statewide standard about how to case and cement a well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One other thing I noticed is when a well is shut down, you don’t want a bunch of idle wells out there because those can cause risks. So states limit the amount of time a well can stay idle. California does limit this amount of time, but the length is among the highest in the country; it's 300 months. It doesn’t necessarily imply that’s the wrong balance to strike, but it is something California does do differently than most other states.\u003cstrong>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Let’s go through some of the big issues when it comes to regulating fracking. The first is what chemicals companies are using in their fracking fluid. How are states handling disclosure?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nOne area where there’s kind of an emerging trend in one direction is with frack fluid disclosure. Not every state that has any shale gas operations requires fluid disclosure, and those states that do require it don’t always require the same thing. Some of the laws that are being passed in diff states are pretty similar, although they have different exceptions for things like trade secrets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[box size=small align=right color=white]\u003cstrong>More Coverage\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See part one from this series - \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/with-large-oil-reserve-california-faces-fracking-debate/\">California's Large Shale Oil Reserve\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Part two - \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/california-prepares-first-fracking-regulations-joining-nationwide-debate/\">California Prepares First Fracking Regulations\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n[/box]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there’s a lot of similarity here and it really seems like even in the past couple years the trend has been towards disclosure of these fracking fluids to the public. Part of that’s because either opponents of shale gas or proponents of more regulation for shale gas have really made this an issue that they’ve pushed hard. Also the industry has gotten on board: in a lot of states they’ve realized it’s in their interest to be open about what they’re doing, to help them back up their arguments that this activity is safe. So a consensus has developed around fluid disclosure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do different states deal with wastewater?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWastewater is complicated. In contrast to what I just talked about with fluid disclosure, this is one of the areas where states have great differences in what they do. There’s different things you can do with the wastewater. You can recycle it, you can inject it under ground, with certain kinds of wastewater you can store it in pits until it evaporates, with some kinds you can even use it in the winter to keep snow and ice off your roadways. There’s a lot of different kinds of fluid that come out of the ground depending on the geological formation and the condition of the well, and local conditions are different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All of this results in a lot of difference among states and how they regulate this. All states allow fluid to be recycled. Many states allow it to be injected underground, but there are a few states that specifically disallow this, in a lot of cases because of fears that this will cause earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What about setback rules? It looks from your \u003ca href=\"http://www.rff.org/centers/energy_economics_and_policy/Pages/Shale_Maps.aspx\">maps\u003c/a> that there is a range from a couple hundred feet to a couple thousand feet.\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nSet back restrictions essentially say that you must drill a well at least a certain distance away from something else. That something can be a building, a church or a school, a source of water, a source of drinkable water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is an interesting story because at the 10,000 foot level, states look the same. But states have different rules about what wells have to be set back from, and how far they have to be set back. States in the west where there just isn’t as much water may be worried about water impacts, while places in the east which are more densely populated but richer in water are more worried about impacts on people and communities. You see some of that reflected in the regulations, but I’d hesitate to call it a trend.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>And what about monitoring for water contamination?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nA few states have regulations that require the developer to test or to pay for testing of local water wells or local water sources before they frack. There are not many states that require this -- only 7 or 8 of them. California does not require this right now as best as we can tell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reason to do this is, if some problem does occur later, and the driller wants to say, “No that problem was already there, it’s not us,” it allows the state or the landowner to say, “Well let’s go back and check the data and see if you’re right.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this data isn’t available it makes attributing any contamination that is uncovered later really hard. So there’s some fairly strong arguments for having this pre-drilling testing, but it’s not free and there are also a lot of states that don’t really depend on well water as much so it may or may not make sense to have testing in that state. Even the states that do have testing, the distance away from the well that needs to be tested really varies a lot too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What role does the federal government play?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThe states are the real show here. States are the ones that are on the ground doing the vast majority of regulation, not only of shale gas development, but oil and gas entirely. The entire history of oil and gas has been almost exclusively a state-regulatory activity. Some people don't like that. A lot of greens think the feds should do it. The industry really likes the states doing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The federal government has always had a role in protecting surface water. The Clean Water Act gives a lot of power to regulate what can and can't be put into rivers and water in the United States. Putting oil and gas waste into water is almost uniformly illegal, and the reason it's illegal is because the federal government prevents it from being done.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Air pollution is traditionally a federal area. It's regulated primarily under the Clean Air Act. The EPA passed performance standards, that required oil and gas operations to reduce their emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, and required them to use processes called \"Green Completion\" that reduce the emission of all kinds of air pollutants, including methane, which is a powerful greenhouse gas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is one other layer that is worth mentioning, and it's especially relevant in the West. The federal government is not just a regulator; it's also a huge land owner. And to the extent that the federal government limits what can be done on the lands that it owns, it's really acting as a landowner. Just like if you and I own a piece of property, and a driller wanted to drill there, we could say, \"Yeah, you can do that, but you've gotta use these super safe practices,\" or, \"You can do this and not that.\" The federal government can do that, and the Department of Interior does issue rules about what can and can't be done on its land. It’s just that that starts to look like a regulation when you're in a place like Nevada or Utah, where the federal government owns most of the state.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>UPDATE: California released \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservation.ca.gov/Index/Pages/Index.aspx\">draft fracking regulations\u003c/a> on December 18. Read a breakdown of the new regulations on \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/news/2012/12/18/calif-regulators-release-draft-fracking-regulations/#regulations\">KQED's News Fix blog\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48002\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 307px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/14/how-do-californias-fracking-regulations-compare-to-other-states/fracking121207/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48002\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-48002 \" title=\"fracking121207\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/fracking121207.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"307\" height=\"173\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/fracking121207.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/fracking121207-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 307px) 100vw, 307px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Workers at the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania. (MLADEN ANTONOV/AFP/Getty Images)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>California regulators are expected to release \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/california-prepares-first-fracking-regulations-joining-nationwide-debate\">new fracking regulations\u003c/a> by the end of the year. The state doesn't currently have fracking-specific rules, but some activity falls under the state's oil and gas regulations. Nationwide, regulations differ from state to state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I spoke with Nathan Richardson who is a resident scholar at \u003ca href=\"http://www.rff.org/Pages/default.aspx\">Resources for the Future\u003c/a>, a policy and economics think tank in Washington, D.C. to learn how California's current oil and gas rules compare to other states'. He’s working on a survey of state fracking regulations around the country. You can explore a \u003ca href=\"http://www.rff.org/centers/energy_economics_and_policy/Pages/Shale_Maps.aspx\">map comparing states\u003c/a> on different issues at RFF’s website.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is an edited version of the interview.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do California’s current regulations compare to other states’?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nOur survey is about fracking for shale gas and the majority of fracking occurring in California is for shale oil. But I think it’s still useful to talk about the shale gas regulations in California because a lot of these regulations apply to the process of getting oil and gas from the ground, not fracking in particular.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California’s regulations on shale gas are relatively unexceptional. If I wanted to pick out some things where California’s regulations are a little bit different from other states, one thing is that California relies somewhat heavily on its permit process. For casing and cementing in wells, for example, California jumps out as a state that uses a case-by-case approach, as opposed to a uniform statewide standard about how to case and cement a well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One other thing I noticed is when a well is shut down, you don’t want a bunch of idle wells out there because those can cause risks. So states limit the amount of time a well can stay idle. California does limit this amount of time, but the length is among the highest in the country; it's 300 months. It doesn’t necessarily imply that’s the wrong balance to strike, but it is something California does do differently than most other states.\u003cstrong>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Let’s go through some of the big issues when it comes to regulating fracking. The first is what chemicals companies are using in their fracking fluid. How are states handling disclosure?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nOne area where there’s kind of an emerging trend in one direction is with frack fluid disclosure. Not every state that has any shale gas operations requires fluid disclosure, and those states that do require it don’t always require the same thing. Some of the laws that are being passed in diff states are pretty similar, although they have different exceptions for things like trade secrets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[box size=small align=right color=white]\u003cstrong>More Coverage\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See part one from this series - \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/with-large-oil-reserve-california-faces-fracking-debate/\">California's Large Shale Oil Reserve\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Part two - \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/california-prepares-first-fracking-regulations-joining-nationwide-debate/\">California Prepares First Fracking Regulations\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n[/box]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there’s a lot of similarity here and it really seems like even in the past couple years the trend has been towards disclosure of these fracking fluids to the public. Part of that’s because either opponents of shale gas or proponents of more regulation for shale gas have really made this an issue that they’ve pushed hard. Also the industry has gotten on board: in a lot of states they’ve realized it’s in their interest to be open about what they’re doing, to help them back up their arguments that this activity is safe. So a consensus has developed around fluid disclosure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do different states deal with wastewater?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWastewater is complicated. In contrast to what I just talked about with fluid disclosure, this is one of the areas where states have great differences in what they do. There’s different things you can do with the wastewater. You can recycle it, you can inject it under ground, with certain kinds of wastewater you can store it in pits until it evaporates, with some kinds you can even use it in the winter to keep snow and ice off your roadways. There’s a lot of different kinds of fluid that come out of the ground depending on the geological formation and the condition of the well, and local conditions are different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All of this results in a lot of difference among states and how they regulate this. All states allow fluid to be recycled. Many states allow it to be injected underground, but there are a few states that specifically disallow this, in a lot of cases because of fears that this will cause earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What about setback rules? It looks from your \u003ca href=\"http://www.rff.org/centers/energy_economics_and_policy/Pages/Shale_Maps.aspx\">maps\u003c/a> that there is a range from a couple hundred feet to a couple thousand feet.\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nSet back restrictions essentially say that you must drill a well at least a certain distance away from something else. That something can be a building, a church or a school, a source of water, a source of drinkable water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is an interesting story because at the 10,000 foot level, states look the same. But states have different rules about what wells have to be set back from, and how far they have to be set back. States in the west where there just isn’t as much water may be worried about water impacts, while places in the east which are more densely populated but richer in water are more worried about impacts on people and communities. You see some of that reflected in the regulations, but I’d hesitate to call it a trend.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>And what about monitoring for water contamination?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nA few states have regulations that require the developer to test or to pay for testing of local water wells or local water sources before they frack. There are not many states that require this -- only 7 or 8 of them. California does not require this right now as best as we can tell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reason to do this is, if some problem does occur later, and the driller wants to say, “No that problem was already there, it’s not us,” it allows the state or the landowner to say, “Well let’s go back and check the data and see if you’re right.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this data isn’t available it makes attributing any contamination that is uncovered later really hard. So there’s some fairly strong arguments for having this pre-drilling testing, but it’s not free and there are also a lot of states that don’t really depend on well water as much so it may or may not make sense to have testing in that state. Even the states that do have testing, the distance away from the well that needs to be tested really varies a lot too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What role does the federal government play?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThe states are the real show here. States are the ones that are on the ground doing the vast majority of regulation, not only of shale gas development, but oil and gas entirely. The entire history of oil and gas has been almost exclusively a state-regulatory activity. Some people don't like that. A lot of greens think the feds should do it. The industry really likes the states doing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The federal government has always had a role in protecting surface water. The Clean Water Act gives a lot of power to regulate what can and can't be put into rivers and water in the United States. Putting oil and gas waste into water is almost uniformly illegal, and the reason it's illegal is because the federal government prevents it from being done.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Air pollution is traditionally a federal area. It's regulated primarily under the Clean Air Act. The EPA passed performance standards, that required oil and gas operations to reduce their emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds, and required them to use processes called \"Green Completion\" that reduce the emission of all kinds of air pollutants, including methane, which is a powerful greenhouse gas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is one other layer that is worth mentioning, and it's especially relevant in the West. The federal government is not just a regulator; it's also a huge land owner. And to the extent that the federal government limits what can be done on the lands that it owns, it's really acting as a landowner. Just like if you and I own a piece of property, and a driller wanted to drill there, we could say, \"Yeah, you can do that, but you've gotta use these super safe practices,\" or, \"You can do this and not that.\" The federal government can do that, and the Department of Interior does issue rules about what can and can't be done on its land. It’s just that that starts to look like a regulation when you're in a place like Nevada or Utah, where the federal government owns most of the state.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Help Find the Healdsburg Tektites",
