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"content": "\u003cp>In this part of California we may thank our lucky stars for being free of \u003ca href=\"http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/animals/python.shtml\">Burmese pythons\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Loxosceles_reclusa_range.png\">brown recluse spiders\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=11059&page=6\">Africanized honeybees\u003c/a>. But during the last few decades, while most of us weren't paying attention, much of California was taken over by ants from Argentina.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Argentine ants, \u003ci>Linepithema humile\u003c/i>, love the environment of our homes and gardens. The soil is watered regularly, there's warmth nearby in the winter, and it almost never floods. The species is aggressive, and unlike most ants they don't fight each other's colonies. Recent research suggests that even though they're genetically diverse, Argentine ants always smell the same to each other, so undistracted by internal wars they combine forces and simply overwhelm most other ant species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But our different kinds of native ants are crucial members of the local ecosystem. Some eat corpses, while others scavenge the ground for dead plant matter. Some live like farmers, cultivating certain fungus species by feeding them plant materials. Some depend on specific plants, which benefit from the attention. (KQED has a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/slideshow/interactive-map-ants-of-the-bay-area/\">cool gallery of Bay Area native ant species\u003c/a> and their lifeways.) \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Argentine ants move in, all of those specialized services are handicapped or disappear. There's plenty of reading out there about the effect of these ants on ecosystems, but as a geologist I wonder about their effect on \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/glossaryofgeology/g/defbioturbation.htm\">bioturbation\u003c/a>, the processes by which living things stir the soil. Ground-dwelling animals have profound effects on soil: the way it breathes, circulates water and cycles nutrients. Ants and worms are the most important of these.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Among the various ant species, Argentine ants are small and their nests are shallow. That means, for instance, they're not capable of building the piles of coarse sand and gravel, brought up from meters below the ground, that desert red ants made in this example from Nevada. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51002\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/14/the-ant-driven-landscape/anthill/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51002\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/anthill.jpg\" alt=\"Photos by Andrew Alden\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-51002\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/anthill.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/anthill-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Fortunately Argentine ants have trouble where it's dry and cold, so gold prospectors in the Mojave can continue their practice of sampling buried rocks from anthills. But around here, how does the soil respond when the deep-digging ant species are gone? I also wonder about the various bee species that dig holes in the ground, like these ones I spotted on a San Mateo County seacliff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/14/the-ant-driven-landscape/bees/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51003\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/bees.jpg\" alt=\"bees\" width=\"600\" height=\"350\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-51003\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/bees.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/bees-400x233.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As scientists learn more about invasive species, it's clear that no matter wherever they live, people need to raise their game and learn defensive practices: call it eco-hygeine. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Consider the earthworms of Minnesota. Did you know that in Minnesota and much of its neighboring states there aren't any native earthworms? Since the ice age glaciers melted, some 10,000 years ago, the earthworms haven't managed to crawl north fast enough, and the forests there are adapted to worm-free soils that consist of raw glacier sediment with a thick layer of organic matter on top. Worms eat all that stuff and dig it into the dirt. That's why we love them in most places, but in Minnesota the worms brought in with nursery plants and baitworms thrown away during fishing trips are ruining the woods. Up there, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrri.umn.edu/worms/forest/soil.html\">Great Lakes Worm Watch\u003c/a> is trying to raise consciousness and fight the problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Around here, we have to think more about our ants. At Stanford University's Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve they've been \u003ca href=\"http://jrbp.stanford.edu/db/projects/project_display.php?project_id=56\">monitoring the Argentine ant invasion\u003c/a> and are learning what limits them: cold, dry ground and ant species with strong defenses. Volunteers all over the Bay Area can act locally by gathering data through the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/science/citizen_science/ants/\">Bay Area Ant Survey\u003c/a>, coordinated by the California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There has been a lot of talk lately about \"Anthropocene time,\" a name for the geological time period that includes the present and future. It represents a concept I might call the human-driven planet: our actions and influences have become as important as natural forces in governing the planetary environment. The root \"anthropo-\" refers to human causes, but for teaching purposes it may be better just to look down at our feet and think \"ant-\" instead. Because humans brought the invaders here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By the way, Argentine ants are well controlled with \u003ca href=\"http://insects.about.com/od/HouseholdPests/a/How-To-Make-And-Use-Homemade-Ant-Baits.htm\">boric acid bait\u003c/a>. I've had lasting success with \u003ca href=\"http://www.ps.uci.edu/~tomba/ants/\">this simple method\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>In this part of California we may thank our lucky stars for being free of \u003ca href=\"http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/animals/python.shtml\">Burmese pythons\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Loxosceles_reclusa_range.png\">brown recluse spiders\u003c/a> or \u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=11059&page=6\">Africanized honeybees\u003c/a>. But during the last few decades, while most of us weren't paying attention, much of California was taken over by ants from Argentina.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Argentine ants, \u003ci>Linepithema humile\u003c/i>, love the environment of our homes and gardens. The soil is watered regularly, there's warmth nearby in the winter, and it almost never floods. The species is aggressive, and unlike most ants they don't fight each other's colonies. Recent research suggests that even though they're genetically diverse, Argentine ants always smell the same to each other, so undistracted by internal wars they combine forces and simply overwhelm most other ant species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But our different kinds of native ants are crucial members of the local ecosystem. Some eat corpses, while others scavenge the ground for dead plant matter. Some live like farmers, cultivating certain fungus species by feeding them plant materials. Some depend on specific plants, which benefit from the attention. (KQED has a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/slideshow/interactive-map-ants-of-the-bay-area/\">cool gallery of Bay Area native ant species\u003c/a> and their lifeways.) \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the Argentine ants move in, all of those specialized services are handicapped or disappear. There's plenty of reading out there about the effect of these ants on ecosystems, but as a geologist I wonder about their effect on \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/glossaryofgeology/g/defbioturbation.htm\">bioturbation\u003c/a>, the processes by which living things stir the soil. Ground-dwelling animals have profound effects on soil: the way it breathes, circulates water and cycles nutrients. Ants and worms are the most important of these.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Among the various ant species, Argentine ants are small and their nests are shallow. That means, for instance, they're not capable of building the piles of coarse sand and gravel, brought up from meters below the ground, that desert red ants made in this example from Nevada. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_51002\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/14/the-ant-driven-landscape/anthill/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51002\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/anthill.jpg\" alt=\"Photos by Andrew Alden\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-51002\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/anthill.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/anthill-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Fortunately Argentine ants have trouble where it's dry and cold, so gold prospectors in the Mojave can continue their practice of sampling buried rocks from anthills. But around here, how does the soil respond when the deep-digging ant species are gone? I also wonder about the various bee species that dig holes in the ground, like these ones I spotted on a San Mateo County seacliff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/14/the-ant-driven-landscape/bees/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-51003\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/bees.jpg\" alt=\"bees\" width=\"600\" height=\"350\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-51003\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/bees.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/bees-400x233.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As scientists learn more about invasive species, it's clear that no matter wherever they live, people need to raise their game and learn defensive practices: call it eco-hygeine. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Consider the earthworms of Minnesota. Did you know that in Minnesota and much of its neighboring states there aren't any native earthworms? Since the ice age glaciers melted, some 10,000 years ago, the earthworms haven't managed to crawl north fast enough, and the forests there are adapted to worm-free soils that consist of raw glacier sediment with a thick layer of organic matter on top. Worms eat all that stuff and dig it into the dirt. That's why we love them in most places, but in Minnesota the worms brought in with nursery plants and baitworms thrown away during fishing trips are ruining the woods. Up there, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrri.umn.edu/worms/forest/soil.html\">Great Lakes Worm Watch\u003c/a> is trying to raise consciousness and fight the problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Around here, we have to think more about our ants. At Stanford University's Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve they've been \u003ca href=\"http://jrbp.stanford.edu/db/projects/project_display.php?project_id=56\">monitoring the Argentine ant invasion\u003c/a> and are learning what limits them: cold, dry ground and ant species with strong defenses. Volunteers all over the Bay Area can act locally by gathering data through the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/science/citizen_science/ants/\">Bay Area Ant Survey\u003c/a>, coordinated by the California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There has been a lot of talk lately about \"Anthropocene time,\" a name for the geological time period that includes the present and future. It represents a concept I might call the human-driven planet: our actions and influences have become as important as natural forces in governing the planetary environment. The root \"anthropo-\" refers to human causes, but for teaching purposes it may be better just to look down at our feet and think \"ant-\" instead. Because humans brought the invaders here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By the way, Argentine ants are well controlled with \u003ca href=\"http://insects.about.com/od/HouseholdPests/a/How-To-Make-And-Use-Homemade-Ant-Baits.htm\">boric acid bait\u003c/a>. I've had lasting success with \u003ca href=\"http://www.ps.uci.edu/~tomba/ants/\">this simple method\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Engineering a Virus-Free Future",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50657\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/hivdocking/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50657\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg\" alt=\"One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"630\" height=\"361\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50657\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I have been reading a book called \u003ca href=\"http://www.amazon.com/Regenesis-Synthetic-Biology-Reinvent-Ourselves/dp/0465021751/ref=tmm_hrd_title_popover?ie=UTF8&qid=1362680681&sr=8-1\">Regenesis \u003c/a>where in one part the authors propose a way to re-engineer the human race so all people are resistant to all viruses, known and unknown. This will theoretically be possible in the next few decades (or even sooner) and, if done right, is predicted to make us resistant for a very long time and possibly even forever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as you might guess, something this radical does not come without risks. There are many possible health risks involved in a major reshaping of human DNA that essentially divorces us from the nature around us. And there are many ethical dilemmas in its implementation as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The benefits of a virus-free world are obvious. But it is an open question whether the risks outweigh these benefits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science of Complete Viral Resistance\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The science behind all of this is plausible although it will definitely be a daunting technological challenge. The basic idea it is to change our operating system—we will be Macs in a PC world and so be immune to those pesky PC viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nature’s operating system is the genetic code. At its simplest the code is made up of 64, three letter words called codons. This is the language our genes are written in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Viruses are able to infect our cells and make us sick because they use the same operating system. Basically a virus enters a cell and gives it a series of commands via the genetic code to make new viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we engineer our cells to speak a different language, then the viral instructions will be meaningless. Our cell will ignore the virus and eventually clear it out of our system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Re-engineering a code that has been around for a billion years might sound hard, but one of its properties makes it doable. Many of those 64 words mean pretty much the same thing. Our genetic code has a lot of synonyms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50664\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticcodesm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50664\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/geneticCodeSM.gif\" alt=\"A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\" width=\"250\" height=\"220\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50664\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The idea would be to change the meaning of a few of the synonyms. What we’d do is pick a codon, maybe TAG, and change all of the TAGs in our genes to its synonyms, TGA and TAA. Then we’d make TAG code for something else.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now when a virus enters the cell, its instructions to the cell are gibberish. Whenever it gives cells an instruction with TAG somewhere in it, the cell misreads it and so can’t do as it is told. The cell can then calmly ignore the virus and go about its business. (Click \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/viral-resistance\">here \u003c/a>to learn more about the science behind this.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Making the resistance more or less permanent requires changing more than one synonym. Viruses are small and mutate like crazy so we have to make it so the virus requires at least ten and probably many more simultaneous mutations to become resistant. The only way to do this is if we make all the changes in one fell swoop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This all sounds like some Hollywood \"B movie\" but \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/15/redesigning-life/\">scientists are very close\u003c/a> to testing this theory out in \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em>, a common lab bacterium. Scientists have made the appropriate changes and are stitching together the DNA as we speak. Soon we should know if this strain of \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em> is immune to the phages that plague it. (Phages are what viruses that attack bacteria are called.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this works in bacteria, then it might work in people too. But it isn’t a for sure thing. We are more complicated than a bacterium and the genetic code is more complicated than it first appears.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big challenge that has important implications is that we can’t make the necessary changes a bit at a time. If we do that, viruses will mutate along with us and keep up. We need to make all the tens of thousands of changes all at once. This is where the trouble can start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Technical Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are at least two sets of technical risks associated with doing something like this. The first just has to do with how often we make a mistake while changing tens of thousands of our DNA letters. No matter how good we get, there will always be a chance that we make a mistake. And since these changes are in genes, some of the mistakes could be really bad for our health. I am not sure we can ever be careful enough to not introduce a few errors here and there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The second big risk is that we do not fully understand how our DNA works. What if there are very small genes we don’t know about that use the synonym that we have changed? The consequences could be severe if that “genelet” plays an important role in the cell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another problem in that the synonyms may not be as alike as we think. We’ve known for a while that not all synonymous codons are created equal. For example, sometimes when we try to optimize a gene by selecting what we think are better codons, the gene stops working. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50677\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticengineering/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50677\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg\" alt=\"We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50677\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg 250w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 250px) 100vw, 250px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.yeastgenome.org/the-rhythm-of-ribosomes\">study \u003c/a>just out in yeast confirms that some of the specific codons in a gene are there for a reason—not all synonymous codons are used in the same way in the cell. It looks like some words are preferred at certain parts of a gene. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means we may not be able to simply swap one codon out for another in a gene. And since all the genes are competing for a limited amount of machinery using specific codons, we don’t really know what effect eliminating all these codons will have on all 20,000 or 25,000 of our genes. We may slow things down as the parts of the cell all compete for these limited resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What makes each of these problems worse is that we will need to make all the changes at once in a cell to keep viruses from catching up to us. We will be able to test a lot beforehand, but it may not be enough. We may miss something and that would be unacceptable here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, we are talking about people here not bacteria, yeast or daisies. Mistakes mean a dead baby or one with disabilities. I am not sure there will ever be enough testing to make this safe enough to be worthwhile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Implementation Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you’ve seen, there are definitely health risks associated with doing this (I’m sure I haven’t thought of them all). But the ethical risks might be worse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These changes can’t be made in any of us alive today. They would have to be made by inserting the changed DNA into a stem cell and coaxing that stem cell into becoming an embryo. This means that instead of changing the current human race, we’d be creating a new one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An immediate problem is how we choose who gets to be virus-resistant. And scarily still, whose DNA gets to live on. So the first step will be figuring out who gets to have virus-free children and how we “choose” what DNA that child will have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way would be to make it so everyone who wants a child gets the option of having the child be virus-resistant. Maybe parents fertilize an egg the old fashioned way, the embryo’s DNA is sequenced and the DNA made matches this embryo’s. This makes me a little squeamish and is a strange gray area. We have eliminated the embryo but essentially cloned it…is the child truly identical?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50683\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 150px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/atcgpeople-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50683\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/atcgPeople.jpg\" alt=\"This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\" width=\"150\" height=\"184\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50683\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another option would be to use a computer to generate a mix of the parents’ DNA and then to make that DNA and grow it into a child. This is scary as you know people will be tempted to choose the DNA rather than letting it come down to chance. We’ll definitely end up with a very different human race in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Both of these would be pretty expensive dollar-wise but are better than an option where a chosen few get to have virus-free kids. How would that decision be made and who gets to make it? (Hint: The poor would be poorly represented.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whatever option we choose, there will still be another key issue. Engineered humans and natural humans won’t be able to have kids together. This opens up a whole can of worms if the two groups are around together for any length of time. And chances are they will (unless we outlaw having kids the old fashioned way). We will have artificially speciated the human race!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no way that comes out well. Most likely we’ll split into a group of haves and have nots decided by genetics. The engineered humans will have kids together and the natural humans will too. Occasionally a natural human could make enough money to have an engineered child but for the most part they’d be separated. I’ll let you paint that dystopic future in your head!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are a few of the ethical dilemmas I can think of off the top of my head. I am sure there are many more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This may all seem like a problem for Captain Kirk, but it is closer than you might think. It is really important to start talking about this stuff now so we can think out how we are going to deal with these sorts of decisions in coming decades. Before we know it, the need to decide will be upon us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>(And I didn’t even bring up the scary possibility of some Bond villain creating a virus-resistant army and then unleashing a deadly virus on the rest of us. Hey, maybe I need to send this idea to Hollywood!)\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "I have been reading a book called \"Regenesis\" where in one part the authors propose a way to re-engineer the human race so all people are resistant to all viruses, known and unknown. This will theoretically be possible in the next few decades (or even sooner) and, if done right, is predicted to make us resistant for a very long time and possibly even forever.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50657\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/hivdocking/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50657\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg\" alt=\"One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\" width=\"630\" height=\"361\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50657\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/HIVdocking-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">One day we may all be engineered so that we are immune to all viruses (including the HIV shown here). Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I have been reading a book called \u003ca href=\"http://www.amazon.com/Regenesis-Synthetic-Biology-Reinvent-Ourselves/dp/0465021751/ref=tmm_hrd_title_popover?ie=UTF8&qid=1362680681&sr=8-1\">Regenesis \u003c/a>where in one part the authors propose a way to re-engineer the human race so all people are resistant to all viruses, known and unknown. This will theoretically be possible in the next few decades (or even sooner) and, if done right, is predicted to make us resistant for a very long time and possibly even forever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as you might guess, something this radical does not come without risks. There are many possible health risks involved in a major reshaping of human DNA that essentially divorces us from the nature around us. And there are many ethical dilemmas in its implementation as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The benefits of a virus-free world are obvious. But it is an open question whether the risks outweigh these benefits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science of Complete Viral Resistance\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The science behind all of this is plausible although it will definitely be a daunting technological challenge. The basic idea it is to change our operating system—we will be Macs in a PC world and so be immune to those pesky PC viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nature’s operating system is the genetic code. At its simplest the code is made up of 64, three letter words called codons. This is the language our genes are written in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Viruses are able to infect our cells and make us sick because they use the same operating system. Basically a virus enters a cell and gives it a series of commands via the genetic code to make new viruses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we engineer our cells to speak a different language, then the viral instructions will be meaningless. Our cell will ignore the virus and eventually clear it out of our system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Re-engineering a code that has been around for a billion years might sound hard, but one of its properties makes it doable. Many of those 64 words mean pretty much the same thing. Our genetic code has a lot of synonyms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50664\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticcodesm/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50664\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/geneticCodeSM.gif\" alt=\"A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\" width=\"250\" height=\"220\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50664\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A simple code with lots of synonyms makes re-engineering our operating system relatively simple.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The idea would be to change the meaning of a few of the synonyms. What we’d do is pick a codon, maybe TAG, and change all of the TAGs in our genes to its synonyms, TGA and TAA. Then we’d make TAG code for something else.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now when a virus enters the cell, its instructions to the cell are gibberish. Whenever it gives cells an instruction with TAG somewhere in it, the cell misreads it and so can’t do as it is told. The cell can then calmly ignore the virus and go about its business. (Click \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/viral-resistance\">here \u003c/a>to learn more about the science behind this.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Making the resistance more or less permanent requires changing more than one synonym. Viruses are small and mutate like crazy so we have to make it so the virus requires at least ten and probably many more simultaneous mutations to become resistant. The only way to do this is if we make all the changes in one fell swoop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This all sounds like some Hollywood \"B movie\" but \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/15/redesigning-life/\">scientists are very close\u003c/a> to testing this theory out in \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em>, a common lab bacterium. Scientists have made the appropriate changes and are stitching together the DNA as we speak. Soon we should know if this strain of \u003cem>E. coli\u003c/em> is immune to the phages that plague it. (Phages are what viruses that attack bacteria are called.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this works in bacteria, then it might work in people too. But it isn’t a for sure thing. We are more complicated than a bacterium and the genetic code is more complicated than it first appears.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big challenge that has important implications is that we can’t make the necessary changes a bit at a time. If we do that, viruses will mutate along with us and keep up. We need to make all the tens of thousands of changes all at once. This is where the trouble can start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Technical Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are at least two sets of technical risks associated with doing something like this. The first just has to do with how often we make a mistake while changing tens of thousands of our DNA letters. No matter how good we get, there will always be a chance that we make a mistake. And since these changes are in genes, some of the mistakes could be really bad for our health. I am not sure we can ever be careful enough to not introduce a few errors here and there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The second big risk is that we do not fully understand how our DNA works. What if there are very small genes we don’t know about that use the synonym that we have changed? The consequences could be severe if that “genelet” plays an important role in the cell.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another problem in that the synonyms may not be as alike as we think. We’ve known for a while that not all synonymous codons are created equal. For example, sometimes when we try to optimize a gene by selecting what we think are better codons, the gene stops working. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50677\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/geneticengineering/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50677\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg\" alt=\"We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50677\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering.jpg 250w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/GeneticEngineering-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 250px) 100vw, 250px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">We are bound to make a few mistakes when making so many changes to our DNA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.yeastgenome.org/the-rhythm-of-ribosomes\">study \u003c/a>just out in yeast confirms that some of the specific codons in a gene are there for a reason—not all synonymous codons are used in the same way in the cell. It looks like some words are preferred at certain parts of a gene. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This means we may not be able to simply swap one codon out for another in a gene. And since all the genes are competing for a limited amount of machinery using specific codons, we don’t really know what effect eliminating all these codons will have on all 20,000 or 25,000 of our genes. We may slow things down as the parts of the cell all compete for these limited resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What makes each of these problems worse is that we will need to make all the changes at once in a cell to keep viruses from catching up to us. We will be able to test a lot beforehand, but it may not be enough. We may miss something and that would be unacceptable here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, we are talking about people here not bacteria, yeast or daisies. Mistakes mean a dead baby or one with disabilities. I am not sure there will ever be enough testing to make this safe enough to be worthwhile.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Implementation Risks\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you’ve seen, there are definitely health risks associated with doing this (I’m sure I haven’t thought of them all). But the ethical risks might be worse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These changes can’t be made in any of us alive today. They would have to be made by inserting the changed DNA into a stem cell and coaxing that stem cell into becoming an embryo. This means that instead of changing the current human race, we’d be creating a new one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An immediate problem is how we choose who gets to be virus-resistant. And scarily still, whose DNA gets to live on. So the first step will be figuring out who gets to have virus-free children and how we “choose” what DNA that child will have.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way would be to make it so everyone who wants a child gets the option of having the child be virus-resistant. Maybe parents fertilize an egg the old fashioned way, the embryo’s DNA is sequenced and the DNA made matches this embryo’s. This makes me a little squeamish and is a strange gray area. We have eliminated the embryo but essentially cloned it…is the child truly identical?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50683\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 150px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/11/engineering-a-virus-free-future/atcgpeople-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50683\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/atcgPeople.jpg\" alt=\"This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\" width=\"150\" height=\"184\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50683\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This sort of re-engineering might result in two species of humans that cannot interbreed. Yikes.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another option would be to use a computer to generate a mix of the parents’ DNA and then to make that DNA and grow it into a child. This is scary as you know people will be tempted to choose the DNA rather than letting it come down to chance. We’ll definitely end up with a very different human race in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Both of these would be pretty expensive dollar-wise but are better than an option where a chosen few get to have virus-free kids. How would that decision be made and who gets to make it? (Hint: The poor would be poorly represented.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whatever option we choose, there will still be another key issue. Engineered humans and natural humans won’t be able to have kids together. This opens up a whole can of worms if the two groups are around together for any length of time. And chances are they will (unless we outlaw having kids the old fashioned way). We will have artificially speciated the human race!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no way that comes out well. Most likely we’ll split into a group of haves and have nots decided by genetics. The engineered humans will have kids together and the natural humans will too. Occasionally a natural human could make enough money to have an engineered child but for the most part they’d be separated. I’ll let you paint that dystopic future in your head!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are a few of the ethical dilemmas I can think of off the top of my head. I am sure there are many more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This may all seem like a problem for Captain Kirk, but it is closer than you might think. It is really important to start talking about this stuff now so we can think out how we are going to deal with these sorts of decisions in coming decades. Before we know it, the need to decide will be upon us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>(And I didn’t even bring up the scary possibility of some Bond villain creating a virus-resistant army and then unleashing a deadly virus on the rest of us. Hey, maybe I need to send this idea to Hollywood!)\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50736\" class=\"wp-caption center\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/McNaught2-browse.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-50736\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/McNaught2-browse.jpg\" alt=\"NASA\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/McNaught2-browse.