"title": "Help Find the Healdsburg Tektites",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47911\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/catektite-rolfe/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47911\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektite-rolfe.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAtektite-rolfe\" width=\"300\" height=\"379\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47911\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Professor Rolfe Erickson holds part of his collection of Healdsburg tektites in this 2003 photo. Photo by Jean Wasp, Sonoma State University\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A scattering of mysterious stones in Sonoma and Solano counties appears to be a newly documented population of tektites, a team of local geologists argued last week. Their poster presentation at the San Francisco meeting of the American Geophysical Union laid out new evidence about these unusual rocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tektites are what you might call a semi-meteorite—they are Earth material that has been melted in large cosmic impact events and splashed into nearby outer space. As they fall back through the atmosphere, the glassy drops gain the blowtorched appearance of meteorites. You can buy them at any well-equipped rock shop and any of \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/18/theres-nothing-like-a-rock-show/\">the Bay Area's rock and mineral shows\u003c/a>. They are distinct in many ways from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">real meteorites\u003c/a>, which are pieces of rock or metal from heavenly bodies, mostly asteroids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tektites are found scattered in large oval territories called strewnfields, each of which represents a single impact event. Until now, only five strewnfields were known: in the southeastern U.S., in Indochina, in central Europe, in Ivory Coast and in Central America. Three of these have been linked to a known impact crater by dating and chemistry. In last week's presentation, Professor Emeritus Rolfe Erickson of Sonoma State University and three coauthors made a wide-ranging case that we have our own Healdsburg strewnfield, \"only a very small part of which has been identified to date.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Erickson first issued a call to the Bay Area's rockhounds in 2003, when the photo above was made. Since that time he has acquired more specimens and scraped the money together to have some tests made. Among these were age dating, done in Berkeley by the highly sensitive argon-argon method, and detailed chemical analyses. Their chemistries are very close to identical, putting them in the rhyolite category, and the four argon ages are statistically the same at about 2.823 million years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That alone doesn't rule out volcanic rocks like obsidian, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/\">of which the North Bay has plenty\u003c/a>, or the volcanic blobs called Apache tears. But their shapes and surface appearance are quite unlike these candidates and exactly like \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/meteorites/ig/meteorites/Tektites.htm\">the tektites I own\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48041\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/catektites/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48041\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektites.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAtektites\" width=\"600\" height=\"480\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48041\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektites.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektites-400x320.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Freshly gathered healdsburgites from Dry Creek Valley. Rolfe Erickson photo\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Erickson's team described the pits and grooves in these specimens and concluded, in their best scientific language, that \"the clasts \u003cb>look\u003c/b> like tektites.\" Additionally, the stones have no sign of weathering, which is quite unlike obsidian of that age, and their smooth surfaces show that their rounded shapes could not have come about by erosion in a stream. See more detail in the \u003ca href=\"http://fallmeeting.agu.org/2012/eposters/eposter/p11b-1811/\">poster's summary posted on the meeting website\u003c/a>. Erickson says that the full poster will be posted soon at the Sonoma State library site; I'll add a comment here when that happens.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They did not identify a candidate for an associated impact crater, but the date narrows things down a great deal, and the chemistry, they said, \"suggests a continental origin.\" It is possible that a 2.8-million-year-old crater around here could be almost obliterated. The Coast Range is a highly active area, with the Earth's crust being shredded, lifted and dropped by various strands of the San Andreas fault system. And in the Cascades, a crater could have been buried long ago by volcano complexes, where it might look exactly like an ancient volcano in gravity surveys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The strewnfield is still poorly documented, and careful watchers of the ground, like me and you, can help in this task. I would be keeping my eyes open wherever sediments of late Pliocene age might be found. They would have to be above sea level, where later sea-level fluctuations would not bury them, in basins that are not being actively filled today. In such elevated areas of sediment deposits, like the Livermore basin and southern Santa Clara Valley, these odd pitted pebbles might stand out. Erickson finds his examples in and around the Dry Creek Valley, in agricultural fields and roadcuts. Let's see where else we can find them.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"title": "Help Find the Healdsburg Tektites | KQED",
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"headline": "Help Find the Healdsburg Tektites",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47911\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/catektite-rolfe/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47911\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektite-rolfe.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAtektite-rolfe\" width=\"300\" height=\"379\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47911\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Professor Rolfe Erickson holds part of his collection of Healdsburg tektites in this 2003 photo. Photo by Jean Wasp, Sonoma State University\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A scattering of mysterious stones in Sonoma and Solano counties appears to be a newly documented population of tektites, a team of local geologists argued last week. Their poster presentation at the San Francisco meeting of the American Geophysical Union laid out new evidence about these unusual rocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tektites are what you might call a semi-meteorite—they are Earth material that has been melted in large cosmic impact events and splashed into nearby outer space. As they fall back through the atmosphere, the glassy drops gain the blowtorched appearance of meteorites. You can buy them at any well-equipped rock shop and any of \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/18/theres-nothing-like-a-rock-show/\">the Bay Area's rock and mineral shows\u003c/a>. They are distinct in many ways from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">real meteorites\u003c/a>, which are pieces of rock or metal from heavenly bodies, mostly asteroids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tektites are found scattered in large oval territories called strewnfields, each of which represents a single impact event. Until now, only five strewnfields were known: in the southeastern U.S., in Indochina, in central Europe, in Ivory Coast and in Central America. Three of these have been linked to a known impact crater by dating and chemistry. In last week's presentation, Professor Emeritus Rolfe Erickson of Sonoma State University and three coauthors made a wide-ranging case that we have our own Healdsburg strewnfield, \"only a very small part of which has been identified to date.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Erickson first issued a call to the Bay Area's rockhounds in 2003, when the photo above was made. Since that time he has acquired more specimens and scraped the money together to have some tests made. Among these were age dating, done in Berkeley by the highly sensitive argon-argon method, and detailed chemical analyses. Their chemistries are very close to identical, putting them in the rhyolite category, and the four argon ages are statistically the same at about 2.823 million years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That alone doesn't rule out volcanic rocks like obsidian, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/\">of which the North Bay has plenty\u003c/a>, or the volcanic blobs called Apache tears. But their shapes and surface appearance are quite unlike these candidates and exactly like \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/meteorites/ig/meteorites/Tektites.htm\">the tektites I own\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_48041\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/13/help-find-the-healdsburg-tektites/catektites/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-48041\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektites.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAtektites\" width=\"600\" height=\"480\" class=\"size-full wp-image-48041\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektites.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/CAtektites-400x320.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Freshly gathered healdsburgites from Dry Creek Valley. Rolfe Erickson photo\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Erickson's team described the pits and grooves in these specimens and concluded, in their best scientific language, that \"the clasts \u003cb>look\u003c/b> like tektites.\" Additionally, the stones have no sign of weathering, which is quite unlike obsidian of that age, and their smooth surfaces show that their rounded shapes could not have come about by erosion in a stream. See more detail in the \u003ca href=\"http://fallmeeting.agu.org/2012/eposters/eposter/p11b-1811/\">poster's summary posted on the meeting website\u003c/a>. Erickson says that the full poster will be posted soon at the Sonoma State library site; I'll add a comment here when that happens.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They did not identify a candidate for an associated impact crater, but the date narrows things down a great deal, and the chemistry, they said, \"suggests a continental origin.\" It is possible that a 2.8-million-year-old crater around here could be almost obliterated. The Coast Range is a highly active area, with the Earth's crust being shredded, lifted and dropped by various strands of the San Andreas fault system. And in the Cascades, a crater could have been buried long ago by volcano complexes, where it might look exactly like an ancient volcano in gravity surveys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The strewnfield is still poorly documented, and careful watchers of the ground, like me and you, can help in this task. I would be keeping my eyes open wherever sediments of late Pliocene age might be found. They would have to be above sea level, where later sea-level fluctuations would not bury them, in basins that are not being actively filled today. In such elevated areas of sediment deposits, like the Livermore basin and southern Santa Clara Valley, these odd pitted pebbles might stand out. Erickson finds his examples in and around the Dry Creek Valley, in agricultural fields and roadcuts. Let's see where else we can find them.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47829\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/12/can-earth-survive-without-scientist-citizens/arctic-fox-pup-feature/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47829\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-47829\" title=\"arctic fox pup feature\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/arctic-fox-pup-feature-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) pup in the Pribilof Islands, St. Paul Island, off the coast of mainland Alaska in the Bering Sea. Juvenile mortality can reach 90% (from starvation and predation) during their first year when lemming abundance is low. Climate change threatens arctic fox survival by reducing the snow depth that lemmings depend on for shelter and insulation. (Image: Mike Boylan/USFWS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When scientists start giving talks called \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/12/is-earth-fked-agu-scientist-asks.html?rss=1\">“Is Earth F***ed?”\u003c/a>, it’s safe to say we’ve entered a new era.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week, at the largest annual gathering of earth and space scientists in the world, geophysicist Brad Werner caused quite a stir with his decidedly unscholarly framing of the question on everyone’s mind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Werner’s talk at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco was inspired, he said, by friends who were \"quite depressed” about earth’s future and our inability to “respond appropriately.” (His talk starts at 25 minutes.) To get a sense of what might change our trajectory toward planetary disaster, Werner, director of the \u003ca href=\"http://complex-systems.ucsd.edu/\">Complex Systems Laboratory\u003c/a> at UC San Diego, modeled interactions between human social processes and environmental systems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>His model predicts that a capitalist culture, operating with few restraints to maximize short-term gains, prevents us from taking the longer view needed to prevent environmental destruction. Simulations show that unfettered economies will quickly burn through natural resources. Factoring in regulation, which constrains but doesn’t change the dominant economic culture, simply delays the damage. The only thing that might tip the balance toward a sustainable future, Werner says, is resistance, if people push back against the status quo. But he hasn’t run the simulations to test this idea yet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Werner urged his colleagues to start thinking about sustainability as a geophysical problem and to lend their expertise to studying the complex dynamics of human-environmental interactions: “It’s not something that we can just leave for the social scientists or the humanities.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47863\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 622px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/12/can-earth-survive-without-scientist-citizens/greenland-slide/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47863\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-47863\" title=\"greenland slide arctic report card NOAA, 2012\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/greenland-slide-622x360.jpg\" alt=\"arctic report card NOAA, 2012, greenland\" width=\"622\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A rare, nearly ice-sheet-wide melt was recorded by satellites for the first time in 2012. The melt season was the longest it has been since satellite observations began in 1979. Melting ice contributes to sea level rise through direct, mass loss, and melt water can lubricate the underside of glaciers and accelerate glacier flow, further contributing to sea level rise. Surface melt changes the shape of ice and snow crystals, making them less reflective. (Source: Arctic Report Card, 2012, NOAA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But is that enough? If we’re really pushing earth toward an irreversible tipping point, as a group of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/blog/archives/3011\">top scientists warned last summer\u003c/a>, should scientists be doing more than research? Do scientists have a responsibility to step outside the academy and do whatever they can to set us on a more sustainable trajectory?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jane Lubchenco says yes. Just a half hour before Werner laid out his somber predictions for our future, \u003ca href=\"http://www.noaa.gov/lubchenco.html\">Lubchenco\u003c/a>, under secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and head of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, revealed the findings of her agency’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard/\">Arctic Report Card \u003c/a>at an AGU \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bAKZXxjHXsM\">press conference.\u003c/a> Noting that dramatic physical changes—including record low snow and sea ice levels and unprecedented ice sheet surface melting—are triggering biological changes such as less productivity at the bottom of the food chain, Lubchenco showed just how bleak things have already become. (See video below.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next day, she traveled across the bay to \u003ca href=\"http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2012/12/10/jane-lubchenco-wicked-problems/\">tell her academic colleagues at UC Berkeley\u003c/a> what they can do about it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a longstanding (if mostly unspoken) tradition, scientists often look askance at colleagues who spend time engaging the public and government officials in science, thinking they do so at the expense of good science. Lubchenco believes that type of thinking is a luxury we can ill afford.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Laying out the litany of “wicked problems” we face—climate change, loss of biodiversity, ocean acidification, and freshwater depletion to name just a few—Lubchenco urged scientists to move beyond simply documenting environmental destruction to creating solutions. “That means engaging with society and thinking differently about what our roles as scientists are,” she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47832\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 379px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/12/can-earth-survive-without-scientist-citizens/janelubchenco/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47832\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-47832\" title=\"jane lubchenco\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/janelubchenco-379x253.jpg\" alt=\"Jane Lubchenco NOAA administrator\" width=\"379\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NOAA Administrator Jane Lubchenco tells academic researchers at UC Berkeley that in the face of \"wicked problems\" like climate change and biodiversity loss they no longer have the luxury of just doing science they think is cool. (Photo: Barry Bergman)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We scientists, whether we’re wearing government hats or academic hats, have a responsibility to society in exchange for public funding,” she said. That means not just “doing things we think are cool but really wrestling with some of these big problems.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The old divisions between basic science and applied science no longer describes the world we live in, Lubchenco says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most researchers think their work is over when they share the knowledge they gain with their colleagues in meetings and peer-reviewed journals. But that’s just a first step, in Lubchenco's view. She urged her Berkeley audience to share what they’ve learned with the public, policymakers, and decision makers and to make the effort to understand how they can design studies to make sure their research makes a difference. They need to think about how their research can guide public officials’ approaches to regulating and managing ecosystems, she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For Lubchenco, it’s all part of being a responsible human being. It's incumbent upon scientists, she said, “to renew our social contract in light of the environmental challenges that face us.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If enough scientists take her advice, maybe, one day, we’ll be able to answer “no” to Werner's question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cobject width=\"560\" height=\"315\" classid=\"d27cdb6e-ae6d-11cf-96b8-444553540000\" codebase=\"http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cparam name=\"src\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/O5h02Yc6lfA?version=3&hl=en_US&rel=0\">\u003cparam name=\"allowfullscreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cembed width=\"560\" height=\"315\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/O5h02Yc6lfA?version=3&hl=en_US&rel=0\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Last summer, a group of top scientists warned that our penchant for growth and consumption may be pushing earth toward an irreversible tipping point. The days when scientists could share their results with just their colleagues are over, says NOAA Administrator Jane Lubchenco. It's time for scientists to help solve our \"wicked problems.\"",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47829\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/12/can-earth-survive-without-scientist-citizens/arctic-fox-pup-feature/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47829\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-47829\" title=\"arctic fox pup feature\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/arctic-fox-pup-feature-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) pup in the Pribilof Islands, St. Paul Island, off the coast of mainland Alaska in the Bering Sea. Juvenile mortality can reach 90% (from starvation and predation) during their first year when lemming abundance is low. Climate change threatens arctic fox survival by reducing the snow depth that lemmings depend on for shelter and insulation. (Image: Mike Boylan/USFWS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When scientists start giving talks called \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/12/is-earth-fked-agu-scientist-asks.html?rss=1\">“Is Earth F***ed?”\u003c/a>, it’s safe to say we’ve entered a new era.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week, at the largest annual gathering of earth and space scientists in the world, geophysicist Brad Werner caused quite a stir with his decidedly unscholarly framing of the question on everyone’s mind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Werner’s talk at the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco was inspired, he said, by friends who were \"quite depressed” about earth’s future and our inability to “respond appropriately.” (His talk starts at 25 minutes.) To get a sense of what might change our trajectory toward planetary disaster, Werner, director of the \u003ca href=\"http://complex-systems.ucsd.edu/\">Complex Systems Laboratory\u003c/a> at UC San Diego, modeled interactions between human social processes and environmental systems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>His model predicts that a capitalist culture, operating with few restraints to maximize short-term gains, prevents us from taking the longer view needed to prevent environmental destruction. Simulations show that unfettered economies will quickly burn through natural resources. Factoring in regulation, which constrains but doesn’t change the dominant economic culture, simply delays the damage. The only thing that might tip the balance toward a sustainable future, Werner says, is resistance, if people push back against the status quo. But he hasn’t run the simulations to test this idea yet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Werner urged his colleagues to start thinking about sustainability as a geophysical problem and to lend their expertise to studying the complex dynamics of human-environmental interactions: “It’s not something that we can just leave for the social scientists or the humanities.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47863\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 622px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/12/can-earth-survive-without-scientist-citizens/greenland-slide/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47863\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-47863\" title=\"greenland slide arctic report card NOAA, 2012\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/greenland-slide-622x360.jpg\" alt=\"arctic report card NOAA, 2012, greenland\" width=\"622\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A rare, nearly ice-sheet-wide melt was recorded by satellites for the first time in 2012. The melt season was the longest it has been since satellite observations began in 1979. Melting ice contributes to sea level rise through direct, mass loss, and melt water can lubricate the underside of glaciers and accelerate glacier flow, further contributing to sea level rise. Surface melt changes the shape of ice and snow crystals, making them less reflective. (Source: Arctic Report Card, 2012, NOAA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But is that enough? If we’re really pushing earth toward an irreversible tipping point, as a group of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/blog/archives/3011\">top scientists warned last summer\u003c/a>, should scientists be doing more than research? Do scientists have a responsibility to step outside the academy and do whatever they can to set us on a more sustainable trajectory?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jane Lubchenco says yes. Just a half hour before Werner laid out his somber predictions for our future, \u003ca href=\"http://www.noaa.gov/lubchenco.html\">Lubchenco\u003c/a>, under secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and head of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, revealed the findings of her agency’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard/\">Arctic Report Card \u003c/a>at an AGU \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bAKZXxjHXsM\">press conference.\u003c/a> Noting that dramatic physical changes—including record low snow and sea ice levels and unprecedented ice sheet surface melting—are triggering biological changes such as less productivity at the bottom of the food chain, Lubchenco showed just how bleak things have already become. (See video below.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next day, she traveled across the bay to \u003ca href=\"http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2012/12/10/jane-lubchenco-wicked-problems/\">tell her academic colleagues at UC Berkeley\u003c/a> what they can do about it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a longstanding (if mostly unspoken) tradition, scientists often look askance at colleagues who spend time engaging the public and government officials in science, thinking they do so at the expense of good science. Lubchenco believes that type of thinking is a luxury we can ill afford.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Laying out the litany of “wicked problems” we face—climate change, loss of biodiversity, ocean acidification, and freshwater depletion to name just a few—Lubchenco urged scientists to move beyond simply documenting environmental destruction to creating solutions. “That means engaging with society and thinking differently about what our roles as scientists are,” she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47832\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 379px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/12/can-earth-survive-without-scientist-citizens/janelubchenco/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47832\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-47832\" title=\"jane lubchenco\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/janelubchenco-379x253.jpg\" alt=\"Jane Lubchenco NOAA administrator\" width=\"379\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NOAA Administrator Jane Lubchenco tells academic researchers at UC Berkeley that in the face of \"wicked problems\" like climate change and biodiversity loss they no longer have the luxury of just doing science they think is cool. (Photo: Barry Bergman)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We scientists, whether we’re wearing government hats or academic hats, have a responsibility to society in exchange for public funding,” she said. That means not just “doing things we think are cool but really wrestling with some of these big problems.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The old divisions between basic science and applied science no longer describes the world we live in, Lubchenco says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most researchers think their work is over when they share the knowledge they gain with their colleagues in meetings and peer-reviewed journals. But that’s just a first step, in Lubchenco's view. She urged her Berkeley audience to share what they’ve learned with the public, policymakers, and decision makers and to make the effort to understand how they can design studies to make sure their research makes a difference. They need to think about how their research can guide public officials’ approaches to regulating and managing ecosystems, she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For Lubchenco, it’s all part of being a responsible human being. It's incumbent upon scientists, she said, “to renew our social contract in light of the environmental challenges that face us.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If enough scientists take her advice, maybe, one day, we’ll be able to answer “no” to Werner's question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cobject width=\"560\" height=\"315\" classid=\"d27cdb6e-ae6d-11cf-96b8-444553540000\" codebase=\"http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=6,0,40,0\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cparam name=\"src\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/O5h02Yc6lfA?version=3&hl=en_US&rel=0\">\u003cparam name=\"allowfullscreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cembed width=\"560\" height=\"315\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/O5h02Yc6lfA?version=3&hl=en_US&rel=0\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>From the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta to killer whales, bicycles to cheese — it’s been another year of diverse storytelling from the KQED Science and Environment team. Here’s a round-up of the top 10 stories shared on our website (based on page views) that you’ve enjoyed in 2012. Please let us know what other stories you’ve enjoyed in the comments section below and if there’s anything you’d like to see in the coming season!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/18/a-new-radiocarbon-yardstick-from-japan/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">A New Radiocarbon Yardstick from Japan\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/10/suigetsutop.jpg\" title=\"suigetsutop\" class=\"alignnone\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>The most popular story featured on our website was written by our geology blogger \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/andrew-alden/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Andrew Alden\u003c/a>; it describes a core of sediment from a Japanese lake that’s a Rosetta Stone for ice-age climate research.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/20/why-killer-whales-don%E2%80%99t-eat-people-where-science-and-legend-meet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Why Killer Whales Don’t Eat People: Where Science and Legend Meet\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/MarqueeImage-KCTS-WhyKillerWhalesDontEatPeopleBlog.jpg\" title=\"killerwhale\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\"> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>It’s clear that in the wild, orcas seem to have a pretty universal rule: don’t attack humans. The reason would appear to be both biological and cultural. Read more from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/ethanmorris/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Ethan Morris\u003c/a> of KCTS, our partner station in Seattle.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/07/05/why-mosquitoes-buzz-in-peoples-ears/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Why Do Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears?\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_mosquito.jpg\" title=\"mosquitoes\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>In this perennially popular blog post, The Oakland Zoo’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/amy-gotliffe/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Amy Gotliffe\u003c/a> shares some interesting facts and fables about why mosquitoes buzz in our ears — especially when we’re trying to sleep at night.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/delta-map/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">California’s Deadlocked Delta: Interactive Map\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Deltamap2\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-37979\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>KQED Science radio reporter \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/laurensommer/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Lauren Sommer\u003c/a> created a rich, multimedia series that chronicles the history and issues surrounding the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Working with the \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfei.org/DeltaHEStudy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">San Francisco Estuary Institute – Aquatic Science Center\u003c/a> and the \u003ca href=\"http://west.stanford.edu/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bill Lane Center for the American West, Stanford University\u003c/a>, their interactive maps take an in-depth look at the region that’s the heart of California’s water supply. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/08/22/in-defense-of-science-an-interview-with-ncse%E2%80%99s-eugenie-scott/\">In Defense of Science: An Interview with NCSE’s Eugenie Scott\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/genie2.jpg\" title=\"eugeniescott\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/lizagross/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Liza Gross\u003c/a> generated a lot of discussion with her interview with Eugenie Scott, the longtime director of Oakland’s National Center for Science Education. Scott shared her thoughts on the challenges of communicating science in a climate of denial.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/16/rumors-and-truth-in-lake-tahoe/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Rumors and Truth in Lake Tahoe\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/Lake-Tahoe.jpg\" title=\"laketahoe\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This past summer, scuba divers in Lake Tahoe found the body of a man who had drowned in the lake 17 years ago. Still in its wetsuit, the body was very well-preserved. Because the water in this high alpine lake is so cold, decomposition is very slow. This fact has spawned rumors, the most famous of which involves Jacques Cousteau and still makes writer \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennifer-skene/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Jennifer Skene\u003c/a> uneasy.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-science-of-riding-a-bicycle/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Science of Riding a Bicycle\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Their basic design hasn’t changed much, but scientists still don’t fully understand the forces that allow humans to balance atop a bicycle. QUEST producer \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/gabriela-quiros/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Gabriela Quirós\u003c/a> visited Davis – a city that loves its bicycles – to take a look at a research bike and explore a collection of antique bicycles. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/space-shuttle-endeavour-makes-a-bay-area-victory-lap/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Space Shuttle Endeavour Makes a Bay Area Victory Lap\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/92krJJyEPGM\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>The Endeavour flyover made a striking appearance in the Bay Area in late September. Piggybacked to a 747, the shuttle flew at a low altitude of 1500 feet over several local cities. KQED Science radio reporter \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/amystanden/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Amy Standen\u003c/a> covered the flight and Interactive Producer Jenny Oh created a \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennyoh/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Storify presentation\u003c/a> that collected residents’ reactions from all over the Bay Area.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/21/open-source-science-on-the-internet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Open Source Science on the Internet\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/DnWocYKqvhw\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Learn more about the Open Science movement and how science discoveries can spread across the Web in this post by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/laura-khalil/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Laura Khalil\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>From the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta to killer whales, bicycles to cheese — it’s been another year of diverse storytelling from the KQED Science and Environment team. Here’s a round-up of the top 10 stories shared on our website (based on page views) that you’ve enjoyed in 2012. Please let us know what other stories you’ve enjoyed in the comments section below and if there’s anything you’d like to see in the coming season!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/18/a-new-radiocarbon-yardstick-from-japan/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">A New Radiocarbon Yardstick from Japan\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/10/suigetsutop.jpg\" title=\"suigetsutop\" class=\"alignnone\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>The most popular story featured on our website was written by our geology blogger \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/andrew-alden/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Andrew Alden\u003c/a>; it describes a core of sediment from a Japanese lake that’s a Rosetta Stone for ice-age climate research.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/20/why-killer-whales-don%E2%80%99t-eat-people-where-science-and-legend-meet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Why Killer Whales Don’t Eat People: Where Science and Legend Meet\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/MarqueeImage-KCTS-WhyKillerWhalesDontEatPeopleBlog.jpg\" title=\"killerwhale\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\"> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>It’s clear that in the wild, orcas seem to have a pretty universal rule: don’t attack humans. The reason would appear to be both biological and cultural. Read more from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/ethanmorris/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Ethan Morris\u003c/a> of KCTS, our partner station in Seattle.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/07/05/why-mosquitoes-buzz-in-peoples-ears/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Why Do Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears?\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_mosquito.jpg\" title=\"mosquitoes\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>In this perennially popular blog post, The Oakland Zoo’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/amy-gotliffe/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Amy Gotliffe\u003c/a> shares some interesting facts and fables about why mosquitoes buzz in our ears — especially when we’re trying to sleep at night.