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/McNaught2-browse-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The building blocks of life on Earth may have originated in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Chemists at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Hawaii, Manoa have found the complex compounds essential for life can be forged in the vacuum of space. The linked pairs of amino acids, called dipeptides, may have hitched a ride to Earth on comets and meteorites.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The first biological molecules had an extraterrestrial origin,” explains UC Berkeley chemistry Professor Richard Mathies, coauthor of the study. “That means life on Earth was inseminated by these depositions of comets.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question has fascinated people on Earth for centuries, Mathies says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists have long believed amino acids formed in the planet’s early oceans (think Primordial Soup). A 1952 experiment proved this. In what’s known as the Miller-Urey experiment, scientists put water, ammonia, methane and hydrogen in a series of glass tubes, electrocuted the mix (to simulate lightning) and watched it turn pink overnight as it all combined to form amino acids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists have also found amino acids on meteorites that have collided with Earth, but not the more complex compounds required for this planet’s biology, so they have defaulted on the assumption that these biological precursors formed in the ocean. But Mathies’s study, scheduled for publication March 10 in \u003cem>The Astrophysical Journal\u003c/em>, turns this assumption on its head.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While scientists know early Earth got its water and some hydrocarbons from comets, it hasn't been clear until now what catalyzed the creation of more complex compounds. Mathies's experiment suggests cosmic rays are the answer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Hawaii, Seol Kim and Ralf Kaiser simulated a comet, an icy snowball in space, by chilling a small silver “puck” in an ultra-high vacuum chamber. These pucks, about 10 mm in diameter by a few millimeters thick, were covered with a molecule-thin layer of carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, ethane and propane. Then the researchers nuked the mixture with simulated cosmic rays, in this case high-energy electrons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kaiser FedExed the pucks back to Berkeley, where Mathies and Amanda Stockton analyzed them in a machine called the Mars Organic Analyzer which Mathies built to detect small organic molecules in our solar system. He found nine different amino acids and at least two dipeptides, the precursor compounds for proteins, enzymes and sugars, all of which make Earth biology possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The results suggest that means cosmic rays were irradiating comets for much longer than the billion or so years life on Earth has existed, Mathies said. It’s possible, he said, that this happened on other planets, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next step is to actually find these dipeptides in space, since comets that have landed on Earth would be immediately contaminated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mathies said the suitcase-sized Mars Organic Analyzer can be launched into space on a rocket to pass through a comet tail and collect dust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That would be the ultimate proof,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists have also found amino acids on meteorites that have collided with Earth, but not the more complex compounds required for this planet’s biology, so they have defaulted on the assumption that these biological precursors formed in the ocean. But Mathies’s study, scheduled for publication March 10 in \u003cem>The Astrophysical Journal\u003c/em>, turns this assumption on its head.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While scientists know early Earth got its water and some hydrocarbons from comets, it hasn't been clear until now what catalyzed the creation of more complex compounds. Mathies's experiment suggests cosmic rays are the answer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Hawaii, Seol Kim and Ralf Kaiser simulated a comet, an icy snowball in space, by chilling a small silver “puck” in an ultra-high vacuum chamber. These pucks, about 10 mm in diameter by a few millimeters thick, were covered with a molecule-thin layer of carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, ethane and propane. Then the researchers nuked the mixture with simulated cosmic rays, in this case high-energy electrons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kaiser FedExed the pucks back to Berkeley, where Mathies and Amanda Stockton analyzed them in a machine called the Mars Organic Analyzer which Mathies built to detect small organic molecules in our solar system. He found nine different amino acids and at least two dipeptides, the precursor compounds for proteins, enzymes and sugars, all of which make Earth biology possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The results suggest that means cosmic rays were irradiating comets for much longer than the billion or so years life on Earth has existed, Mathies said. It’s possible, he said, that this happened on other planets, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next step is to actually find these dipeptides in space, since comets that have landed on Earth would be immediately contaminated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mathies said the suitcase-sized Mars Organic Analyzer can be launched into space on a rocket to pass through a comet tail and collect dust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That would be the ultimate proof,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50416\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 616px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/06/arsenic-and-old-wells/arsenic_poisoning/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50416\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-50416\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/arsenic_poisoning.jpg\" alt=\"arsenic poisoning\" width=\"616\" height=\"347\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/arsenic_poisoning.jpg 616w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/arsenic_poisoning-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 616px) 100vw, 616px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The risks of arsenic-contaminated drinking water captured the world's attention when a 2010 Lancet study reported that close to 80 million people in Bangladesh may have been exposed to toxic levels of arsenic in their drinking water. A patient displays one of the many symptoms of arsenic poisoning--skin lesions--in the picture above. (Photo: waterdotorg, via Flickr)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Public health advocates cheered when the Environmental Protection Agency approved a stricter standard for arsenic in drinking water in 2001. Arsenic, a naturally occurring element in the earth’s crust, contaminates water supplies when it migrates from rocks into groundwater. Chronic exposure to arsenic in drinking water can cause serious skin and digestive problems and has been linked to several types of cancer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as \u003ca href=\"http://www.ehjournal.net/content/11/1/84\">a recent study shows\u003c/a>, not everyone is reaping the benefits of the revised safety standard. Six years after the new rule went into effect, poor communities—who can’t afford the costs of compliance—face the highest risk of exposure to unsafe arsenic levels.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>UC Berkeley researchers analyzed arsenic levels in hundreds of community water systems in California’s San Joaquin Valley, one of the poorest regions in the United States. Most residents are Latino farmworkers. Many speak little English. They live in one of the country’s most productive agricultural regions, but they don’t share its bounty.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the study's lead researcher, Carolina Balazs, showed in a paper last year, low-income Latinos in the valley are more likely to have high levels of nitrates in their water. Her arsenic study, published in November, finds no clear link between ethnicity and arsenic exposure. But it does show that if you’re poor and live in the San Joaquin Valley, you’re more likely to have unsafe levels of arsenic in your water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The EPA lowered the arsenic standard, from 50 parts per billion to 10 parts per billion, after a 1999 National Academy of Sciences report concluded that the higher standard “could easily” result in a 1-in-100 cancer risk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(In a highly controversial move, the Bush White House postponed the revised rule, approved during the Clinton years, and asked the academy to evaluate new studies on arsenic’s health effects. To the dismay of some Bush supporters, the new studies actually strengthened the evidence.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Arsenic levels in most groundwater samples in the United States average 1 ppb or below. But some places in the West, including the San Joaquin Valley, exceed 50 ppb. Small communities like those in the valley often get their drinking water from groundwater wells (while cities use surface water), and so are \u003ca href=\"http://oh.water.usgs.gov/tanc/pubs/BurowEtal04.pdf\">more likely to have higher concentrations of arsenic\u003c/a> in their water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>About 30 million California residents rely on groundwater supplied by community water systems for at least some of their drinking water, according to the California Department of Public Health. Demand for groundwater increases during droughts, when surface water supplies start drying up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/press_room/press_releases/2013/pr020413.pdf\">report released by the State Water Resources Control Board\u003c/a> last month found that 21 million residents get their drinking water from community water systems with contaminated groundwater sources. Arsenic was the most common naturally occurring contaminant, followed by nitrates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The water board identified three general approaches to solving the problem: preventing pollution, removing contaminants, and finding alternative water supplies. Unfortunately, there’s no economically feasible way to remove a naturally occurring contaminant like arsenic from groundwater. In that case, the board noted, water suppliers should focus on finding alternative supplies or treatment at the point of delivery.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the board also acknowledged that community water systems in rural areas, which often serve just a few thousand people, can’t afford any of these solutions and may face persistent contamination problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The EPA recognized that many smaller, poorer community water systems might not be able to meet the tougher standard. That’s why it extended the compliance deadline to January 2006. Yet today some water systems still lack the technical and financial means to comply, prompting regulators to suggest exemptions, including stop-gap measures like supplying bottled water, to give them even more time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as Balazs and her colleagues argue, this would simply perpetuate the inequities they found. Small systems often lack the economies of scale to raise rates and the know-how to apply for loans to hire experts who can install and oversee new treatments. And their customers have to buy bottled water so their families have safe drinking water at home—whether they can afford it or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the EPA simply extends the compliance period, it risks creating a situation where community water systems that can’t afford treatments will continue to violate the arsenic safety standard. And customers too poor to buy bottled water will suffer chronic exposure to arsenic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To address these disparities in the short term, Balazs and her colleagues argue, regulators must provide technical and financial assistance tailored to the special needs of small water systems so they can reduce their arsenic levels. But in the long run, regulators will need to help these communities tap into regional systems so they can absorb the high costs of delivering safe drinking water to everyone in the valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Only then will public health advocates be able to celebrate the victory they envisioned more than a decade ago.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Six years after the EPA's new arsenic rule for drinking water went into effect, poor communities in the San Joaquin Valley—who can’t afford the costs of complying with the stricter standard—face the highest risk of exposure to unsafe arsenic levels. \r\n\r\n\u003cp>\u003cspan>claimtoken-5144c0abd5ac8\u003c/span>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50416\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 616px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/06/arsenic-and-old-wells/arsenic_poisoning/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50416\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-50416\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/arsenic_poisoning.jpg\" alt=\"arsenic poisoning\" width=\"616\" height=\"347\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/arsenic_poisoning.jpg 616w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/arsenic_poisoning-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 616px) 100vw, 616px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The risks of arsenic-contaminated drinking water captured the world's attention when a 2010 Lancet study reported that close to 80 million people in Bangladesh may have been exposed to toxic levels of arsenic in their drinking water. A patient displays one of the many symptoms of arsenic poisoning--skin lesions--in the picture above. (Photo: waterdotorg, via Flickr)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Public health advocates cheered when the Environmental Protection Agency approved a stricter standard for arsenic in drinking water in 2001. Arsenic, a naturally occurring element in the earth’s crust, contaminates water supplies when it migrates from rocks into groundwater. Chronic exposure to arsenic in drinking water can cause serious skin and digestive problems and has been linked to several types of cancer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as \u003ca href=\"http://www.ehjournal.net/content/11/1/84\">a recent study shows\u003c/a>, not everyone is reaping the benefits of the revised safety standard. Six years after the new rule went into effect, poor communities—who can’t afford the costs of compliance—face the highest risk of exposure to unsafe arsenic levels.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>UC Berkeley researchers analyzed arsenic levels in hundreds of community water systems in California’s San Joaquin Valley, one of the poorest regions in the United States. Most residents are Latino farmworkers. Many speak little English. They live in one of the country’s most productive agricultural regions, but they don’t share its bounty.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the study's lead researcher, Carolina Balazs, showed in a paper last year, low-income Latinos in the valley are more likely to have high levels of nitrates in their water. Her arsenic study, published in November, finds no clear link between ethnicity and arsenic exposure. But it does show that if you’re poor and live in the San Joaquin Valley, you’re more likely to have unsafe levels of arsenic in your water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The EPA lowered the arsenic standard, from 50 parts per billion to 10 parts per billion, after a 1999 National Academy of Sciences report concluded that the higher standard “could easily” result in a 1-in-100 cancer risk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(In a highly controversial move, the Bush White House postponed the revised rule, approved during the Clinton years, and asked the academy to evaluate new studies on arsenic’s health effects. To the dismay of some Bush supporters, the new studies actually strengthened the evidence.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Arsenic levels in most groundwater samples in the United States average 1 ppb or below. But some places in the West, including the San Joaquin Valley, exceed 50 ppb. Small communities like those in the valley often get their drinking water from groundwater wells (while cities use surface water), and so are \u003ca href=\"http://oh.water.usgs.gov/tanc/pubs/BurowEtal04.pdf\">more likely to have higher concentrations of arsenic\u003c/a> in their water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>About 30 million California residents rely on groundwater supplied by community water systems for at least some of their drinking water, according to the California Department of Public Health. Demand for groundwater increases during droughts, when surface water supplies start drying up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A \u003ca href=\"http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/press_room/press_releases/2013/pr020413.pdf\">report released by the State Water Resources Control Board\u003c/a> last month found that 21 million residents get their drinking water from community water systems with contaminated groundwater sources. Arsenic was the most common naturally occurring contaminant, followed by nitrates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The water board identified three general approaches to solving the problem: preventing pollution, removing contaminants, and finding alternative water supplies. Unfortunately, there’s no economically feasible way to remove a naturally occurring contaminant like arsenic from groundwater. In that case, the board noted, water suppliers should focus on finding alternative supplies or treatment at the point of delivery.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the board also acknowledged that community water systems in rural areas, which often serve just a few thousand people, can’t afford any of these solutions and may face persistent contamination problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The EPA recognized that many smaller, poorer community water systems might not be able to meet the tougher standard. That’s why it extended the compliance deadline to January 2006. Yet today some water systems still lack the technical and financial means to comply, prompting regulators to suggest exemptions, including stop-gap measures like supplying bottled water, to give them even more time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as Balazs and her colleagues argue, this would simply perpetuate the inequities they found. Small systems often lack the economies of scale to raise rates and the know-how to apply for loans to hire experts who can install and oversee new treatments. And their customers have to buy bottled water so their families have safe drinking water at home—whether they can afford it or not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the EPA simply extends the compliance period, it risks creating a situation where community water systems that can’t afford treatments will continue to violate the arsenic safety standard. And customers too poor to buy bottled water will suffer chronic exposure to arsenic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To address these disparities in the short term, Balazs and her colleagues argue, regulators must provide technical and financial assistance tailored to the special needs of small water systems so they can reduce their arsenic levels. But in the long run, regulators will need to help these communities tap into regional systems so they can absorb the high costs of delivering safe drinking water to everyone in the valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Only then will public health advocates be able to celebrate the victory they envisioned more than a decade ago.