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/delta-map/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">California’s Deadlocked Delta: Interactive Map\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Deltamap2\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-37979\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/05/Deltamap2-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>KQED Science radio reporter \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/laurensommer/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Lauren Sommer\u003c/a> created a rich, multimedia series that chronicles the history and issues surrounding the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Working with the \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfei.org/DeltaHEStudy\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">San Francisco Estuary Institute – Aquatic Science Center\u003c/a> and the \u003ca href=\"http://west.stanford.edu/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bill Lane Center for the American West, Stanford University\u003c/a>, their interactive maps take an in-depth look at the region that’s the heart of California’s water supply. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/08/22/in-defense-of-science-an-interview-with-ncse%E2%80%99s-eugenie-scott/\">In Defense of Science: An Interview with NCSE’s Eugenie Scott\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/08/genie2.jpg\" title=\"eugeniescott\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/lizagross/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Liza Gross\u003c/a> generated a lot of discussion with her interview with Eugenie Scott, the longtime director of Oakland’s National Center for Science Education. Scott shared her thoughts on the challenges of communicating science in a climate of denial.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/16/rumors-and-truth-in-lake-tahoe/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Rumors and Truth in Lake Tahoe\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" alt=\"\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/Lake-Tahoe.jpg\" title=\"laketahoe\" class=\"alignleft\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This past summer, scuba divers in Lake Tahoe found the body of a man who had drowned in the lake 17 years ago. Still in its wetsuit, the body was very well-preserved. Because the water in this high alpine lake is so cold, decomposition is very slow. This fact has spawned rumors, the most famous of which involves Jacques Cousteau and still makes writer \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennifer-skene/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Jennifer Skene\u003c/a> uneasy.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-science-of-riding-a-bicycle/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Science of Riding a Bicycle\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Their basic design hasn’t changed much, but scientists still don’t fully understand the forces that allow humans to balance atop a bicycle. QUEST producer \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/gabriela-quiros/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Gabriela Quirós\u003c/a> visited Davis – a city that loves its bicycles – to take a look at a research bike and explore a collection of antique bicycles. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/space-shuttle-endeavour-makes-a-bay-area-victory-lap/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Space Shuttle Endeavour Makes a Bay Area Victory Lap\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/92krJJyEPGM\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>The Endeavour flyover made a striking appearance in the Bay Area in late September. Piggybacked to a 747, the shuttle flew at a low altitude of 1500 feet over several local cities. KQED Science radio reporter \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/amystanden/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Amy Standen\u003c/a> covered the flight and Interactive Producer Jenny Oh created a \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennyoh/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Storify presentation\u003c/a> that collected residents’ reactions from all over the Bay Area.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/21/open-source-science-on-the-internet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Open Source Science on the Internet\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"http://www.youtube.com/embed/DnWocYKqvhw\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Learn more about the Open Science movement and how science discoveries can spread across the Web in this post by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/laura-khalil/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Laura Khalil\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Side Trips from Interstate 5: The Eastern Klamaths",
"title": "Side Trips from Interstate 5: The Eastern Klamaths",
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"content": "\u003cp>This is an ambitious side trip that you might try on your next trip north to Portland. At Redding, you turn left off the freeway and instead of the 70-mile burn up I-5 to Weed, you take about 120 miles and 3 or 4 hours extra to meander through some of California's most unusual country: the peridotite lands of the eastern Klamath Mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Peridotite (\"per-RID-atight\") is the rock type that exists beneath the Earth's crust in the mantle. It's a dense rock made of iron-rich minerals that is rarely seen. It's generally altered into \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/16/home-sweet-serpentine/\">serpentine rock\u003c/a> and not much escapes. California has the lion's share of America's peridotite, and the biggest piece of it is in the eastern Klamaths along State Route 3.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Klamaths are an outlier of the Sierra Nevada that somehow ended up about a hundred miles west. How that happened is still a puzzle to geologists, one that won't affect your enjoyment. It means that the ancient rocks similar to those that were invaded and disrupted by Sierran granites are exposed in somewhat better shape in the Klamaths. But the range is still a geological scrapple, a collage of many different rocks blanketed by roadless rain forest. Route 3 provides a lucky glimpse of its most distinctive component. Here's the road route as shown on Google Maps.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47688\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopmap\" width=\"500\" height=\"500\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47688\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap.png 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-400x400.png 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-32x32.png 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-64x64.png 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-96x96.png 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-128x128.png 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-75x75.png 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And here's how the route fits the geological underlayment, as shown on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.quake.ca.gov/gmaps/GMC/stategeologicmap.html\">interactive state geologic map\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopgeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47685\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopgeomap\" width=\"500\" height=\"500\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47685\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap.png 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-400x400.png 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-32x32.png 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-64x64.png 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-96x96.png 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-128x128.png 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-75x75.png 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you know your traditional geologic map colors, you'll see at a glance that the young volcanic rocks of the Cascade Range take up the eastern side of the map and Redding sits in the young sediments of the northernmost Great Valley. Considerably older metamorphic rocks, studded with granite upwellings (pink), take up the central and western part of the map area. The large area of purple is the cool stuff, punctuated with violet bodies of gabbro, another deep-seated iron-rich rock type.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you take State Route 299 west from Redding, watch the roadside rocks change from the gravelly sedimentary rocks of the Great Valley to the easily weathered granite . ..\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47686\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopgranite/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47686\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgranite.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopgranite\" width=\"600\" height=\"495\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47686\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgranite.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgranite-400x330.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">All photos by Andrew Alden, October 2009\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>. . . and to the older metamorphics, shot through with veins during their recent uplift into today's mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopveins/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47692\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopveins.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopveins\" width=\"600\" height=\"432\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47692\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopveins.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopveins-400x288.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Klamaths were gold country like the Sierra, but some of the early prospectors found platinum instead, a metal that was worth little at the time. So keep your eyes open.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At Weaverville turn right on Route 3 up the Trinity River valley. The Trinity River has not been treated well, especially since hydraulic mining was allowed on it until the 1960s, and then it was dammed. (The \u003ca href=\"http://www.trrp.net/\">Trinity River Restoration Program\u003c/a> is starting to undo the damage.) This stretch of road is in the river's headwaters, part of the Trinity Heritage National Scenic Byway, featuring views like this one of Billy's Peak. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathlooptop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47691\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathlooptop.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathlooptop\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47691\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathlooptop.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathlooptop-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Its dark rock is part of the peridotite terrane. Keep an eye out on the roadcuts for the dark outcrops of peridotite. Much of it is studded with greenish-black crystals of pyroxene, and many parts are altered to beautiful serpentinite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathserp/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47684\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathserp.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathserp\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47684\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathserp.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathserp-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At 56.5 miles after the turnoff from 299 to 3, turn right on Stewart Springs Road, staying in the Trinity River Valley. This is a well-graded gravel road that goes over a pass at 6800 feet. If the weather is threatening or the season is iffy, check ahead or stick to Route 3. In this reach of the Trinity River, the streambed rocks are different from anything you'll ever see. Pull over and study them. This is Forest Service land and you can take a stone or two. Also, look around at the thin forest that inhabits this nutrient-poor rock.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloophills/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47687\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloophills.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloophills\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47687\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloophills.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloophills-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the top of the pass, the road intersects the Pacific Crest Trail. Take a break and examine the peridotite boulders there. This one shows how invading hot water starts to convert the gray-green peridotite into serpentine minerals, including thin veins of fibrous chrysotile. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopperid/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47689\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopperid.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopperid\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47689\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopperid.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopperid-400x280.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How do pieces of the mantle end up on the continents, anyway? The answer is that plate tectonics occasionally does that; the packages of rocks, of which peridotite is just the bottom layer, are called \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/platetectonics/a/ophiolite.htm\">ophiolites\u003c/a>. The one on this drive is the Trinity Ophiolite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The long downhill drive that follows will deliver you to I-5 just north of the town of Weed. Well before that, though, you will be arrested by the spectacle of Mount Shasta.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopshasta/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47690\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopshasta.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopshasta\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47690\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopshasta.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopshasta-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's another story entirely. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>This is an ambitious side trip that you might try on your next trip north to Portland. At Redding, you turn left off the freeway and instead of the 70-mile burn up I-5 to Weed, you take about 120 miles and 3 or 4 hours extra to meander through some of California's most unusual country: the peridotite lands of the eastern Klamath Mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Peridotite (\"per-RID-atight\") is the rock type that exists beneath the Earth's crust in the mantle. It's a dense rock made of iron-rich minerals that is rarely seen. It's generally altered into \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/16/home-sweet-serpentine/\">serpentine rock\u003c/a> and not much escapes. California has the lion's share of America's peridotite, and the biggest piece of it is in the eastern Klamaths along State Route 3.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Klamaths are an outlier of the Sierra Nevada that somehow ended up about a hundred miles west. How that happened is still a puzzle to geologists, one that won't affect your enjoyment. It means that the ancient rocks similar to those that were invaded and disrupted by Sierran granites are exposed in somewhat better shape in the Klamaths. But the range is still a geological scrapple, a collage of many different rocks blanketed by roadless rain forest. Route 3 provides a lucky glimpse of its most distinctive component. Here's the road route as shown on Google Maps.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47688\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopmap\" width=\"500\" height=\"500\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47688\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap.png 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-400x400.png 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-32x32.png 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-64x64.png 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-96x96.png 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-128x128.png 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopmap-75x75.png 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And here's how the route fits the geological underlayment, as shown on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.quake.ca.gov/gmaps/GMC/stategeologicmap.html\">interactive state geologic map\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopgeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47685\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopgeomap\" width=\"500\" height=\"500\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47685\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap.png 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-400x400.png 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-32x32.png 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-64x64.png 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-96x96.png 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-128x128.png 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgeomap-75x75.png 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you know your traditional geologic map colors, you'll see at a glance that the young volcanic rocks of the Cascade Range take up the eastern side of the map and Redding sits in the young sediments of the northernmost Great Valley. Considerably older metamorphic rocks, studded with granite upwellings (pink), take up the central and western part of the map area. The large area of purple is the cool stuff, punctuated with violet bodies of gabbro, another deep-seated iron-rich rock type.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you take State Route 299 west from Redding, watch the roadside rocks change from the gravelly sedimentary rocks of the Great Valley to the easily weathered granite . ..\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47686\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopgranite/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47686\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgranite.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopgranite\" width=\"600\" height=\"495\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47686\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgranite.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopgranite-400x330.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">All photos by Andrew Alden, October 2009\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>. . . and to the older metamorphics, shot through with veins during their recent uplift into today's mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopveins/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47692\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopveins.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopveins\" width=\"600\" height=\"432\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47692\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopveins.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopveins-400x288.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Klamaths were gold country like the Sierra, but some of the early prospectors found platinum instead, a metal that was worth little at the time. So keep your eyes open.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At Weaverville turn right on Route 3 up the Trinity River valley. The Trinity River has not been treated well, especially since hydraulic mining was allowed on it until the 1960s, and then it was dammed. (The \u003ca href=\"http://www.trrp.net/\">Trinity River Restoration Program\u003c/a> is starting to undo the damage.) This stretch of road is in the river's headwaters, part of the Trinity Heritage National Scenic Byway, featuring views like this one of Billy's Peak. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathlooptop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47691\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathlooptop.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathlooptop\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47691\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathlooptop.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathlooptop-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Its dark rock is part of the peridotite terrane. Keep an eye out on the roadcuts for the dark outcrops of peridotite. Much of it is studded with greenish-black crystals of pyroxene, and many parts are altered to beautiful serpentinite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathserp/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47684\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathserp.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathserp\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47684\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathserp.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathserp-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At 56.5 miles after the turnoff from 299 to 3, turn right on Stewart Springs Road, staying in the Trinity River Valley. This is a well-graded gravel road that goes over a pass at 6800 feet. If the weather is threatening or the season is iffy, check ahead or stick to Route 3. In this reach of the Trinity River, the streambed rocks are different from anything you'll ever see. Pull over and study them. This is Forest Service land and you can take a stone or two. Also, look around at the thin forest that inhabits this nutrient-poor rock.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloophills/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47687\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloophills.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloophills\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47687\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloophills.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloophills-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the top of the pass, the road intersects the Pacific Crest Trail. Take a break and examine the peridotite boulders there. This one shows how invading hot water starts to convert the gray-green peridotite into serpentine minerals, including thin veins of fibrous chrysotile. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopperid/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47689\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopperid.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopperid\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47689\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopperid.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopperid-400x280.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How do pieces of the mantle end up on the continents, anyway? The answer is that plate tectonics occasionally does that; the packages of rocks, of which peridotite is just the bottom layer, are called \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/platetectonics/a/ophiolite.htm\">ophiolites\u003c/a>. The one on this drive is the Trinity Ophiolite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The long downhill drive that follows will deliver you to I-5 just north of the town of Weed. Well before that, though, you will be arrested by the spectacle of Mount Shasta.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/12/06/side-trips-from-interstate-5-the-eastern-klamaths/klamathloopshasta/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47690\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopshasta.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"klamathloopshasta\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47690\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopshasta.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/12/klamathloopshasta-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's another story entirely. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Mighty Monterey Formation: In Your Future",
"title": "The Mighty Monterey Formation: In Your Future",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/montereyfm-kehoebeach/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47592\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-kehoebeach-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"montereyfm-kehoebeach\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-47592\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/usshalegas/\">government report last year\u003c/a> stated that the nation's largest possible source of oil from shale is in California's Monterey Formation. To put it in perspective, the shale oil boom now making North Dakota second only to Texas in petroleum production is exploring the Bakken Formation, which has about 4 billion barrels of \"technically recoverable shale oil resources\" in it. The Monterey Formation has more than 15 billion, about two-thirds of the whole nation's quantity. Love it or hate it, the Monterey is important for everyone in this state. And parts of it—not the most oil-rich part, mind you—are in the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our mineral resources are the legacy of unusual global environments back in geologic time. Most of the world's iron ore, for example, was created billions of years ago during the Proterozoic Eon, and most of its coal dates from the Carboniferous Period from 360 to 300 million years ago. The same is true of the Monterey Formation's oil and gas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Monterey Formation formed during the Miocene Epoch, between 16 and 6 million years ago, at the bottom of a green sea teeming with diatoms. The Earth at the time was undergoing global cooling courtesy of the rise of the Himalayas. This huge mountain chain, washed by monsoons, weathered and eroded swiftly, drawing down carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and infusing the oceans with dissolved silica. The Antarctic ice cap responded by advancing, which reinforced these changes. The great current system of the oceans, its thermohaline circulation, reorganized itself, and all around the Pacific Ocean basin arose zones of coastal upwelling, perfect habitat for diatoms. The silica-shelled bodies of these one-celled algae piled up on the seafloor in great thicknesses of diatomite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47590\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/diatom-porcelanite/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47590\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/diatom-porcelanite.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"diatom-porcelanite\" width=\"600\" height=\"250\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47590\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/diatom-porcelanite.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/diatom-porcelanite-400x167.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diatomite and porcellanite specimens\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There were widespread zones of the seafloor without oxygen, which preserved the organic matter in the diatoms. That green fraction turned to petroleum—oil and gas—at the same time the silica shells turned gradually to quartz. The rocks changed in this way from diatomite to porcellanite and then to \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_sedrocks/qt/About-Chert.htm\">chert\u003c/a>. As the rock changed, it fractured, giving the oil room to move. And in California, the growth and movement of the San Andreas fault system bent the rock into domes and folds that trapped the oil in world-class reservoirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The great oil-bearing parts of the Monterey Formation are south of us, but \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/14/petroleum-in-the-bay-area/\">the Bay Area's petroleum\u003c/a> owes its origin to the Monterey too. You can visit and appreciate it in several different places: at Point Reyes south of Kehoe Beach, in Big Basin on the San Mateo Peninsula, along route 92 two miles east of Half Moon Bay, along the Santa Cruz coast, and along the west end of Carmel Valley Road south of Monterey.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Its East Bay counterpart is the Claremont Shale, which formed at the same time in a separate coastal basin. It holds up the central crest of the Oakland Hills from Claremont Canyon (\u003ca href=\"http://oaklandgeology.wordpress.com/2008/09/07/the-real-claremont-chert/\">where it got its name\u003c/a>) down to Round Top.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47589\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/montereyfm-oakhills/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47589\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-oakhills.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"montereyfm-oakhills\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47589\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-oakhills.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-oakhills-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Claremont Shale in the Oakland Hills\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The new bore of the Caldecott Tunnel goes through the Claremont, and the whole job was done with precautions taken against the rock's natural gas. The project's engineering geologist told me that he often saw gas bubbling under his boots and smelled sulfurous gases and the peculiar tarry odor of crude oil. Although the Monterey and Claremont are both commonly light-colored in outcrops, at depth they are often still dark brown and black, steeped in organic matter. \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/07/geological-outings-around-the-bay-alum-rock-park/\">Alum Rock Park\u003c/a>, in San Jose, is one place where deep erosion uncovers the dark stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47591\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/montereyfm-alumrock/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47591\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-alumrock.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"montereyfm-alumrock\" width=\"600\" height=\"433\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47591\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-alumrock.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-alumrock-400x289.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Claremont Shale at Alum Rock Park\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Perhaps the grandest exposures of the Monterey Formation are on the Southern California coast along Morro Bay at \u003ca href=\"http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=592\">Montaña de Oro State Park\u003c/a>. To dive deep into the scientific details of the Monterey, visit the site of the Monterey And Related Sedimentary rocks (\u003ca href=\"http://geology.campus.ad.csulb.edu/people/behl/MARS/index.html\">MARS\u003c/a>) project at Cal State Long Beach. Whether you will welcome or dread its growing role in California politics and economy, the Monterey Formation is worth appreciating for itself. Look for it on your local \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/04/access-to-geologic-maps-the-landscapes-hidden-rooms/\">geologic map\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/montereyfm-kehoebeach/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47592\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-kehoebeach-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"montereyfm-kehoebeach\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-47592\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/usshalegas/\">government report last year\u003c/a> stated that the nation's largest possible source of oil from shale is in California's Monterey Formation. To put it in perspective, the shale oil boom now making North Dakota second only to Texas in petroleum production is exploring the Bakken Formation, which has about 4 billion barrels of \"technically recoverable shale oil resources\" in it. The Monterey Formation has more than 15 billion, about two-thirds of the whole nation's quantity. Love it or hate it, the Monterey is important for everyone in this state. And parts of it—not the most oil-rich part, mind you—are in the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our mineral resources are the legacy of unusual global environments back in geologic time. Most of the world's iron ore, for example, was created billions of years ago during the Proterozoic Eon, and most of its coal dates from the Carboniferous Period from 360 to 300 million years ago. The same is true of the Monterey Formation's oil and gas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Monterey Formation formed during the Miocene Epoch, between 16 and 6 million years ago, at the bottom of a green sea teeming with diatoms. The Earth at the time was undergoing global cooling courtesy of the rise of the Himalayas. This huge mountain chain, washed by monsoons, weathered and eroded swiftly, drawing down carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and infusing the oceans with dissolved silica. The Antarctic ice cap responded by advancing, which reinforced these changes. The great current system of the oceans, its thermohaline circulation, reorganized itself, and all around the Pacific Ocean basin arose zones of coastal upwelling, perfect habitat for diatoms. The silica-shelled bodies of these one-celled algae piled up on the seafloor in great thicknesses of diatomite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47590\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/diatom-porcelanite/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47590\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/diatom-porcelanite.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"diatom-porcelanite\" width=\"600\" height=\"250\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47590\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/diatom-porcelanite.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/diatom-porcelanite-400x167.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diatomite and porcellanite specimens\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There were widespread zones of the seafloor without oxygen, which preserved the organic matter in the diatoms. That green fraction turned to petroleum—oil and gas—at the same time the silica shells turned gradually to quartz. The rocks changed in this way from diatomite to porcellanite and then to \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_sedrocks/qt/About-Chert.htm\">chert\u003c/a>. As the rock changed, it fractured, giving the oil room to move. And in California, the growth and movement of the San Andreas fault system bent the rock into domes and folds that trapped the oil in world-class reservoirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The great oil-bearing parts of the Monterey Formation are south of us, but \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/14/petroleum-in-the-bay-area/\">the Bay Area's petroleum\u003c/a> owes its origin to the Monterey too. You can visit and appreciate it in several different places: at Point Reyes south of Kehoe Beach, in Big Basin on the San Mateo Peninsula, along route 92 two miles east of Half Moon Bay, along the Santa Cruz coast, and along the west end of Carmel Valley Road south of Monterey.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Its East Bay counterpart is the Claremont Shale, which formed at the same time in a separate coastal basin. It holds up the central crest of the Oakland Hills from Claremont Canyon (\u003ca href=\"http://oaklandgeology.wordpress.com/2008/09/07/the-real-claremont-chert/\">where it got its name\u003c/a>) down to Round Top.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47589\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/montereyfm-oakhills/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47589\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-oakhills.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"montereyfm-oakhills\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47589\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-oakhills.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-oakhills-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Claremont Shale in the Oakland Hills\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The new bore of the Caldecott Tunnel goes through the Claremont, and the whole job was done with precautions taken against the rock's natural gas. The project's engineering geologist told me that he often saw gas bubbling under his boots and smelled sulfurous gases and the peculiar tarry odor of crude oil. Although the Monterey and Claremont are both commonly light-colored in outcrops, at depth they are often still dark brown and black, steeped in organic matter. \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/07/geological-outings-around-the-bay-alum-rock-park/\">Alum Rock Park\u003c/a>, in San Jose, is one place where deep erosion uncovers the dark stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47591\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/29/the-mighty-monterey-formation-in-your-future/montereyfm-alumrock/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47591\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-alumrock.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"montereyfm-alumrock\" width=\"600\" height=\"433\" class=\"size-full wp-image-47591\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-alumrock.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/montereyfm-alumrock-400x289.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Claremont Shale at Alum Rock Park\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Perhaps the grandest exposures of the Monterey Formation are on the Southern California coast along Morro Bay at \u003ca href=\"http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=592\">Montaña de Oro State Park\u003c/a>. To dive deep into the scientific details of the Monterey, visit the site of the Monterey And Related Sedimentary rocks (\u003ca href=\"http://geology.campus.ad.csulb.edu/people/behl/MARS/index.html\">MARS\u003c/a>) project at Cal State Long Beach. Whether you will welcome or dread its growing role in California politics and economy, the Monterey Formation is worth appreciating for itself. Look for it on your local \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/04/access-to-geologic-maps-the-landscapes-hidden-rooms/\">geologic map\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Science on the SPOT: Shadows and Spiders-- A Secret Cave in California",