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50302\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/05/two-species-one-nest-curiodysseys-animal-odd-couple/nest/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50302\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/nest.jpg\" alt=\"A black-crowned night heron and snowy egret nest together.\" width=\"640\" height=\"427\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50302\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/nest.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/nest-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by Rachael Rufino\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As spring approaches, an egret and a heron have been hard at work preparing for their future brood...together. This will mark the sixth year that \"Jabby,\" a snowy egret (Egretta thula), and \"Lefty,\" a black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) have nested as a pair at \u003ca href=\"http://www.curiodyssey.org\">CuriOdyssey\u003c/a> (formerly Coyote Point Museum) in San Mateo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At first glance, this is an \"animal odd couple,\" however, there is nothing odd about it. CuriOdyssey specializes in taking in non-releasable animals from wildlife rehabilitation centers. These animals are deemed non-releaseable due to the extent of their injuries or because they habituated to humans during their recovery, greatly compromising their chances for survival in the wild. Because of this, CuriOdyssey's Walk-Through Aviary contains random numbers of male and female birds of various species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite most of the birds being unmated, Jabby and Lefty have found a solution to this problem. Being the only individuals of their species and wanting to reproduce each spring, Jabby and Lefty have simply paired up!\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50001\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/05/two-species-one-nest-curiodysseys-animal-odd-couple/lefty-1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50001\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/lefty-1.jpg\" alt='\"Lefty,\" the black-crowned night heron at CuriOdyssey.' width=\"640\" height=\"426\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50001\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/lefty-1.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/lefty-1-400x266.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by Rachael Rufino\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50311\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/05/two-species-one-nest-curiodysseys-animal-odd-couple/jabby/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50311\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/jabby.jpg\" alt='\"Jabby,\" the snowy egret at CuriOdyssey' width=\"640\" height=\"427\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50311\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/jabby.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/jabby-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by Rachael Rufino\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The drive for them to reproduce each year is so strong, that it doesn't matter what sex or species they are. Both birds' instincts take over each spring, and courting, nest-building and egg-laying begin. This behavior between different species is not unusual in other aviaries with similar circumstances. Previously at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org\">California Academy of Sciences\u003c/a>, a female turquoise tanager (Tangara mexicana) and a female opal-rumped tanager (Tangara velia) nested together in the Rainforests of the World exhibit because they too, were the only individuals of their species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Because Jabby and Lefty do not belong to the same genus, their eggs are not fertile. Animals that do belong to the same genus share more genetic material between them, increasing the chances of producing offspring together. Hybrid animals are a result of two parents from the same genus but are different species. A familiar example would be a horse and donkey hybrid- a mule. Offspring from two species, however, are almost always sterile because functioning sex cells in hybrids are rare.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CuriOdyssey has Aviary Aides almost everyday of the week who will happily point out the nest to visitors. Although Jabby and Lefty do not produce chicks, it is exciting to see their unique relationship each spring.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "As spring approaches, an egret and a heron have been hard at work preparing for their future brood...together. This will mark the sixth year that \"Jabby,\" a snowy egret (Egretta thula), and \"Lefty,\" a black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) have nested as a pair at CuriOdyssey (formerly Coyote Point Museum) in San Mateo.",
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"description": "As spring approaches, an egret and a heron have been hard at work preparing for their future brood...together. This will mark the sixth year that "Jabby," a snowy egret (Egretta thula), and "Lefty," a black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) have nested as a pair at CuriOdyssey (formerly Coyote Point Museum) in San Mateo.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50302\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/05/two-species-one-nest-curiodysseys-animal-odd-couple/nest/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50302\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/nest.jpg\" alt=\"A black-crowned night heron and snowy egret nest together.\" width=\"640\" height=\"427\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50302\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/nest.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/nest-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by Rachael Rufino\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As spring approaches, an egret and a heron have been hard at work preparing for their future brood...together. This will mark the sixth year that \"Jabby,\" a snowy egret (Egretta thula), and \"Lefty,\" a black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) have nested as a pair at \u003ca href=\"http://www.curiodyssey.org\">CuriOdyssey\u003c/a> (formerly Coyote Point Museum) in San Mateo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At first glance, this is an \"animal odd couple,\" however, there is nothing odd about it. CuriOdyssey specializes in taking in non-releasable animals from wildlife rehabilitation centers. These animals are deemed non-releaseable due to the extent of their injuries or because they habituated to humans during their recovery, greatly compromising their chances for survival in the wild. Because of this, CuriOdyssey's Walk-Through Aviary contains random numbers of male and female birds of various species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite most of the birds being unmated, Jabby and Lefty have found a solution to this problem. Being the only individuals of their species and wanting to reproduce each spring, Jabby and Lefty have simply paired up!\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50001\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/05/two-species-one-nest-curiodysseys-animal-odd-couple/lefty-1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50001\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/lefty-1.jpg\" alt='\"Lefty,\" the black-crowned night heron at CuriOdyssey.' width=\"640\" height=\"426\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50001\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/lefty-1.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/lefty-1-400x266.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by Rachael Rufino\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50311\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/05/two-species-one-nest-curiodysseys-animal-odd-couple/jabby/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50311\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/jabby.jpg\" alt='\"Jabby,\" the snowy egret at CuriOdyssey' width=\"640\" height=\"427\" class=\"size-full wp-image-50311\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/jabby.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/jabby-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo by Rachael Rufino\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The drive for them to reproduce each year is so strong, that it doesn't matter what sex or species they are. Both birds' instincts take over each spring, and courting, nest-building and egg-laying begin. This behavior between different species is not unusual in other aviaries with similar circumstances. Previously at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org\">California Academy of Sciences\u003c/a>, a female turquoise tanager (Tangara mexicana) and a female opal-rumped tanager (Tangara velia) nested together in the Rainforests of the World exhibit because they too, were the only individuals of their species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Because Jabby and Lefty do not belong to the same genus, their eggs are not fertile. Animals that do belong to the same genus share more genetic material between them, increasing the chances of producing offspring together. Hybrid animals are a result of two parents from the same genus but are different species. A familiar example would be a horse and donkey hybrid- a mule. Offspring from two species, however, are almost always sterile because functioning sex cells in hybrids are rare.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CuriOdyssey has Aviary Aides almost everyday of the week who will happily point out the nest to visitors. Although Jabby and Lefty do not produce chicks, it is exciting to see their unique relationship each spring.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Invasive Species: They're Here and More on the Way",
"title": "Invasive Species: They're Here and More on the Way",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50086\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-50086\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290.jpg\" alt=\"Invasive red-crested cardinals, though beautiful, are serious problems for native Hawaiian birds. Image by Tony Fox\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Invasive red-crested cardinals, though beautiful, are serious problems for native Hawaiian birds. Image by \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Tony Fox\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\"The state of our birds is a measurable indicator of how well we are doing as stewards of our environment, and the signal is clear. Greater bird conservation efforts are needed to realize the vision of a nation sustained economically, biologically and spiritually by abundant natural resources and spectacular wildlife in perpetuity.\" \u003ca title=\"State of the Birds 2011\" href=\"http://www.stateofthebirds.org/newsroom/KeyMessages2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">State of the Birds, 2011, USA \u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’ve just returned from a trip to Maui where I enjoyed the tropical climate, warm ocean and amazing wildlife from \u003ca title=\"humpback whales\" href=\"http://wildhawaii.org/marinelife/whales.html\" target=\"_blank\">humpback whales\u003c/a> to \u003ca title=\"sea turtles of Hawaii\" href=\"http://wildhawaii.org/marinelife/turtles.html\" target=\"_blank\">sea turtles\u003c/a> to \u003ca title=\"Migration study of Pacific golden plovers\" href=\"http://www.humanecapture.com/wp-content/uploads/Golden-Plovers.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Pacific golden plovers\u003c/a>. The whales and plovers perform similar migratory paths, moving from their wintering grounds in the areas around Hawaii northward each summer to Alaska and the Arctic Circle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What I found troubling, though, were the throngs of birds that swarmed the urban areas. They were exotic and beautiful, but almost to a species, they were all non-native and considered invasive. The native bird species of each Hawaiian island hover on the brink of extinction. They’re having a hard time adapting to the many environmental pressures introduced plant species, which are changing their native habitat. There’s also competition from the introduced animal species as well as predation from them, both on the adult birds as well as their young. Ants and rats are particular problems for nesting young.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50087\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/01/invasive-species-theyre-here-and-more-on-the-way/palila/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50087\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-50087\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Palila.jpg\" alt=\"Native Hawaiian birds, like the palila, are endangered from the many pressures non-native species put on their populations. Image by\" width=\"250\" height=\"215\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Native Hawaiian birds, like the palila, are endangered from the many pressures non-native species put on their populations. Image courtesy of the \u003ca title=\"Wikipedia\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palila.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">USGS\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Hawaiian Islands stand as examples and cautionary tales for our care of the mainland native bird species and their habitats. In our global economy, we are doing a good job of not only transporting goods around the world, but unintentionally transporting problematic species, too. There have been intentional introductions as well. \u003ca title=\"Scientific American, Starling and house sparrow introductions\" href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=call-of-the-reviled\" target=\"_blank\">Starlings and house sparrows arrived here\u003c/a> with someone’s capricious intention of bringing the birds of Shakespeare to New York’s Central Park. By the 1950's, they’d spread from coast to coast with repercussions for native birds throughout.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though invasive species may seem like too great a problem for individuals to tackle, there are steps we can take to make a difference. You can join a crew of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/getinvolved/volunteer\" target=\"_blank\">volunteers\u003c/a> to pull invasive plants in the regional parks. You can also log your sightings of invasive species on the \u003ca title=\"NIIS website\" href=\"http://www.niiss.org/cwis438/websites/niiss/home.php?WebSiteID=1\" target=\"_blank\">National Institute of Invasive Species Science\u003c/a> website by following instructions on their \u003ca title=\"Citizen Science brochure, NIISS\" href=\"http://www.niiss.org/WebContent/cwis438/download_files/Users%20Guide%20Cit%20Sci%20Brochure%20v1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Citizen Science initiative\u003c/a>. I noticed that there weren’t any sightings listed for the San Francisco Bay Area. List in the comments below if you have suggestions for how folks can get involved or if you’ve noticed other invasive plants or animals that are problems in our area. Here’s a list of websites with information regarding \u003ca title=\"Invasive Species information\" href=\"http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/unitedstates/ca.shtml#.US7kXxnyvPE\" target=\"_blank\">invasive species in our area\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50088\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 189px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/01/invasive-species-theyre-here-and-more-on-the-way/toulouse_-_sturnus_vulgaris_-_2012-02-26_-_3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50088\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-50088\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Toulouse_-_Sturnus_vulgaris_-_2012-02-26_-_3-189x253.jpg\" alt=\"European starlings are found throughout North America and can be traced back to a successful introduction to Central Park in the late 1800s. Photo by Pierre Sims\" width=\"189\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">European starlings are found throughout North America and can be traced back to a successful introduction to Central Park in the late 1800s. Photo by \u003ca title=\"Wikimedia, Pierre Selim's Eurpoean starling\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toulouse_-_Sturnus_vulgaris_-_2012-02-26_-_3.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Pierre Selim\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50086\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-50086\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290.jpg\" alt=\"Invasive red-crested cardinals, though beautiful, are serious problems for native Hawaiian birds. Image by Tony Fox\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu-e1362080975290-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Invasive red-crested cardinals, though beautiful, are serious problems for native Hawaiian birds. Image by \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red-crested_cardinal_-_Oahu.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Tony Fox\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\"The state of our birds is a measurable indicator of how well we are doing as stewards of our environment, and the signal is clear. Greater bird conservation efforts are needed to realize the vision of a nation sustained economically, biologically and spiritually by abundant natural resources and spectacular wildlife in perpetuity.\" \u003ca title=\"State of the Birds 2011\" href=\"http://www.stateofthebirds.org/newsroom/KeyMessages2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">State of the Birds, 2011, USA \u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I’ve just returned from a trip to Maui where I enjoyed the tropical climate, warm ocean and amazing wildlife from \u003ca title=\"humpback whales\" href=\"http://wildhawaii.org/marinelife/whales.html\" target=\"_blank\">humpback whales\u003c/a> to \u003ca title=\"sea turtles of Hawaii\" href=\"http://wildhawaii.org/marinelife/turtles.html\" target=\"_blank\">sea turtles\u003c/a> to \u003ca title=\"Migration study of Pacific golden plovers\" href=\"http://www.humanecapture.com/wp-content/uploads/Golden-Plovers.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Pacific golden plovers\u003c/a>. The whales and plovers perform similar migratory paths, moving from their wintering grounds in the areas around Hawaii northward each summer to Alaska and the Arctic Circle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What I found troubling, though, were the throngs of birds that swarmed the urban areas. They were exotic and beautiful, but almost to a species, they were all non-native and considered invasive. The native bird species of each Hawaiian island hover on the brink of extinction. They’re having a hard time adapting to the many environmental pressures introduced plant species, which are changing their native habitat. There’s also competition from the introduced animal species as well as predation from them, both on the adult birds as well as their young. Ants and rats are particular problems for nesting young.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50087\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 250px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/01/invasive-species-theyre-here-and-more-on-the-way/palila/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50087\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-50087\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Palila.jpg\" alt=\"Native Hawaiian birds, like the palila, are endangered from the many pressures non-native species put on their populations. Image by\" width=\"250\" height=\"215\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Native Hawaiian birds, like the palila, are endangered from the many pressures non-native species put on their populations. Image courtesy of the \u003ca title=\"Wikipedia\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palila.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">USGS\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Hawaiian Islands stand as examples and cautionary tales for our care of the mainland native bird species and their habitats. In our global economy, we are doing a good job of not only transporting goods around the world, but unintentionally transporting problematic species, too. There have been intentional introductions as well. \u003ca title=\"Scientific American, Starling and house sparrow introductions\" href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=call-of-the-reviled\" target=\"_blank\">Starlings and house sparrows arrived here\u003c/a> with someone’s capricious intention of bringing the birds of Shakespeare to New York’s Central Park. By the 1950's, they’d spread from coast to coast with repercussions for native birds throughout.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though invasive species may seem like too great a problem for individuals to tackle, there are steps we can take to make a difference. You can join a crew of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/getinvolved/volunteer\" target=\"_blank\">volunteers\u003c/a> to pull invasive plants in the regional parks. You can also log your sightings of invasive species on the \u003ca title=\"NIIS website\" href=\"http://www.niiss.org/cwis438/websites/niiss/home.php?WebSiteID=1\" target=\"_blank\">National Institute of Invasive Species Science\u003c/a> website by following instructions on their \u003ca title=\"Citizen Science brochure, NIISS\" href=\"http://www.niiss.org/WebContent/cwis438/download_files/Users%20Guide%20Cit%20Sci%20Brochure%20v1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Citizen Science initiative\u003c/a>. I noticed that there weren’t any sightings listed for the San Francisco Bay Area. List in the comments below if you have suggestions for how folks can get involved or if you’ve noticed other invasive plants or animals that are problems in our area. Here’s a list of websites with information regarding \u003ca title=\"Invasive Species information\" href=\"http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/unitedstates/ca.shtml#.US7kXxnyvPE\" target=\"_blank\">invasive species in our area\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_50088\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 189px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/01/invasive-species-theyre-here-and-more-on-the-way/toulouse_-_sturnus_vulgaris_-_2012-02-26_-_3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-50088\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-50088\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Toulouse_-_Sturnus_vulgaris_-_2012-02-26_-_3-189x253.jpg\" alt=\"European starlings are found throughout North America and can be traced back to a successful introduction to Central Park in the late 1800s. Photo by Pierre Sims\" width=\"189\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">European starlings are found throughout North America and can be traced back to a successful introduction to Central Park in the late 1800s. Photo by \u003ca title=\"Wikimedia, Pierre Selim's Eurpoean starling\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toulouse_-_Sturnus_vulgaris_-_2012-02-26_-_3.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Pierre Selim\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Genetic Sleuthing, Or How To Catch The Right Identical Twin Criminal ",
"title": "Genetic Sleuthing, Or How To Catch The Right Identical Twin Criminal ",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49603\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\" alt='\"Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg' width=\"630\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49603\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The police in Marseille France are \u003ca href=\"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21401200\">struggling to solve a sexual assault case\u003c/a>. They have solid video evidence and have even matched DNA from the crime scene with two suspects but they still can’t figure it out. See, the problem is that the suspects are identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Identical twins look pretty similar so unless the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15107687/ns/dateline_nbc-crime_reports/#.URvjYR37Ls4\">police get lucky\u003c/a> like they did in Boston, video evidence can’t usually be used to tell them apart. And identical twins share the same DNA so conventional DNA tests can’t be used either. The police are in a real pickle. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Except that they don’t have to be. As the police are aware, there are less conventional tests that can find the few differences between the DNA of identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>None of our DNA is exactly the same as when we were a fertilized egg, floating towards our mother’s womb. Our life experiences change our DNA in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, there are chemical marks on our DNA that help to control which genes should be turned on where and to what level. These epigenetic marks are added and removed over our life time in response to our specific set of experiences. This is true for all of us including identical twins. In fact, scientists have actually looked at \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=identical-twins-exhibit-d\">these epigenetic markers in identical twins\u003c/a> and have found them to be different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another way our DNA can change is through mutation. DNA is not as stable as you might think and each of our DNAs is building up small changes over our lifetime. Sometimes these mutations can lead to trouble (for example, \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/cancer-origins\">almost all cases of cancer\u003c/a> come from DNA mutations) but most are harmless. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These mutations are random events that can happen in a couple of different ways. Sometimes something in the environment like cigarette smoke or the ultraviolet light from the sun damages the DNA. Other times our cells make a mistake when they copy their DNA and that mistake is passed on to the next generation of cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In both cases, the mutations are going to be specific to a person. The odds are definitely against two different cells making a mistake in the same place in each of their DNAs. Same thing with ultraviolet light targeting the exact same two T’s in two different people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49607\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/25/genetic-sleuthing/mutateddna/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49607\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/MutatedDNA.gif\" alt=\"A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\" width=\"225\" height=\"151\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49607\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So there are unique DNA differences between identical twins that scientists can use to tell them apart. Why aren’t the police using these differences to catch their criminal? Because the cost is too high.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The police are saying that it would cost one million euros to do the required testing. No matter how hard I try, I can’t seem to wrap my head around that price tag.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I asked around and right now it costs between $5000 and $10,000 U.S. dollars to sequence an entire genome here in California. I know things are more expensive in Europe but unless the euro has crashed big time in the last few weeks, I can’t get to a million euros.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They would need to sequence the DNA of both twins and the DNA from each of the six crime scenes. Let’s call that $100,000 U.S. Do they really need an extra $900,000 to analyze the data?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now to be fair, getting this information isn’t that easy. The mutations I was talking about happen in different places in different cells. A person may get a DNA change in his skin cell different from one in his blood or cheek cell. So the police need to be very careful about which tissues they choose to test.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, since these are sexual assaults there may have been semen from the rapist at some of the crime scenes. Sperm cells have a pretty high rate of mutation because men are constantly making new sperm. In fact, these mutations are why the children of older men are at \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/older-dads%E2%80%99-kids-higher-risk-genetic-disease\">a higher risk for certain diseases\u003c/a>. So sperm would be an ideal source for looking at the whole genome. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But sperm wouldn’t be as ideal for looking at epigenetic changes. Before DNA is packaged into sperm, most of the epigenetic markers are wiped clean. Not all of them (which is one way environmental effects can be \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/original_news/news134\">passed from one generation to the next\u003c/a>), but enough so that this may not be the best approach with sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The epigenetic approach would be better for other tissues. It is more expensive but scientists need to look at less DNA so the price pretty much evens out in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bottom line is that there are tests available to distinguish between the twins and that the tests probably wouldn’t cost one million euros. Still, even if the tests are “only” 100,000 euros, that is still a lot of money. It is up to society and the government whether or not catching one (or two) criminals is worth this cost.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49603\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg\" alt='\"Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg' width=\"630\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49603\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair.jpg 630w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/IdenticalTwinsRedhair-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Identical twins like these can finally be told apart at the genetic level for only a few thousand dollars. Image courtesy of \u003ca href=\"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redhead_twins.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The police in Marseille France are \u003ca href=\"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21401200\">struggling to solve a sexual assault case\u003c/a>. They have solid video evidence and have even matched DNA from the crime scene with two suspects but they still can’t figure it out. See, the problem is that the suspects are identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Identical twins look pretty similar so unless the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nbcnews.com/id/15107687/ns/dateline_nbc-crime_reports/#.URvjYR37Ls4\">police get lucky\u003c/a> like they did in Boston, video evidence can’t usually be used to tell them apart. And identical twins share the same DNA so conventional DNA tests can’t be used either. The police are in a real pickle. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Except that they don’t have to be. As the police are aware, there are less conventional tests that can find the few differences between the DNA of identical twins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>None of our DNA is exactly the same as when we were a fertilized egg, floating towards our mother’s womb. Our life experiences change our DNA in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, there are chemical marks on our DNA that help to control which genes should be turned on where and to what level. These epigenetic marks are added and removed over our life time in response to our specific set of experiences. This is true for all of us including identical twins. In fact, scientists have actually looked at \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=identical-twins-exhibit-d\">these epigenetic markers in identical twins\u003c/a> and have found them to be different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another way our DNA can change is through mutation. DNA is not as stable as you might think and each of our DNAs is building up small changes over our lifetime. Sometimes these mutations can lead to trouble (for example, \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/cancer-origins\">almost all cases of cancer\u003c/a> come from DNA mutations) but most are harmless. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These mutations are random events that can happen in a couple of different ways. Sometimes something in the environment like cigarette smoke or the ultraviolet light from the sun damages the DNA. Other times our cells make a mistake when they copy their DNA and that mistake is passed on to the next generation of cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In both cases, the mutations are going to be specific to a person. The odds are definitely against two different cells making a mistake in the same place in each of their DNAs. Same thing with ultraviolet light targeting the exact same two T’s in two different people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49607\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/25/genetic-sleuthing/mutateddna/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49607\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/MutatedDNA.gif\" alt=\"A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\" width=\"225\" height=\"151\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49607\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A couple of the ways DNA can be changed.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So there are unique DNA differences between identical twins that scientists can use to tell them apart. Why aren’t the police using these differences to catch their criminal? Because the cost is too high.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The police are saying that it would cost one million euros to do the required testing. No matter how hard I try, I can’t seem to wrap my head around that price tag.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I asked around and right now it costs between $5000 and $10,000 U.S. dollars to sequence an entire genome here in California. I know things are more expensive in Europe but unless the euro has crashed big time in the last few weeks, I can’t get to a million euros.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They would need to sequence the DNA of both twins and the DNA from each of the six crime scenes. Let’s call that $100,000 U.S. Do they really need an extra $900,000 to analyze the data?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now to be fair, getting this information isn’t that easy. The mutations I was talking about happen in different places in different cells. A person may get a DNA change in his skin cell different from one in his blood or cheek cell. So the police need to be very careful about which tissues they choose to test.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, since these are sexual assaults there may have been semen from the rapist at some of the crime scenes. Sperm cells have a pretty high rate of mutation because men are constantly making new sperm. In fact, these mutations are why the children of older men are at \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/older-dads%E2%80%99-kids-higher-risk-genetic-disease\">a higher risk for certain diseases\u003c/a>. So sperm would be an ideal source for looking at the whole genome. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But sperm wouldn’t be as ideal for looking at epigenetic changes. Before DNA is packaged into sperm, most of the epigenetic markers are wiped clean. Not all of them (which is one way environmental effects can be \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/original_news/news134\">passed from one generation to the next\u003c/a>), but enough so that this may not be the best approach with sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The epigenetic approach would be better for other tissues. It is more expensive but scientists need to look at less DNA so the price pretty much evens out in the end.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bottom line is that there are tests available to distinguish between the twins and that the tests probably wouldn’t cost one million euros. Still, even if the tests are “only” 100,000 euros, that is still a lot of money. It is up to society and the government whether or not catching one (or two) criminals is worth this cost.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Science of Nudity: The Skinny on Showing Skin",