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"content": "\u003cp>Human beings have always been fascinated with caves. These clandestine spaces carved by mysterious forces elicit our natural curiosity, while at the same time the foreboding depth of their darkness creates a very visceral apprehension. Coupled with the baseline fear of earthquakes that many of us in California share, caves are often regarded with suspicion. Ironically, it is the cave that typically has more to fear from encounters with humans, and for that reason White Moon Cave and the CEMEX Redwoods Property are protected, and off limits to the public. We at KQED were fortunate enough to get a rare invitation to explore this natural wonder, and capture it on video for the very first time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47297\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 168px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-47297\" title=\"BruceCloseFilmCrew-11\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/BruceCloseFilmCrew-11-168x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"168\" height=\"253\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The KQED Science team was allowed special acceess to be the first to film in White Moon Cave.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When \u003ca href=\"http://www.openspacetrust.org/\" title=\"POST\">Peninsula Open Space Trust\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.sempervirens.org/\">The Sempervirens Fund\u003c/a> joined forces in 2011 to purchase the CEMEX Property near Davenport, CA they had no idea that White Moon Cave even existed. Their intent was to purchase the large tract of land from the Mexican cement company, as part of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.livinglandscapeinitiative.org/\">Living Landscapes Initiative\u003c/a>, in order to conserve the coast redwood groves that blanket the mountainous terrain. It was only after the purchase that they received a call from members of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.westerncaves.org/\">Western Cave Conservancy\u003c/a> revealing the cave’s existence, and the need to protect it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As I twisted through the narrow entrance to the cave, I felt as if I were moving between two realms of existence. The cave air is cool, laden with moisture; the air inside exudes an earthy perfume, both familiar and strange but pleasant; the enveloping sense of stillness grows into something profound; time seems to move slower, insulated from the light and sound of daily life. One of the most powerful ways to experience this exquisite isolation is to find a corner, sit down, and turn off all of the lights. It takes a few minutes, but soon the darkness and quiet wash over you. Deprived, the senses become magnified. Even the sound of a single drop of water falling onto the sandy cave floor resolves in crisp detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47322\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/6th-Choice_Gordon-Opening-Cave.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/6th-Choice_Gordon-Opening-Cave-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Gordon Clark of The Peninsula Open Space Trust removes rocks that guard the hidden entrance.\" title=\"6th Choice_Gordon Opening Cave\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-47322\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gordon Clark of The Peninsula Open Space Trust removes rocks that guard the hidden entrance.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Moving through the cave could be very challenging. The cave floor varied from slippery wet rock to fine dry silt that clung to every piece of clothing. The unforgiving marble walls seemed to reach out to bite at my shoulders and knees, and the ceiling seemed to creep just below where I expected I to be, making my helmet more than a mere precaution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.lilburnes.org/Students/Caves/Soution_Caves.htm\">Solution caves\u003c/a> like this one are created when rainwater is absorbed by the soil. Microbes in the soil produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and as the water percolates through the soil it becomes acidified, creating a weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). This slightly acidic water makes its way down to the limestone where the carbonic acid slowly dissolves the calcium carbonate in the marble. The dissolved limestone is said to be “in solution.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This process can take thousands to millions of years. But sadly, malicious or absent-minded humans can reverse it much more quickly. Some cave visitors don’t see the harm in taking ancient cave decorations as personal souvenirs. But when this minor theft is multiplied by hundreds of other visitors, the cave is quickly robbed of its ancient beauty. Others selfishly spray paint or etch their names into the cave walls. “After several thousand people come through, then you see a cave that is really a hulk of its former beauty,” said our guide Bruce Rogers of the Western Cave Conservancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Similar caves in the Santa Cruz area have been victims of vandalism and overuse. But for those interested in responsible caving, I encourage you to look into The Western Cave Conservancy, a collective of citizens who have surrendered themselves to the draw of the caves, but do so with the appropriate level of scientific inquiry, safety and respect. Interested parties should attend a local ‘grotto’ meeting as they are an excellent resource for those who share their fascination with the subterranean.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The rural foothills along the Santa Cruz County Coast hold an ancient secret. Deep below the redwoods, White Moon Cave extends for nearly a mile -- making it one of the longest caves in California. But few people have ever been in it. Join the KQED Science team as we squeeze through the narrow clandestine entrance, and meet the uncanny cave inhabitants to bring new light to this hidden realm.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Human beings have always been fascinated with caves. These clandestine spaces carved by mysterious forces elicit our natural curiosity, while at the same time the foreboding depth of their darkness creates a very visceral apprehension. Coupled with the baseline fear of earthquakes that many of us in California share, caves are often regarded with suspicion. Ironically, it is the cave that typically has more to fear from encounters with humans, and for that reason White Moon Cave and the CEMEX Redwoods Property are protected, and off limits to the public. We at KQED were fortunate enough to get a rare invitation to explore this natural wonder, and capture it on video for the very first time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47297\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 168px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-47297\" title=\"BruceCloseFilmCrew-11\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/BruceCloseFilmCrew-11-168x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"168\" height=\"253\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The KQED Science team was allowed special acceess to be the first to film in White Moon Cave.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When \u003ca href=\"http://www.openspacetrust.org/\" title=\"POST\">Peninsula Open Space Trust\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.sempervirens.org/\">The Sempervirens Fund\u003c/a> joined forces in 2011 to purchase the CEMEX Property near Davenport, CA they had no idea that White Moon Cave even existed. Their intent was to purchase the large tract of land from the Mexican cement company, as part of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.livinglandscapeinitiative.org/\">Living Landscapes Initiative\u003c/a>, in order to conserve the coast redwood groves that blanket the mountainous terrain. It was only after the purchase that they received a call from members of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.westerncaves.org/\">Western Cave Conservancy\u003c/a> revealing the cave’s existence, and the need to protect it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As I twisted through the narrow entrance to the cave, I felt as if I were moving between two realms of existence. The cave air is cool, laden with moisture; the air inside exudes an earthy perfume, both familiar and strange but pleasant; the enveloping sense of stillness grows into something profound; time seems to move slower, insulated from the light and sound of daily life. One of the most powerful ways to experience this exquisite isolation is to find a corner, sit down, and turn off all of the lights. It takes a few minutes, but soon the darkness and quiet wash over you. Deprived, the senses become magnified. Even the sound of a single drop of water falling onto the sandy cave floor resolves in crisp detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47322\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/6th-Choice_Gordon-Opening-Cave.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/6th-Choice_Gordon-Opening-Cave-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Gordon Clark of The Peninsula Open Space Trust removes rocks that guard the hidden entrance.\" title=\"6th Choice_Gordon Opening Cave\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-47322\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gordon Clark of The Peninsula Open Space Trust removes rocks that guard the hidden entrance.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Moving through the cave could be very challenging. The cave floor varied from slippery wet rock to fine dry silt that clung to every piece of clothing. The unforgiving marble walls seemed to reach out to bite at my shoulders and knees, and the ceiling seemed to creep just below where I expected I to be, making my helmet more than a mere precaution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.lilburnes.org/Students/Caves/Soution_Caves.htm\">Solution caves\u003c/a> like this one are created when rainwater is absorbed by the soil. Microbes in the soil produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and as the water percolates through the soil it becomes acidified, creating a weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). This slightly acidic water makes its way down to the limestone where the carbonic acid slowly dissolves the calcium carbonate in the marble. The dissolved limestone is said to be “in solution.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This process can take thousands to millions of years. But sadly, malicious or absent-minded humans can reverse it much more quickly. Some cave visitors don’t see the harm in taking ancient cave decorations as personal souvenirs. But when this minor theft is multiplied by hundreds of other visitors, the cave is quickly robbed of its ancient beauty. Others selfishly spray paint or etch their names into the cave walls. “After several thousand people come through, then you see a cave that is really a hulk of its former beauty,” said our guide Bruce Rogers of the Western Cave Conservancy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Similar caves in the Santa Cruz area have been victims of vandalism and overuse. But for those interested in responsible caving, I encourage you to look into The Western Cave Conservancy, a collective of citizens who have surrendered themselves to the draw of the caves, but do so with the appropriate level of scientific inquiry, safety and respect. Interested parties should attend a local ‘grotto’ meeting as they are an excellent resource for those who share their fascination with the subterranean.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Los Trancos Open Space",
"title": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Los Trancos Open Space",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47107\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancoscongl/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47107\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-47107\" title=\"trancoscongl\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancoscongl.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"216\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">While you're visiting the San Andreas fault, don't overlook the local rock, an excellent conglomerate. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Due south of Stanford, way up in the high hills, Los Trancos Open Space Preserve offers an excellent place to study the San Andreas fault. The preserve has a well-annotated trail that will show you good examples of the odd landforms and disturbances found all along the fault from Point Arena to the Salton Sea. \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/science-hike/san-andreas-fault-trail-exploration/\">Craig Rosa presented this trail for KQED QUEST\u003c/a> a few years ago, and I can't improve on that. But since that time, geologists have gained a thrilling new tool for seeing landscapes: lidar mapping.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lidar is laser-based radar. An airplane-mounted laser sprays the ground with tiny, precise laser pulses, and the time it takes for the light to return is measured. Our equipment is good enough to turn those times into distances, with precisions measured in centimeters. Every one of those millions of measurements—distances and GPS positions—is painstakingly recorded and poured into a database called a point cloud. It's a cloud because it's a blurry mixture of returns from treetops, shrubbery, buildings, flying birds and whatnot as well as the ground surface. But all that cruft can be digitally removed to show only what geologists care about: the bare land. (Foresters, on the other hand, love the way you can extract the treetops and map the woods itself.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's what Los Trancos looks like in Google Maps. The San Andreas fault trail runs through thick oak woods in the valley of Los Trancos Creek. The fault itself runs from an inch right of the top-left corner to an inch left of the bottom-right corner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosgm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47109\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47109\" title=\"trancosGM\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosGM.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosGM.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosGM-400x333.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See it? Not really. The fault trace was mapped by people in boots, with the help of historical photos that showed the rips in the ground from the 1906 earthquake. Now have a look at the digital elevation model built from lidar data and digitally illuminated from the left.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosdem2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47108\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47108\" title=\"trancosdem2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosdem2.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is what makes geologists use forbidden words like \"revolutionary\" when they give talks about lidar. To their trained eyes, this image has all kinds of information in it. It shows the stuff we've already mapped, plus many more subtle features we could go back and look for.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To me, most obviously, this image shows disorganized landslide topography along the western, uphill side of the fault trace. It suggests to me that one of the exhibits along the fault trail may need to be corrected: station 8 has a set of posts in the ground marking \"a minor fault,\" but it is much more likely to be a landslide scar. Check it out yourself on the ground and see what you think.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can play with the lidar data yourself, using Google Earth and getting the data from the \u003ca href=\"http://calm.geo.berkeley.edu/ncalm/ddc.html\">National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping\u003c/a>. I did that to make the image below, which is from a higher elevation and tilted counterclockwise a bit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosdem1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47097\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47097\" title=\"trancosdem1\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosdem1.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We can see the fault cross Page Mill Road and head down behind Black Mountain along the headwaters of Stevens Creek. The fault guides Stevens and Los Trancos creeks right up to the road where the land forms a saddle, at the center of the image. This view looks down to that saddle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancos-saddle/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47110\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47110\" title=\"trancos-saddle\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancos-saddle.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"439\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancos-saddle.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancos-saddle-400x293.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And if you cross the road to the Monte Bello Open Space Preserve, you can follow the fault into the heart of the Santa Cruz Mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosviewsouth/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47106\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47106\" title=\"trancosviewsouth\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosviewsouth.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"388\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosviewsouth.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosviewsouth-400x259.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's the fault coming in from the left in the strip of woods, then curving slightly to the left and exiting the horizon where the mountains are lowest. The highest of those distant peaks is Loma Prieta itself, which gave its name to the October 1989 earthquake by virtue of being the nearest notable landmark. Consider this picture an invitation to blaze your own self-educational trail along the fault.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Lidar mapping unveils one of the Bay Area's best places to visit the San Andreas fault.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_47107\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancoscongl/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47107\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-47107\" title=\"trancoscongl\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancoscongl.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"216\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">While you're visiting the San Andreas fault, don't overlook the local rock, an excellent conglomerate. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Due south of Stanford, way up in the high hills, Los Trancos Open Space Preserve offers an excellent place to study the San Andreas fault. The preserve has a well-annotated trail that will show you good examples of the odd landforms and disturbances found all along the fault from Point Arena to the Salton Sea. \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/science-hike/san-andreas-fault-trail-exploration/\">Craig Rosa presented this trail for KQED QUEST\u003c/a> a few years ago, and I can't improve on that. But since that time, geologists have gained a thrilling new tool for seeing landscapes: lidar mapping.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lidar is laser-based radar. An airplane-mounted laser sprays the ground with tiny, precise laser pulses, and the time it takes for the light to return is measured. Our equipment is good enough to turn those times into distances, with precisions measured in centimeters. Every one of those millions of measurements—distances and GPS positions—is painstakingly recorded and poured into a database called a point cloud. It's a cloud because it's a blurry mixture of returns from treetops, shrubbery, buildings, flying birds and whatnot as well as the ground surface. But all that cruft can be digitally removed to show only what geologists care about: the bare land. (Foresters, on the other hand, love the way you can extract the treetops and map the woods itself.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's what Los Trancos looks like in Google Maps. The San Andreas fault trail runs through thick oak woods in the valley of Los Trancos Creek. The fault itself runs from an inch right of the top-left corner to an inch left of the bottom-right corner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosgm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47109\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47109\" title=\"trancosGM\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosGM.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosGM.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosGM-400x333.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See it? Not really. The fault trace was mapped by people in boots, with the help of historical photos that showed the rips in the ground from the 1906 earthquake. Now have a look at the digital elevation model built from lidar data and digitally illuminated from the left.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosdem2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47108\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47108\" title=\"trancosdem2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosdem2.