"title": "The Science of Nudity: The Skinny on Showing Skin",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>News flash - as of February 1st, 2013\u003c/strong>, public nudity is illegal in San Francisco. But well before the law went into effect, it generated a tremendous amount of debate. Lines were drawn between freedom of expression and freedom from someone else’s expression, with abundant moral, cultural, and legal arguments on both sides. That is all well and good, but in our data and research-driven culture, how might a scientific perspective bear on the debate over baring oneself? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One important thing science tells us is that \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0024408\" title=\"The Naked Truth: The Face and Body Sensitive N170 Response Is Enhanced for Nude Bodies\" target=\"_blank\">humans are hyper-tuned to the sight of bare skin\u003c/a>. We recognize nude images quicker than almost anything--faster than cars, clothed people, or faces--and we do it within 0.2 seconds. From 0.3 seconds onwards, studies show a range of emotional reactions, some of them perhaps counter-intuitive: \u003ca href=\"http://comm.ucsb.edu/sites/www.comm.ucsb.edu/files/sitefiles/people/faculty/linzd/Linz_nudityLHB.pdf\" title=\"Testing Legal Assumptions Regarding the Effects of Dancer Nudity And Proximity to Patron on Erotic Expression\" target=\"_blank\">men actually become less aggressive\u003c/a> subsequent to seeing images of nude women. And then there are obvious results: nudity causes arousal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But even predictable reactions such as sexual interest \u003ca href=\"http://www.academia.edu/969752/Gender_and_sexual_orientation_differences_in_sexual_response_to_sexual_activities_versus_gender_of_actors_in_sexual_films\" title=\"Gender and sexual orientation differences in sexual response to sexual activities versus gender of actors in sexual films\" target=\"_blank\">vary according to sex and sexual orientation\u003c/a>. For example: female arousal depends much more on the depiction of some sexual activity rather than simple portrayals of nudity. And homosexual women are generally more aroused by images of nude women than men, whereas heterosexual women respond equally to both sexes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Such findings may pique our interest, but more relevant to the San Francisco nudity debate is the potential effect of nudity exposure upon children. “There is the problem of the inadvertent viewer,” explains Paul Abramson, a psychology professor at UCLA and expert witness in over three decades of sex-related litigation, “And you have to consider them [kids] as inadvertent viewers in public.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until the late 1980s, however, little research had been done on the effects of nudity exposure upon children. Without empirical evidence, professionals were left to offer opinions based on common societal beliefs regarding nudity. “At that time,” says Abramson, “there were exaggerated horrors about the consequences of exposure to parental nudity; parents sleeping in the same bed with kids or sharing hot tubs.” Many psychologists assumed such exposure would be detrimental to children, and could even \u003ca href=\"http://www.taasa.org/library/pdfs/TAASALibrary52.pdf\" title=\"Early childhood exposure to parental nudity and scenes of parental sexuality ('primal scenes'): an 18-year longitudinal study of outcome\" target=\"_blank\">constitute subtle forms of sexual abuse\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> Yet more recent evidence has challenged this assumption. An 18 year study followed children from birth until adolescence and tracked rates of exposure to parental nudity. Abramson, who co-authored an analysis of the data, concluded there was \u003ca href=\"http://www.taasa.org/library/pdfs/TAASALibrary52.pdf\" title=\"Early childhood exposure to parental nudity and scenes of parental sexuality ('primal scenes'): an 18-year longitudinal study of outcome\" target=\"_blank\">no evidence of harm associated with the exposure\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, Abramson’s and other studies have generally found nudity to be associated with beneficial outcomes, including increased self-esteem, sexual knowledge, and comfort with physical contact and affection. Exposure to nudity in the home was also associated with lower rates of theft and drug use in adolescence as well as improved relations with adults outside of the family.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yet despite these findings, Abramson thinks public nudity should still be regulated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I would use zoning to make it [nudity] legal in certain more secluded areas. But you would have to signal it very clearly, just like they do with strip clubs, so you don’t get the ‘inadvertent viewer’ problem. And I would also leave the option open for nudity as a conduit for certain critical free speech issues.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Why the need for restrictions? Within one’s home, the people and settings are familiar. In public, Abramson says, “it becomes difficult to separate the nudists from the exhibitionists.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, no one expects the results of scientific studies to translate directly into law; our moral, legal, and cultural beliefs will always play an important role in shaping public policy. But what science can do is help guide our beliefs away from “exaggerated horrors” and towards evidence-based decision making. While science will rarely resolve our arguments, it can serve to inform them; and for that reason it deserves to be included in the debate.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>News flash - as of February 1st, 2013\u003c/strong>, public nudity is illegal in San Francisco. But well before the law went into effect, it generated a tremendous amount of debate. Lines were drawn between freedom of expression and freedom from someone else’s expression, with abundant moral, cultural, and legal arguments on both sides. That is all well and good, but in our data and research-driven culture, how might a scientific perspective bear on the debate over baring oneself? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One important thing science tells us is that \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0024408\" title=\"The Naked Truth: The Face and Body Sensitive N170 Response Is Enhanced for Nude Bodies\" target=\"_blank\">humans are hyper-tuned to the sight of bare skin\u003c/a>. We recognize nude images quicker than almost anything--faster than cars, clothed people, or faces--and we do it within 0.2 seconds. From 0.3 seconds onwards, studies show a range of emotional reactions, some of them perhaps counter-intuitive: \u003ca href=\"http://comm.ucsb.edu/sites/www.comm.ucsb.edu/files/sitefiles/people/faculty/linzd/Linz_nudityLHB.pdf\" title=\"Testing Legal Assumptions Regarding the Effects of Dancer Nudity And Proximity to Patron on Erotic Expression\" target=\"_blank\">men actually become less aggressive\u003c/a> subsequent to seeing images of nude women. And then there are obvious results: nudity causes arousal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But even predictable reactions such as sexual interest \u003ca href=\"http://www.academia.edu/969752/Gender_and_sexual_orientation_differences_in_sexual_response_to_sexual_activities_versus_gender_of_actors_in_sexual_films\" title=\"Gender and sexual orientation differences in sexual response to sexual activities versus gender of actors in sexual films\" target=\"_blank\">vary according to sex and sexual orientation\u003c/a>. For example: female arousal depends much more on the depiction of some sexual activity rather than simple portrayals of nudity. And homosexual women are generally more aroused by images of nude women than men, whereas heterosexual women respond equally to both sexes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Such findings may pique our interest, but more relevant to the San Francisco nudity debate is the potential effect of nudity exposure upon children. “There is the problem of the inadvertent viewer,” explains Paul Abramson, a psychology professor at UCLA and expert witness in over three decades of sex-related litigation, “And you have to consider them [kids] as inadvertent viewers in public.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until the late 1980s, however, little research had been done on the effects of nudity exposure upon children. Without empirical evidence, professionals were left to offer opinions based on common societal beliefs regarding nudity. “At that time,” says Abramson, “there were exaggerated horrors about the consequences of exposure to parental nudity; parents sleeping in the same bed with kids or sharing hot tubs.” Many psychologists assumed such exposure would be detrimental to children, and could even \u003ca href=\"http://www.taasa.org/library/pdfs/TAASALibrary52.pdf\" title=\"Early childhood exposure to parental nudity and scenes of parental sexuality ('primal scenes'): an 18-year longitudinal study of outcome\" target=\"_blank\">constitute subtle forms of sexual abuse\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> Yet more recent evidence has challenged this assumption. An 18 year study followed children from birth until adolescence and tracked rates of exposure to parental nudity. Abramson, who co-authored an analysis of the data, concluded there was \u003ca href=\"http://www.taasa.org/library/pdfs/TAASALibrary52.pdf\" title=\"Early childhood exposure to parental nudity and scenes of parental sexuality ('primal scenes'): an 18-year longitudinal study of outcome\" target=\"_blank\">no evidence of harm associated with the exposure\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, Abramson’s and other studies have generally found nudity to be associated with beneficial outcomes, including increased self-esteem, sexual knowledge, and comfort with physical contact and affection. Exposure to nudity in the home was also associated with lower rates of theft and drug use in adolescence as well as improved relations with adults outside of the family.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yet despite these findings, Abramson thinks public nudity should still be regulated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I would use zoning to make it [nudity] legal in certain more secluded areas. But you would have to signal it very clearly, just like they do with strip clubs, so you don’t get the ‘inadvertent viewer’ problem. And I would also leave the option open for nudity as a conduit for certain critical free speech issues.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Why the need for restrictions? Within one’s home, the people and settings are familiar. In public, Abramson says, “it becomes difficult to separate the nudists from the exhibitionists.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, no one expects the results of scientific studies to translate directly into law; our moral, legal, and cultural beliefs will always play an important role in shaping public policy. But what science can do is help guide our beliefs away from “exaggerated horrors” and towards evidence-based decision making. While science will rarely resolve our arguments, it can serve to inform them; and for that reason it deserves to be included in the debate.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "The Animal Kingdom's Otherworldly Ancestors",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49850\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/21/the-animal-kingdoms-otherworldly-ancestors/06-30b_hurdia/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49850\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49850\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia.jpg\" alt=\"Hurdia\" width=\"639\" height=\"430\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia.jpg 1200w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-400x269.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-800x539.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-1180x795.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-960x646.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hurdia. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.echomedicalmedia.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">COPYRIGHT QUADE PAUL\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>We’re all descended from sea sponges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At one time, the squishy invertebrates constituted most of the animal life on Earth, but about half a billion years ago, something remarkable happened: an evolutionary explosion known as the Cambrian Period.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rising oxygen levels in the ocean’s shallows and a morphing genome took animal evolution on a bizarre course, all in a period of 20 to 30 million years. The period marks the establishment of animals on Earth, said Jim Valentine, UC Berkeley professor emeritus of paleontology and paleobiology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The fauna has a very weird look to it,” Valentine said. “It looks like these things are from another planet. Some seem eerily familiar because they do belong to major categories of animals that are still with us.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of the critters’ appearances are indeed strange, some border on terrifying, but others bear a strong resemblance to modern jellyfish or sea anemones. The wide swath of life that arose in the Cambrian Period is the subject of a new book by Valentine and Doug Erwin of the Smithsonian Institute, titled “The Cambrian Explosion: The Construction of Animal Biodiversity.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What could be more interesting than the taking over of the biosphere by animals half a billion years ago for a scientist? That’s just the greatest problem you can think of if you’re a biological scientist,” Valentine said with a laugh.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The book pulls in research from a number of disciplines to explain what made the rise of animals possible. What allowed for this expansion of biodiversity?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That’s a $54,000 question,” Valentine said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the key elements to the Cambrian Explosion was a flexible genome that allowed animals to take on larger and more complex forms, Valentine said. Most scientists believe oxygenation of shallow waters allowed the tiny slug- and worm-like creatures to grow. These millimeter-sized bugs lived along mats of microorganisms, but as they grew, they began tearing up the mats, burrowing in them and scratching the surface. At some point, some started eating each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cambrian fossils are found in about 30 areas worldwide, Valentine said, but sites in South China’s Yunan Province and the White Sea in Northern Russia offer the best specimen because of their ideal conditions that preserve not only shells and skeletons, but much of the soft parts such as eyes and limbs. This made the level of detail in \u003ca href=\"http://www.echomedicalmedia.com\">Quade Paul\u003c/a>‘s illustrations possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The detail is fantastic, so there’s little doubt about the morphological inferences you can make from the fossils,” Valentine said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The modern world, the world of animals, was in a sense born in the Cambrian Period, Valentine said. While life wouldn’t move on shore for many millions of years, the same principles that permitted the Cambrian Explosion would eventually allow for the evolution of terrestrial life: insects, dinosaurs, apes and us.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49850\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/21/the-animal-kingdoms-otherworldly-ancestors/06-30b_hurdia/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49850\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49850\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia.jpg\" alt=\"Hurdia\" width=\"639\" height=\"430\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia.jpg 1200w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-400x269.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-800x539.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-1180x795.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/06.30b_Hurdia-960x646.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hurdia. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.echomedicalmedia.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">COPYRIGHT QUADE PAUL\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>We’re all descended from sea sponges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At one time, the squishy invertebrates constituted most of the animal life on Earth, but about half a billion years ago, something remarkable happened: an evolutionary explosion known as the Cambrian Period.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rising oxygen levels in the ocean’s shallows and a morphing genome took animal evolution on a bizarre course, all in a period of 20 to 30 million years. The period marks the establishment of animals on Earth, said Jim Valentine, UC Berkeley professor emeritus of paleontology and paleobiology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The fauna has a very weird look to it,” Valentine said. “It looks like these things are from another planet. Some seem eerily familiar because they do belong to major categories of animals that are still with us.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of the critters’ appearances are indeed strange, some border on terrifying, but others bear a strong resemblance to modern jellyfish or sea anemones. The wide swath of life that arose in the Cambrian Period is the subject of a new book by Valentine and Doug Erwin of the Smithsonian Institute, titled “The Cambrian Explosion: The Construction of Animal Biodiversity.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What could be more interesting than the taking over of the biosphere by animals half a billion years ago for a scientist? That’s just the greatest problem you can think of if you’re a biological scientist,” Valentine said with a laugh.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The book pulls in research from a number of disciplines to explain what made the rise of animals possible. What allowed for this expansion of biodiversity?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That’s a $54,000 question,” Valentine said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the key elements to the Cambrian Explosion was a flexible genome that allowed animals to take on larger and more complex forms, Valentine said. Most scientists believe oxygenation of shallow waters allowed the tiny slug- and worm-like creatures to grow. These millimeter-sized bugs lived along mats of microorganisms, but as they grew, they began tearing up the mats, burrowing in them and scratching the surface. At some point, some started eating each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cambrian fossils are found in about 30 areas worldwide, Valentine said, but sites in South China’s Yunan Province and the White Sea in Northern Russia offer the best specimen because of their ideal conditions that preserve not only shells and skeletons, but much of the soft parts such as eyes and limbs. This made the level of detail in \u003ca href=\"http://www.echomedicalmedia.com\">Quade Paul\u003c/a>‘s illustrations possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The detail is fantastic, so there’s little doubt about the morphological inferences you can make from the fossils,” Valentine said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The modern world, the world of animals, was in a sense born in the Cambrian Period, Valentine said. While life wouldn’t move on shore for many millions of years, the same principles that permitted the Cambrian Explosion would eventually allow for the evolution of terrestrial life: insects, dinosaurs, apes and us.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Book Review: Animal Wise - The Thoughts and Emotions of Our Fellow Creatures",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49786\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 166px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/20/book-review-animal-wise/cover/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49786\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/cover-166x253.jpg\" alt=\"book cover of animal wise\" width=\"166\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-49786\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Animal Wise: The thoughts and emotions of our fellow creatures. Virginia Morell; Crown: 2013\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you're not a comparative psychologist or student of animal behavior, chances are you didn't know that \u003ca href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5277090.stm\">cows have regional accents\u003c/a> or that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v414/n6860/abs/414165a0.html\">sheep don’t forget a face\u003c/a>. I'd also wager that you never heard that \u003ca href=\"http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/LifeSciences/BioethicsSocialIssues/?ci=9780199551200\">fish feel pain\u003c/a> or that \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=88031220\">moths remember life as a caterpillar\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are just a few of the surprising mental feats our “lesser” animal relatives can manage, science journalist Virginia Morell tells us in her moving and entertaining new book, “Animal Wise: The Thoughts and Emotions of Our Fellow Creatures.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though an appreciation of the rich inner lives of our fellow creatures dates back at least to Aristotle, suggestions that animals could feel or think once met indignant resistance from theologians and philosophers who saw humans as the anointed ruler of a divinely created hierarchy of nature. Indignation turned to outrage when Charles Darwin recast humans not as the crown of creation but as an organism like any other, evolving in response to its ever-changing environment. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s not surprising that Darwin, who documented physical similarities across species who live in similar environments, would think that such pressures gave rise to a continuity of mind across species as well. Any cognitive differences between humans and other animals are of degree, not kind, he argued in the “Descent of Man.” Furthermore, he wrote, “the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of which man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a well-developed condition, in the lower animals.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49783\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/20/book-review-animal-wise/corvus_brachyrhynchos/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49783\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Corvus_brachyrhynchos-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"american crow\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-49783\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crows can use tools, challenging us to rethink the boundaries of animal cognition. (Photo: Walter Siegmund)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As Morell shows us, the need to elevate ourselves above nature runs deep. By the 1920s, the rise of behaviorists—psychologists who believed that science could investigate only observable behaviors—again demoted animals to mere stimulus-response robots incapable of anything approaching the human capacity for empathy, learning or intelligence. Some psychologists still cling to this view of animal automatons. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Try telling any dog or cat lover that her cherished companion doesn’t have a personality or care whether she lives or dies. I’ll never forget how our Airedale, Amanda, would let loose in a fit of hysterical howls as she flung herself into my arms every time I came home from college break. And I still miss the Russian blue who magically appeared purring at my feet whenever I was feeling down. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Such anecdotes are simply that, of course. But just because scientists don’t know how to study animal emotions \u003ca href=\"http://www.wonderlance.com/february2011_scientech_fransdewaal.html\">doesn’t mean animals don’t experience them\u003c/a>. And given how often a study knocks yet another “uniquely” human trait off its pedestal, it may be just a matter of time before someone figures out how to study emotions in animals too. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is the boundaries of animal cognition that interest Morell, a frequent contributor to National Geographic and Science. She takes a journalist’s approach to the question of animal minds, but shows a deep compassion and empathy for her subjects, which include species separated by some 100 million years of evolution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49796\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 287px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/20/book-review-animal-wise/african_forest_elephant/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49796\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/African_Forest_Elephant.jpg\" alt=\"african elephant\" width=\"287\" height=\"350\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49796\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Elephants, massacred by the thousands in Africa for the ivory in their tusks, experience grief and something akin to post-traumatic stress syndrome when they lose a family member. This male was photographed in Gabon, which conservationists consider ground zero for elephant massacre. (Photo: Peter H. Wrege)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Without evolution as a guide, the cognitive skills of \u003cem>Homo sapiens\u003c/em> do not make sense biologically, Morell writes about animal physiologist Donald Griffin’s quest to bring science to the study of animal minds in the mid-1970s. Human cognition did not spring de novo from the hand of a divine creator, lingering protestations to the contrary. What, then, Morell asks, are the biological roots and evolutionary processes that gave rise to the cognitive capacities we share with our animal kin?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To find out, she travels the globe to visit researchers in their labs and in the field as they search for the evolutionary roots of cognition. In the process, she shows us not just the remarkable mental skills of “nonhuman” animals, but the nature of science and how we know what we know.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We learn about ant “teachers” that look, under a magnifying glass, like “Elizabethan actors or courtiers fashionably dressed in pantaloons and fancy hats” after Nigel Franks, an English behavioral ecologist, and his students painstakingly paint each one with a unique colored pattern. The work, though excruciating, helps reveal how and why each ant responds to a challenge—in this case, the destruction of the colony’s nest. The experiments, Morell reports, suggest that ants “the size of hyphens” make decisions when confronted with challenges and appear to teach their comrades to follow their lead.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3boAzft0qkE]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We meet a German neuroscientist named Stefan Schuster who found the perfect research subject by happy accident—a supplier mistakenly sent him a big aquarium, which he filled with archerfish “just for fun.” Three years in, Schuster realized the fish could help him study how animals with small brains can make complex decisions. Archerfish, “the sharpshooters of the piscine world,” fire streams of water at prey, usually insects, on branches or leaves above the surface then race to nab them once dislodged. By analyzing videotapes of archerfish squirting and grabbing prey under a variety of conditions, Schuster concluded that the fish learn how to shoot new and difficult targets by watching a skilled colleague.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Morell goes on to introduce us to the birds that forced scientists to rethink the meaning of bird-brained (including Betty, the tool-using crow), rats that “laugh” when tickled, elephants that experience post-traumatic stress after losing their matriarch, dolphins that cooperate to help another in distress and chimps whose sophisticated social intelligence forces us to consider our own failures. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ofjo26O0z_o]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She ends, fittingly, with the latest studies of our most constant companion, the dog, a species Darwin considered closer to humans than to the wolves they descended from. The similarities between dogs and human are so striking that one group of scientists decided that studying the transition from wolf to dog would say more about the evolution of the human mind than studying the differences between chimpanzees and humans. Dogs, Morell writes, were Darwin’s “prime example of how animals, other than humans, experience ‘pleasure and pain, happiness and memory.’ ”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Morell obliterates the lines that might separate us from the rest of the animal kingdom by relating trailblazing discoveries of the emotional and intellectual lives of animals. In the process, she challenges us to rethink our ethical obligations to the creatures who share our world. Morell notes that even some of the scientists studying animal cognition wanted to know how she would address the question of what sets us apart from other animals. “That question was not the point of the book,” she told them. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Given that we now know that we live in a world of sentient beings, not one of stimulus-response machines,\" Morell writes, \"we need to ask: ‘How should we treat these other emotional, thinking creatures?' ”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For decades, critics of those advocating for the compassionate treatment of animals have argued there’s no evidence to support their claims. As Morell makes clear, that argument no longer stands. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question, now, is: what are we going to do about it?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>***\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hear Virginia Morell talk about Animal Wise at Pegasus Books, 2349 Shattuck Ave., Berkeley, March 14 at 7:30 p.m.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "An appreciation of the rich inner lives of nonhuman animals dates back at least to Aristotle and gained support from Charles Darwin, who saw any differences between humans and other animals as a matter of degree, not kind. Still, the notion that humans stand above and apart from our fellow creatures dies hard. In her new book, \"Animal Wise,\" science journalist Virginia Morell takes us on a tour of labs and field sites around the world to show us that many of the traits once thought uniquely human appear in even our most distant evolutionary relatives. ",
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"title": "Book Review: Animal Wise - The Thoughts and Emotions of Our Fellow Creatures | KQED",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49786\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 166px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/20/book-review-animal-wise/cover/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49786\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/cover-166x253.jpg\" alt=\"book cover of animal wise\" width=\"166\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-49786\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Animal Wise: The thoughts and emotions of our fellow creatures. Virginia Morell; Crown: 2013\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you're not a comparative psychologist or student of animal behavior, chances are you didn't know that \u003ca href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5277090.stm\">cows have regional accents\u003c/a> or that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v414/n6860/abs/414165a0.html\">sheep don’t forget a face\u003c/a>. I'd also wager that you never heard that \u003ca href=\"http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/LifeSciences/BioethicsSocialIssues/?ci=9780199551200\">fish feel pain\u003c/a> or that \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=88031220\">moths remember life as a caterpillar\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are just a few of the surprising mental feats our “lesser” animal relatives can manage, science journalist Virginia Morell tells us in her moving and entertaining new book, “Animal Wise: The Thoughts and Emotions of Our Fellow Creatures.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though an appreciation of the rich inner lives of our fellow creatures dates back at least to Aristotle, suggestions that animals could feel or think once met indignant resistance from theologians and philosophers who saw humans as the anointed ruler of a divinely created hierarchy of nature. Indignation turned to outrage when Charles Darwin recast humans not as the crown of creation but as an organism like any other, evolving in response to its ever-changing environment. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s not surprising that Darwin, who documented physical similarities across species who live in similar environments, would think that such pressures gave rise to a continuity of mind across species as well. Any cognitive differences between humans and other animals are of degree, not kind, he argued in the “Descent of Man.” Furthermore, he wrote, “the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of which man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a well-developed condition, in the lower animals.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49783\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/20/book-review-animal-wise/corvus_brachyrhynchos/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49783\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/Corvus_brachyrhynchos-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"american crow\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-49783\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crows can use tools, challenging us to rethink the boundaries of animal cognition. (Photo: Walter Siegmund)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As Morell shows us, the need to elevate ourselves above nature runs deep. By the 1920s, the rise of behaviorists—psychologists who believed that science could investigate only observable behaviors—again demoted animals to mere stimulus-response robots incapable of anything approaching the human capacity for empathy, learning or intelligence. Some psychologists still cling to this view of animal automatons. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Try telling any dog or cat lover that her cherished companion doesn’t have a personality or care whether she lives or dies. I’ll never forget how our Airedale, Amanda, would let loose in a fit of hysterical howls as she flung herself into my arms every time I came home from college break. And I still miss the Russian blue who magically appeared purring at my feet whenever I was feeling down. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Such anecdotes are simply that, of course. But just because scientists don’t know how to study animal emotions \u003ca href=\"http://www.wonderlance.com/february2011_scientech_fransdewaal.html\">doesn’t mean animals don’t experience them\u003c/a>. And given how often a study knocks yet another “uniquely” human trait off its pedestal, it may be just a matter of time before someone figures out how to study emotions in animals too. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is the boundaries of animal cognition that interest Morell, a frequent contributor to National Geographic and Science. She takes a journalist’s approach to the question of animal minds, but shows a deep compassion and empathy for her subjects, which include species separated by some 100 million years of evolution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49796\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 287px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/20/book-review-animal-wise/african_forest_elephant/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49796\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/African_Forest_Elephant.jpg\" alt=\"african elephant\" width=\"287\" height=\"350\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49796\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Elephants, massacred by the thousands in Africa for the ivory in their tusks, experience grief and something akin to post-traumatic stress syndrome when they lose a family member. This male was photographed in Gabon, which conservationists consider ground zero for elephant massacre. (Photo: Peter H. Wrege)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Without evolution as a guide, the cognitive skills of \u003cem>Homo sapiens\u003c/em> do not make sense biologically, Morell writes about animal physiologist Donald Griffin’s quest to bring science to the study of animal minds in the mid-1970s. Human cognition did not spring de novo from the hand of a divine creator, lingering protestations to the contrary. What, then, Morell asks, are the biological roots and evolutionary processes that gave rise to the cognitive capacities we share with our animal kin?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To find out, she travels the globe to visit researchers in their labs and in the field as they search for the evolutionary roots of cognition. In the process, she shows us not just the remarkable mental skills of “nonhuman” animals, but the nature of science and how we know what we know.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We learn about ant “teachers” that look, under a magnifying glass, like “Elizabethan actors or courtiers fashionably dressed in pantaloons and fancy hats” after Nigel Franks, an English behavioral ecologist, and his students painstakingly paint each one with a unique colored pattern. The work, though excruciating, helps reveal how and why each ant responds to a challenge—in this case, the destruction of the colony’s nest. The experiments, Morell reports, suggest that ants “the size of hyphens” make decisions when confronted with challenges and appear to teach their comrades to follow their lead.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/3boAzft0qkE'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/3boAzft0qkE'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We meet a German neuroscientist named Stefan Schuster who found the perfect research subject by happy accident—a supplier mistakenly sent him a big aquarium, which he filled with archerfish “just for fun.” Three years in, Schuster realized the fish could help him study how animals with small brains can make complex decisions. Archerfish, “the sharpshooters of the piscine world,” fire streams of water at prey, usually insects, on branches or leaves above the surface then race to nab them once dislodged. By analyzing videotapes of archerfish squirting and grabbing prey under a variety of conditions, Schuster concluded that the fish learn how to shoot new and difficult targets by watching a skilled colleague.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Morell goes on to introduce us to the birds that forced scientists to rethink the meaning of bird-brained (including Betty, the tool-using crow), rats that “laugh” when tickled, elephants that experience post-traumatic stress after losing their matriarch, dolphins that cooperate to help another in distress and chimps whose sophisticated social intelligence forces us to consider our own failures. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/ofjo26O0z_o'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/ofjo26O0z_o'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She ends, fittingly, with the latest studies of our most constant companion, the dog, a species Darwin considered closer to humans than to the wolves they descended from. The similarities between dogs and human are so striking that one group of scientists decided that studying the transition from wolf to dog would say more about the evolution of the human mind than studying the differences between chimpanzees and humans. Dogs, Morell writes, were Darwin’s “prime example of how animals, other than humans, experience ‘pleasure and pain, happiness and memory.’ ”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Morell obliterates the lines that might separate us from the rest of the animal kingdom by relating trailblazing discoveries of the emotional and intellectual lives of animals. In the process, she challenges us to rethink our ethical obligations to the creatures who share our world. Morell notes that even some of the scientists studying animal cognition wanted to know how she would address the question of what sets us apart from other animals. “That question was not the point of the book,” she told them. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Given that we now know that we live in a world of sentient beings, not one of stimulus-response machines,\" Morell writes, \"we need to ask: ‘How should we treat these other emotional, thinking creatures?' ”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For decades, critics of those advocating for the compassionate treatment of animals have argued there’s no evidence to support their claims. As Morell makes clear, that argument no longer stands. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question, now, is: what are we going to do about it?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>***\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hear Virginia Morell talk about Animal Wise at Pegasus Books, 2349 Shattuck Ave., Berkeley, March 14 at 7:30 p.m.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Are Sleeping Aids Effective or Just A Placebo Effect?",