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is what makes geologists use forbidden words like \"revolutionary\" when they give talks about lidar. To their trained eyes, this image has all kinds of information in it. It shows the stuff we've already mapped, plus many more subtle features we could go back and look for.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To me, most obviously, this image shows disorganized landslide topography along the western, uphill side of the fault trace. It suggests to me that one of the exhibits along the fault trail may need to be corrected: station 8 has a set of posts in the ground marking \"a minor fault,\" but it is much more likely to be a landslide scar. Check it out yourself on the ground and see what you think.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can play with the lidar data yourself, using Google Earth and getting the data from the \u003ca href=\"http://calm.geo.berkeley.edu/ncalm/ddc.html\">National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping\u003c/a>. I did that to make the image below, which is from a higher elevation and tilted counterclockwise a bit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosdem1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47097\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47097\" title=\"trancosdem1\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosdem1.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We can see the fault cross Page Mill Road and head down behind Black Mountain along the headwaters of Stevens Creek. The fault guides Stevens and Los Trancos creeks right up to the road where the land forms a saddle, at the center of the image. This view looks down to that saddle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancos-saddle/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47110\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47110\" title=\"trancos-saddle\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancos-saddle.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"439\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancos-saddle.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancos-saddle-400x293.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And if you cross the road to the Monte Bello Open Space Preserve, you can follow the fault into the heart of the Santa Cruz Mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-los-trancos-open-space/trancosviewsouth/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-47106\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-47106\" title=\"trancosviewsouth\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosviewsouth.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"388\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosviewsouth.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/trancosviewsouth-400x259.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's the fault coming in from the left in the strip of woods, then curving slightly to the left and exiting the horizon where the mountains are lowest. The highest of those distant peaks is Loma Prieta itself, which gave its name to the October 1989 earthquake by virtue of being the nearest notable landmark. Consider this picture an invitation to blaze your own self-educational trail along the fault.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Earthquake Landslides: A Widespread Hazard",
"title": "Earthquake Landslides: A Widespread Hazard",
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"content": "\u003cp>Every kind of natural disaster has its own built-in, unavoidable threat. For storms, it's flooding as the waters rise. For drought, it's ground settling as the water table falls. And for earthquakes of all sizes, it's landslides as the hills come tumbling down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the magnitude-6 Parkfield earthquake of September 2004 occurred, witnesses in the tiny Central California town remarked that the hillsides all around erupted in clouds of landslide dust. Seven years later in Virginia, the magnitude-5.8 quake of August 23, 2011, didn't raise a lot of dust in that humid region. But thousands of rock slides occurred, mostly small ones, over a surprisingly large region. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Landslide specialists with the U.S. Geological Survey took it upon themselves to look closely at Virginia, just as they did in Haiti the year before. In the weeks that followed the quake, \u003ca href=\"https://profile.usgs.gov/jibson\">Randall Jibson\u003c/a> drove with Ed Harp in systematic transects away from the epicenter, checking every rocky slope and documenting each example of landslides classified as \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/naturalhazardsclimate/ig/Landslides/slide-rockfall.htm\">rockfalls\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46864\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/08/earthquake-landslides-a-widespread-hazard/slide/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46864\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/slide.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"slide\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46864\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/slide.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/slide-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">U.S. Geological Survey researcher Ed Harp records a small rockfall triggered by the 2011 Virginia earthquake. USGS photo by Randall Jibson\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>They checked the fallen rocks carefully for signs of freshness, like the ripped-up sapling in the photo above, or the presence of still-green grass underneath stones. Where the rocky slopes stopped failing, they drew a line on the map to mark the rockfall limit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This simple but intensive bit of fieldwork allowed Jibson and Harp to test their model of earthquake landslides with a good set of data. The models were built on data from Western areas with lots of earthquakes, where fresh slides are not always easy to notice, but in Virginia the 2011 quake was the largest in 114 years and left clean evidence everywhere. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The two researchers found fresh rockfalls four times as far away as their model predicted for a magnitude-5.8 event. Rockfalls occurred in an area 20 times as large as expected. Jibson \u003ca href=\"https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2012AM/webprogram/Paper205161.html\">talked about their results this week\u003c/a> at the Geological Society of America's annual meeting in Charlotte, and a paper about it will appear in the \u003ci>Seismological Society of America Bulletin\u003c/i> next month.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46866\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/08/earthquake-landslides-a-widespread-hazard/vaeqslidemap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46866\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/VAEQslidemap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"VAEQslidemap\" width=\"600\" height=\"347\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46866\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/VAEQslidemap.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/VAEQslidemap-400x231.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">US Geological Survey image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientifically, this result made sense in two ways. First, it's already well known that earthquakes are felt much more widely in the cold, hard crust east of the Rockies. Jibson and Harp's rockfall evidence matches the human evidence—in fact, human reports of the Virginia quake show that it was felt by more Americans than any previous earthquake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46865\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/08/earthquake-landslides-a-widespread-hazard/uslandslidequakes/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46865\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/USlandslidequakes.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"USlandslidequakes\" width=\"600\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46865\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/USlandslidequakes.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/USlandslidequakes-400x260.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">US Geological Survey image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Second, the rockfall limit did not form a circle on the map, but an ellipse elongated along the Appalachian Mountains. That is, the regional geology, not just the basic structure of the Earth's crust, affected the pattern of shaking. Those two new pieces of knowledge will help in reassessing historical earthquakes as well as preparing for future ones in different places.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Slowly but surely, Americans are joining Californians in becoming earthquake-aware. The broken Washington Monument, damaged in the 2011 Virginia quake, is a peerless consciousness raiser. The growing participation in \u003ca href=\"http://www.shakeout.org/\">ShakeOut programs\u003c/a> across the country is helping, too. Earthquake resistance can be engineered into our buildings and infrastructure, but landslides will never change. Speaking of which, California has its own special hazard of earthquakes related to landslides: valley fever. Jibson documented an outbreak of this disease, caused by a soil-dwelling fungus, \u003ca href=\"https://profile.usgs.gov/myscience/upload_folder/ci2009Apr211713254273778-Valley%20fever,%20Surveys%20in%20Geophysics.pdf\">after the 1994 Northridge earthquake\u003c/a>. Face masks might be a good addition to your earthquake kit.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Every kind of natural disaster has its own built-in, unavoidable threat. For storms, it's flooding as the waters rise. For drought, it's ground settling as the water table falls. And for earthquakes of all sizes, it's landslides as the hills come tumbling down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the magnitude-6 Parkfield earthquake of September 2004 occurred, witnesses in the tiny Central California town remarked that the hillsides all around erupted in clouds of landslide dust. Seven years later in Virginia, the magnitude-5.8 quake of August 23, 2011, didn't raise a lot of dust in that humid region. But thousands of rock slides occurred, mostly small ones, over a surprisingly large region. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Landslide specialists with the U.S. Geological Survey took it upon themselves to look closely at Virginia, just as they did in Haiti the year before. In the weeks that followed the quake, \u003ca href=\"https://profile.usgs.gov/jibson\">Randall Jibson\u003c/a> drove with Ed Harp in systematic transects away from the epicenter, checking every rocky slope and documenting each example of landslides classified as \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/naturalhazardsclimate/ig/Landslides/slide-rockfall.htm\">rockfalls\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46864\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/08/earthquake-landslides-a-widespread-hazard/slide/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46864\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/slide.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"slide\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46864\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/slide.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/slide-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">U.S. Geological Survey researcher Ed Harp records a small rockfall triggered by the 2011 Virginia earthquake. USGS photo by Randall Jibson\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>They checked the fallen rocks carefully for signs of freshness, like the ripped-up sapling in the photo above, or the presence of still-green grass underneath stones. Where the rocky slopes stopped failing, they drew a line on the map to mark the rockfall limit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This simple but intensive bit of fieldwork allowed Jibson and Harp to test their model of earthquake landslides with a good set of data. The models were built on data from Western areas with lots of earthquakes, where fresh slides are not always easy to notice, but in Virginia the 2011 quake was the largest in 114 years and left clean evidence everywhere. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The two researchers found fresh rockfalls four times as far away as their model predicted for a magnitude-5.8 event. Rockfalls occurred in an area 20 times as large as expected. Jibson \u003ca href=\"https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2012AM/webprogram/Paper205161.html\">talked about their results this week\u003c/a> at the Geological Society of America's annual meeting in Charlotte, and a paper about it will appear in the \u003ci>Seismological Society of America Bulletin\u003c/i> next month.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46866\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/08/earthquake-landslides-a-widespread-hazard/vaeqslidemap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46866\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/VAEQslidemap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"VAEQslidemap\" width=\"600\" height=\"347\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46866\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/VAEQslidemap.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/VAEQslidemap-400x231.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">US Geological Survey image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientifically, this result made sense in two ways. First, it's already well known that earthquakes are felt much more widely in the cold, hard crust east of the Rockies. Jibson and Harp's rockfall evidence matches the human evidence—in fact, human reports of the Virginia quake show that it was felt by more Americans than any previous earthquake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46865\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/08/earthquake-landslides-a-widespread-hazard/uslandslidequakes/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46865\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/USlandslidequakes.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"USlandslidequakes\" width=\"600\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46865\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/USlandslidequakes.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/USlandslidequakes-400x260.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">US Geological Survey image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Second, the rockfall limit did not form a circle on the map, but an ellipse elongated along the Appalachian Mountains. That is, the regional geology, not just the basic structure of the Earth's crust, affected the pattern of shaking. Those two new pieces of knowledge will help in reassessing historical earthquakes as well as preparing for future ones in different places.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Slowly but surely, Americans are joining Californians in becoming earthquake-aware. The broken Washington Monument, damaged in the 2011 Virginia quake, is a peerless consciousness raiser. The growing participation in \u003ca href=\"http://www.shakeout.org/\">ShakeOut programs\u003c/a> across the country is helping, too. Earthquake resistance can be engineered into our buildings and infrastructure, but landslides will never change. Speaking of which, California has its own special hazard of earthquakes related to landslides: valley fever. Jibson documented an outbreak of this disease, caused by a soil-dwelling fungus, \u003ca href=\"https://profile.usgs.gov/myscience/upload_folder/ci2009Apr211713254273778-Valley%20fever,%20Surveys%20in%20Geophysics.pdf\">after the 1994 Northridge earthquake\u003c/a>. Face masks might be a good addition to your earthquake kit.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Watching the Atmospheric Rivers Flow",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46689\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/01/watching-the-atmospheric-rivers-flow/atmoriver-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46689\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"atmoriver\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46689\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver-400x225.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Atmospheric river of October 13, 2009. NOAA images\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Atmospheric rivers are a 21st-century weather threat that first got their name in 1998, after satellites capable of measuring water vapor in the air began producing images like this one. It shows the chronically humid tropical ocean at the bottom, and long, thin streamers of water vapor threading away from the tropics. It was soon estimated that these streamers—atmospheric rivers or ARs—are responsible for essentially all of the moisture transported out of the tropics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The basic connection between ARs and major precipitation events was obvious. In California, our 20th-century name for these is the Pineapple Express: a huge influx of warm, water-heavy air from the tropical Pacific that overfills the rivers and piles snow on the mountains. Smaller ARs may not cause major floods, but they can bump up river flows by 10 times in a day or two. They deliver to California about one-third of its total water. Clearly ARs are important research topics for both scientific and practical reasons. How do they interact with El Niño/La Niña cycles? How will climate change affect them? How can we better protect ourselves from them?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>America has just finished going through Hurricane Sandy. Hurricanes are important events, but ARs affect both coasts. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's \u003ca href=\"http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/atmrivers/\">AR site\u003c/a> points to the notorious \"Snowmageddon\" blizzard of February 2010 as an East Coast example, when a river of Pacific moisture crossed Central America and the Caribbean before drenching the Atlantic states. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/01/watching-the-atmospheric-rivers-flow/atmoriver/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46688\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"atmoriver\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-46688\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Norway got a large AR in the late summer of 2005, and many others are sure to be found in the global weather records. But California seems to be the current champion, maybe because the data is better here. Between 1997 and 2006 there were 42 AR events touching California, of which seven caused major flooding of the type requiring evacuations and triggering large-scale power outages.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even without knowing their cause, California has had epic floods during its history, and recently emergency planners have begun to take the \"\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geologyandculture/qt/The-Deep-Present.htm\">deep present\u003c/a>\" approach to them. What if the worst example we know, the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Flood_of_1862\">great flood of 1862\u003c/a>, were to recur today? That had the earmarks of an unusually large AR event or a rapid series of them. As the planning agencies contemplated that question, they prepared a scenario in 2010 with the Noachian name \u003ca href=\"http://urbanearth.gps.caltech.edu/winter-storm-2/\">ARkStorm\u003c/a> (for \"AR thousand-year storm\") clearly demonstrating that ARs are our other \"Big One\" beside earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since ARkStorm was completed, several agencies have carried its findings forward. In particular, a new Atmospheric River Observatory is nearing completion at Bodega Bay that will conduct crucial ground-based observations of ARs that pass over the Bay Area. The satellite water-vapor data is not enough, because everything else matters too: the elevation where the moisture sits, the winds at different levels, the temperature profile of the lower atmosphere and much more that meteorologists need for the best modeling. After that, the flood predicters add the model's results to their own knowledge of river levels and soil moisture.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What makes ARs so potent is that they bring in air saturated with tropical moisture, the closer to sea level the wetter. Such air will turn its water to rain almost instantly when lifted up by the Coast Range, and again when it hits the Sierra Nevada. The new AR Observatory at Bodega Bay, like others being built along the west coast, will interrogate the air with radar at various wavelengths, measure rainfall with standard gauges and drop-size distribution with disdrometers, and derive water-vapor content from GPS data (an unforeseen benefit of the universal navigation system). More instruments in the mountains near Cazadero will complement it. The promise is that we will be able to accurately forecast these 21st-century events, and their effects in our neighborhoods, a week or more in advance.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46689\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/01/watching-the-atmospheric-rivers-flow/atmoriver-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46689\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"atmoriver\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46689\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver-400x225.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Atmospheric river of October 13, 2009. NOAA images\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Atmospheric rivers are a 21st-century weather threat that first got their name in 1998, after satellites capable of measuring water vapor in the air began producing images like this one. It shows the chronically humid tropical ocean at the bottom, and long, thin streamers of water vapor threading away from the tropics. It was soon estimated that these streamers—atmospheric rivers or ARs—are responsible for essentially all of the moisture transported out of the tropics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The basic connection between ARs and major precipitation events was obvious. In California, our 20th-century name for these is the Pineapple Express: a huge influx of warm, water-heavy air from the tropical Pacific that overfills the rivers and piles snow on the mountains. Smaller ARs may not cause major floods, but they can bump up river flows by 10 times in a day or two. They deliver to California about one-third of its total water. Clearly ARs are important research topics for both scientific and practical reasons. How do they interact with El Niño/La Niña cycles? How will climate change affect them? How can we better protect ourselves from them?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>America has just finished going through Hurricane Sandy. Hurricanes are important events, but ARs affect both coasts. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's \u003ca href=\"http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/atmrivers/\">AR site\u003c/a> points to the notorious \"Snowmageddon\" blizzard of February 2010 as an East Coast example, when a river of Pacific moisture crossed Central America and the Caribbean before drenching the Atlantic states. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/11/01/watching-the-atmospheric-rivers-flow/atmoriver/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46688\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/11/atmoriver.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"atmoriver\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-46688\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Norway got a large AR in the late summer of 2005, and many others are sure to be found in the global weather records. But California seems to be the current champion, maybe because the data is better here. Between 1997 and 2006 there were 42 AR events touching California, of which seven caused major flooding of the type requiring evacuations and triggering large-scale power outages.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even without knowing their cause, California has had epic floods during its history, and recently emergency planners have begun to take the \"\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geologyandculture/qt/The-Deep-Present.htm\">deep present\u003c/a>\" approach to them. What if the worst example we know, the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Flood_of_1862\">great flood of 1862\u003c/a>, were to recur today? That had the earmarks of an unusually large AR event or a rapid series of them. As the planning agencies contemplated that question, they prepared a scenario in 2010 with the Noachian name \u003ca href=\"http://urbanearth.gps.caltech.edu/winter-storm-2/\">ARkStorm\u003c/a> (for \"AR thousand-year storm\") clearly demonstrating that ARs are our other \"Big One\" beside earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since ARkStorm was completed, several agencies have carried its findings forward. In particular, a new Atmospheric River Observatory is nearing completion at Bodega Bay that will conduct crucial ground-based observations of ARs that pass over the Bay Area. The satellite water-vapor data is not enough, because everything else matters too: the elevation where the moisture sits, the winds at different levels, the temperature profile of the lower atmosphere and much more that meteorologists need for the best modeling. After that, the flood predicters add the model's results to their own knowledge of river levels and soil moisture.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What makes ARs so potent is that they bring in air saturated with tropical moisture, the closer to sea level the wetter. Such air will turn its water to rain almost instantly when lifted up by the Coast Range, and again when it hits the Sierra Nevada. The new AR Observatory at Bodega Bay, like others being built along the west coast, will interrogate the air with radar at various wavelengths, measure rainfall with standard gauges and drop-size distribution with disdrometers, and derive water-vapor content from GPS data (an unforeseen benefit of the universal navigation system). More instruments in the mountains near Cazadero will complement it. The promise is that we will be able to accurately forecast these 21st-century events, and their effects in our neighborhoods, a week or more in advance.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "More Clues About Singing Sand",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46396\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/25/more-clues-about-singing-sand/kelsotop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46396\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/10/kelsotop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"kelsotop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-46396\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Kelso Dunes are one of the rare sites where sand dunes can be made to sing. Science is still puzzling over the physics involved. Photo by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of the coolest things I've done in my geological explorations was to make the trip to the Kelso Dunes, deep in the Mojave Desert and make the dunes sing. All I had to do was huff and puff my way to the top of the highest dune and then start the fine sand avalanching down a slip face. After a few seconds a fuzzy, baritone hum began to emanate from the body of the dune that lasted while the sand poured down, then gently died away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Singing sands, also known as booming dunes, were once the stuff of legend. Marco Polo reported them from the steppes of central Asia. Nineteenth-century travelers and scientists, including Charles Darwin, observed them. Twentieth-century researchers recorded them, played with their sand in the lab, and tried mathematical models on them. This week a new paper is coming out in \u003ci>Geophysical Research Letters\u003c/i> that marks a new proposition in the genteel argument among scientists over singing sand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Very few dunes can sing—maybe 30 in the whole world. California has four of them: the Eureka Dunes in Death Valley, Panamint Dunes in Panamint Valley, Dumont Dunes north of Baker, and Kelso Dunes southeast of Zzyzx. The key factors seem to be very clean sand of a consistent size, very dry conditions and a good-sized slope at its angle of repose. A gentle avalanche of sand down the slope, triggered by the wind or by humans, sets off the sound. Researcher Stéphane Douady demonstrates the technique in this YouTube recording.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yFaMsUawi4?feature=player_embedded]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There has been a flurry of recent research into booming dunes. A team from Caltech led by Nathalie Vriend studied the California dunes and proposed in 2007, in a paper titled \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2007/2007GL030276.shtml\">Solving the Mystery of Booming Sand Dunes\u003c/a>,\" that vibrations stirred in the falling sand reverberate within the layers inside the dune to produce the moaning tones, much as an alpenhorn produces its low tone from vibrations of the player's lips. Vriend and her thesis advisor, Melany Hunt, were invited to write a broader treatment of the subject in the prestigious \u003ci>Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Science\u003c/i> in 2010.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But in the new paper, \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/pip/2012GL052540.shtml\">Singing-Sand Avalanches Without Dunes\u003c/a>,\" a French team from Paris Diderot University led by Simon Dagois-Bohy, and including Douady, report their study on two booming dunes with different songs, one hoarse and the other sweet. Listen to the two songs here:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EzbGQXUL9vg?feature=player_embedded]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The team took sand from both dunes and \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Rj6oSd3B0s\">made it boom in the lab\u003c/a>, using just a shallow tray. Moreover, they showed that the songs of the two dunes differed because their sands, not their shapes and structures, were different. The hoarse dune, at Al-Ashkarah in Oman, had a sand with a wider range of grain sizes than the sweet dune, near Tarfayah in Morocco. But sifting the sand from Oman into a narrower size range purified its tone, as these two sonograms from the lab experiments show.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46397\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 462px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/25/more-clues-about-singing-sand/singingsand/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46397\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/10/singingsand.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"singingsand\" width=\"462\" height=\"291\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46397\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">From Dagois-Bohy et al., \u003ci>GRL\u003c/i> 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052540\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The French team's research supports a mechanism in which the sand itself is sufficient to produce the sound, the base tone depending on the rate of shear within the sand as it spills down the dune. The exact value of the tone depends on the grain size, and a mix of sizes produces a mix of tones. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A song without a dune is as if a violin string could be stroked with a bow and produce its note without the violin. But no such instrument exists—not an acoustic one, anyway. It's hard to grasp that singing sand does not require a booming dune; if so, then why is it so rare? I feel that as we learn more, the whole story will come to embrace both the dunes and their sands.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46396\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/25/more-clues-about-singing-sand/kelsotop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46396\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/10/kelsotop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"kelsotop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-46396\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Kelso Dunes are one of the rare sites where sand dunes can be made to sing. Science is still puzzling over the physics involved. Photo by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of the coolest things I've done in my geological explorations was to make the trip to the Kelso Dunes, deep in the Mojave Desert and make the dunes sing. All I had to do was huff and puff my way to the top of the highest dune and then start the fine sand avalanching down a slip face. After a few seconds a fuzzy, baritone hum began to emanate from the body of the dune that lasted while the sand poured down, then gently died away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Singing sands, also known as booming dunes, were once the stuff of legend. Marco Polo reported them from the steppes of central Asia. Nineteenth-century travelers and scientists, including Charles Darwin, observed them. Twentieth-century researchers recorded them, played with their sand in the lab, and tried mathematical models on them. This week a new paper is coming out in \u003ci>Geophysical Research Letters\u003c/i> that marks a new proposition in the genteel argument among scientists over singing sand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Very few dunes can sing—maybe 30 in the whole world. California has four of them: the Eureka Dunes in Death Valley, Panamint Dunes in Panamint Valley, Dumont Dunes north of Baker, and Kelso Dunes southeast of Zzyzx. The key factors seem to be very clean sand of a consistent size, very dry conditions and a good-sized slope at its angle of repose. A gentle avalanche of sand down the slope, triggered by the wind or by humans, sets off the sound. Researcher Stéphane Douady demonstrates the technique in this YouTube recording.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/4yFaMsUawi4?feature=player_embedded'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/4yFaMsUawi4?feature=player_embedded'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There has been a flurry of recent research into booming dunes. A team from Caltech led by Nathalie Vriend studied the California dunes and proposed in 2007, in a paper titled \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2007/2007GL030276.shtml\">Solving the Mystery of Booming Sand Dunes\u003c/a>,\" that vibrations stirred in the falling sand reverberate within the layers inside the dune to produce the moaning tones, much as an alpenhorn produces its low tone from vibrations of the player's lips. Vriend and her thesis advisor, Melany Hunt, were invited to write a broader treatment of the subject in the prestigious \u003ci>Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Science\u003c/i> in 2010.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But in the new paper, \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/pip/2012GL052540.shtml\">Singing-Sand Avalanches Without Dunes\u003c/a>,\" a French team from Paris Diderot University led by Simon Dagois-Bohy, and including Douady, report their study on two booming dunes with different songs, one hoarse and the other sweet. Listen to the two songs here:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/EzbGQXUL9vg?feature=player_embedded'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/EzbGQXUL9vg?feature=player_embedded'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The team took sand from both dunes and \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Rj6oSd3B0s\">made it boom in the lab\u003c/a>, using just a shallow tray. Moreover, they showed that the songs of the two dunes differed because their sands, not their shapes and structures, were different. The hoarse dune, at Al-Ashkarah in Oman, had a sand with a wider range of grain sizes than the sweet dune, near Tarfayah in Morocco. But sifting the sand from Oman into a narrower size range purified its tone, as these two sonograms from the lab experiments show.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_46397\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 462px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/25/more-clues-about-singing-sand/singingsand/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-46397\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/10/singingsand.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"singingsand\" width=\"462\" height=\"291\" class=\"size-full wp-image-46397\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">From Dagois-Bohy et al., \u003ci>GRL\u003c/i> 2012, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052540\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The French team's research supports a mechanism in which the sand itself is sufficient to produce the sound, the base tone depending on the rate of shear within the sand as it spills down the dune. The exact value of the tone depends on the grain size, and a mix of sizes produces a mix of tones. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A song without a dune is as if a violin string could be stroked with a bow and produce its note without the violin. But no such instrument exists—not an acoustic one, anyway. It's hard to grasp that singing sand does not require a booming dune; if so, then why is it so rare? I feel that as we learn more, the whole story will come to embrace both the dunes and their sands.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
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"possible": {
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"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"radiolab": {
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"reveal": {
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},
"rightnowish": {
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"title": "Rightnowish",
"tagline": "Art is where you find it",
"info": "Rightnowish digs into life in the Bay Area right now… ish. Journalist Pendarvis Harshaw takes us to galleries painted on the sides of liquor stores in West Oakland. We'll dance in warehouses in the Bayview, make smoothies with kids in South Berkeley, and listen to classical music in a 1984 Cutlass Supreme in Richmond. Every week, Pen talks to movers and shakers about how the Bay Area shapes what they create, and how they shape the place we call home.",
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"info": "Science Friday is a weekly science talk show, broadcast live over public radio stations nationwide. Each week, the show focuses on science topics that are in the news and tries to bring an educated, balanced discussion to bear on the scientific issues at hand. Panels of expert guests join host Ira Flatow, a veteran science journalist, to discuss science and to take questions from listeners during the call-in portion of the program.",
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"snap-judgment": {
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"title": "Snap Judgment",
"tagline": "Real stories with killer beats",
"info": "The Snap Judgment radio show and podcast mixes real stories with killer beats to produce cinematic, dramatic radio. Snap's musical brand of storytelling dares listeners to see the world through the eyes of another. This is storytelling... with a BEAT!! Snap first aired on public radio stations nationwide in July 2010. Today, Snap Judgment airs on over 450 public radio stations and is brought to the airwaves by KQED & PRX.",
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