"title": "Are Sleeping Aids Effective or Just A Placebo Effect?",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49415\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601.jpg\" alt=\"photograph of woman laying in bed.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49415\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photograph courtesy of Wiros via a Creative Commons license.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>You lay in bed, tossing and turning. Your body is completely exhausted, but your mind is racing with the day’s activities. Or worse yet, you’re stressing out about all the things on your to-do list for tomorrow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Insomnia has become a major health concern worldwide with about \u003ca href=\"http://www.prweb.com/releases/sleeping_pills/sleeping_tablets/prweb4318034.htm\" title=\"article quoting the prevalence of sleeping pill usage\">15% of the global population\u003c/a> seeking relief with sleeping pills or tranquilizers. In the United States, about \u003ca href=\"http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304567604576454102061138630.html\" title=\"Wall Street Journal article on sleeping pills usage in US\">60 million prescriptions\u003c/a> for sleeping pills are issued each year and usage has continued to grow particularly for 20-45 year olds. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most commonly prescribed type of sleeping pill is non-benzodiazepines, also called z-drugs — zaleplon (Sonata), zolpidem (Ambien), zopiclone (Imovane), and eszopiclone (Lunesta). These z-drugs stimulate the activity of a neurotransmitter (gamma-aminobutyric acid) to help slow the brain down and facilitate sleep. However, a recent scientific journal article has raised some concerns about using z-drugs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers from Harvard Medical School, the University of Connecticut and the University of London performed a quantitative statistical analysis (meta-analysis) of 13 studies on the effectiveness of z-drugs and their associated placebo response. They selected only randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials, which means that neither the 4378 participants nor the researchers knew who was given the drug and who the placebo. The researchers obtained the data from the US Food and Drug Administration, using both published and unpublished trials submitted as part of the drug approval process in order to avoid “\u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20181324\" title=\"article that explains publication bias\">publication bias\u003c/a>.” Their research \u003ca href=\"http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e8343\" title=\"British Medical Journal article on sleeping pills and placebo effect\">results were published\u003c/a> in the British Medical Journal on December 17, 2012. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This large, well-designed study found that z-drugs helped participants fall asleep more quickly, as measured subjectively by the participants and by equipment in a sleep lab. This was particularly true for younger, female participants. However, half the effect of the drug was found to be due to a placebo response. Specifically, participants on average fell asleep in the lab only 22 minutes faster if taking the z-drug compared to the placebo. This has raised concern on whether the benefits of taking z-drugs are worth the risk of adverse side effects, which include daytime fatigue, memory loss, problems with balance, dependency and an \u003ca href=\"http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000850.full\" title=\"British Medical Journal article on increased mortality associated with sleeping pills\">associated risk of an earlier death\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The research found that both the drug effect and the placebo response were small and of “questionable clinical importance.” However, when the two were put together, taking a z-drug allowed participants on average to fall asleep 42 minutes faster than if they hadn’t taken a pill. This may help explain why many users are strong proponents of their z-drug.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, how quickly you fall asleep is only one symptom of insomnia. Other important measures are the total sleep time, number of awakenings, sleep quality and time spent awake after sleep onset. Although the study looked at these other outcomes, unfortunately there was insufficient data to make firm conclusions on these factors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hopefully there will be further research to analyze the effectiveness of z-drugs on all aspects affecting sleep quality. In addition, the demonstrated importance of the placebo response suggests that more attention should be directed at psychological interventions for insomnia.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49415\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601.jpg\" alt=\"photograph of woman laying in bed.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-49415\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/SleepingBeauty_Wiros_640x3601-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photograph courtesy of Wiros via a Creative Commons license.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>You lay in bed, tossing and turning. Your body is completely exhausted, but your mind is racing with the day’s activities. Or worse yet, you’re stressing out about all the things on your to-do list for tomorrow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Insomnia has become a major health concern worldwide with about \u003ca href=\"http://www.prweb.com/releases/sleeping_pills/sleeping_tablets/prweb4318034.htm\" title=\"article quoting the prevalence of sleeping pill usage\">15% of the global population\u003c/a> seeking relief with sleeping pills or tranquilizers. In the United States, about \u003ca href=\"http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304567604576454102061138630.html\" title=\"Wall Street Journal article on sleeping pills usage in US\">60 million prescriptions\u003c/a> for sleeping pills are issued each year and usage has continued to grow particularly for 20-45 year olds. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most commonly prescribed type of sleeping pill is non-benzodiazepines, also called z-drugs — zaleplon (Sonata), zolpidem (Ambien), zopiclone (Imovane), and eszopiclone (Lunesta). These z-drugs stimulate the activity of a neurotransmitter (gamma-aminobutyric acid) to help slow the brain down and facilitate sleep. However, a recent scientific journal article has raised some concerns about using z-drugs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers from Harvard Medical School, the University of Connecticut and the University of London performed a quantitative statistical analysis (meta-analysis) of 13 studies on the effectiveness of z-drugs and their associated placebo response. They selected only randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials, which means that neither the 4378 participants nor the researchers knew who was given the drug and who the placebo. The researchers obtained the data from the US Food and Drug Administration, using both published and unpublished trials submitted as part of the drug approval process in order to avoid “\u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20181324\" title=\"article that explains publication bias\">publication bias\u003c/a>.” Their research \u003ca href=\"http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e8343\" title=\"British Medical Journal article on sleeping pills and placebo effect\">results were published\u003c/a> in the British Medical Journal on December 17, 2012. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This large, well-designed study found that z-drugs helped participants fall asleep more quickly, as measured subjectively by the participants and by equipment in a sleep lab. This was particularly true for younger, female participants. However, half the effect of the drug was found to be due to a placebo response. Specifically, participants on average fell asleep in the lab only 22 minutes faster if taking the z-drug compared to the placebo. This has raised concern on whether the benefits of taking z-drugs are worth the risk of adverse side effects, which include daytime fatigue, memory loss, problems with balance, dependency and an \u003ca href=\"http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000850.full\" title=\"British Medical Journal article on increased mortality associated with sleeping pills\">associated risk of an earlier death\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Bay Area Bird Challenge: The Great Backyard Bird Count Is This Weekend!",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49591\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 503px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/15/bay-area-bird-challenge/americangoldfinch_pamelawertz_la_2012_high/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49591\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-49591 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/AmericanGoldfinch_PamelaWertz_LA_2012_high-e1360872454348.jpg\" alt=\"You may find a backyard-bird gem like this American goldfinch. Photo by Pamela Wertz.\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/AmericanGoldfinch_PamelaWertz_LA_2012_high-e1360872454348.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/AmericanGoldfinch_PamelaWertz_LA_2012_high-e1360872454348-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">You may find a backyard-bird gem like this American goldfinch. Photo by \u003ca title=\"Birdsource.org\" href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/press/mediaimages\" target=\"_blank\">Pamela Wertz\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Come on, Bay Area bird enthusiasts, here’s your challenge: let’s turn in more bird reports than Sacramento this year! I was looking over the report for last year and noticed that San Francisco and Oakland combined reports totaled just over 100 while Sacramento turned in over 200 reports. In the name of good fun and science, let’s see if we can beat Sacramento’s record from last year!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Great Backyard Bird Count (GBBC) is a young event, only sixteen years old, compared to the Christmas Bird Count, which is 112 years old. It’s already \u003ca title=\"Audubon website; GBBC goes global feb 15-18 2013\" href=\"http://www.audubon.org/newsroom/press-releases/2013/great-backyard-bird-count-goes-global-feb-15-18\" target=\"_blank\">gone international\u003c/a>, though, with countries participating around the globe. The goal is a worthy one: to try and capture over the course of a weekend a significant sampling of all the birds wherever people find them –- especially targeting urban areas around our neighborhoods.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You’re probably wondering, “How can I get in on this amazing, easy event?” You simply step outside into your nearest outdoor space –- your yard, balcony, neighborhood park, or even a street -– and identify and count as many bird species as you can see over the course of 15 minutes. The \u003ca title=\"Great Backyard Bird Count website: how to\" href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/howto.html\" target=\"_blank\">GBBC website\u003c/a> has some links to help you, from bird lists to bird identification pages. After your short bird watching session, you can go to the website to report your findings. That’s it. Your efforts will help us double our reports from last year! You can, of course, watch for longer than 15 minutes and submit more than one list.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49594\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 379px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/15/bay-area-bird-challenge/eurasiancollareddove1_debbie_hurlbert_fl_2012_high/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49594\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-49594\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/EurasianCollaredDove1_Debbie_Hurlbert_FL_2012_high-379x253.jpg\" alt=\"Some birds, like this non-native Eurasian collared dove, are expanding their territories. The bird count helps monitor their presence and spread. Photo by Debbie Hurlbert\" width=\"379\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some birds, like this non-native Eurasian collared dove, are expanding their territories. The bird count helps monitor their presence and spread. Photo by \u003ca title=\"Bird source website\" href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/press\" target=\"_blank\">Debbie Hurlbert\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The GBBC website has some cool \u003ca title=\"GBBC statistics\" href=\"http://gbbc.birdsource.org/gbbcApps/results\" target=\"_blank\">statistical modeling\u003c/a> from past years which shows each reported species’ mapped presences over time in an area. With increasing participation of thousands, even tens of thousands of volunteer bird counters, this event can be of great use to scientists and land managers. If the GBBC has inspired you to learn more about this great hobby of bird watching, there are many places you can go to enjoy it with others or on your own. In fact, \u003ca title=\"www.ebparks.org/activities\" href=\"https://activenet021.active.com/ebparks/\" target=\"_blank\">East Bay Regional Parks naturalists\u003c/a> offer free bird watching walks perfect for beginners or for experienced birders looking for company on various weekends or weekday mornings; check the program listings on their website. The Audubon Society has local chapters that also offer free programs. See the \u003ca title=\"Golden Gate Audubon field trips\" href=\"http://www.goldengateaudubon.org/field-trips/upcoming-field-trips-2012/\" target=\"_blank\">Golden Gate Audubon website\u003c/a> for more information.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_49591\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 503px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/15/bay-area-bird-challenge/americangoldfinch_pamelawertz_la_2012_high/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-49591\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-49591 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/AmericanGoldfinch_PamelaWertz_LA_2012_high-e1360872454348.jpg\" alt=\"You may find a backyard-bird gem like this American goldfinch. Photo by Pamela Wertz.\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/AmericanGoldfinch_PamelaWertz_LA_2012_high-e1360872454348.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/02/AmericanGoldfinch_PamelaWertz_LA_2012_high-e1360872454348-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">You may find a backyard-bird gem like this American goldfinch. 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It’s already \u003ca title=\"Audubon website; GBBC goes global feb 15-18 2013\" href=\"http://www.audubon.org/newsroom/press-releases/2013/great-backyard-bird-count-goes-global-feb-15-18\" target=\"_blank\">gone international\u003c/a>, though, with countries participating around the globe. The goal is a worthy one: to try and capture over the course of a weekend a significant sampling of all the birds wherever people find them –- especially targeting urban areas around our neighborhoods.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You’re probably wondering, “How can I get in on this amazing, easy event?” You simply step outside into your nearest outdoor space –- your yard, balcony, neighborhood park, or even a street -– and identify and count as many bird species as you can see over the course of 15 minutes. 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Photo by \u003ca title=\"Bird source website\" href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/press\" target=\"_blank\">Debbie Hurlbert\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The GBBC website has some cool \u003ca title=\"GBBC statistics\" href=\"http://gbbc.birdsource.org/gbbcApps/results\" target=\"_blank\">statistical modeling\u003c/a> from past years which shows each reported species’ mapped presences over time in an area. With increasing participation of thousands, even tens of thousands of volunteer bird counters, this event can be of great use to scientists and land managers. If the GBBC has inspired you to learn more about this great hobby of bird watching, there are many places you can go to enjoy it with others or on your own. 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"source": "kqed",
"order": 3
},
"link": "/podcasts/baycurious",
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}
},
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"id": "bbc-world-service",
"title": "BBC World Service",
"info": "The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/live:bbc_world_service",
"meta": {
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"source": "BBC World Service"
},
"link": "/radio/program/bbc-world-service",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/global-news-podcast/id135067274?mt=2",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/radio/BBC-World-Service-p455581/",
"rss": "https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"
}
},
"californiareport": {
"id": "californiareport",
"title": "The California Report",
"tagline": "California, day by day",
"info": "KQED’s statewide radio news program providing daily coverage of issues, trends and public policy decisions.",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-California-Report-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED The California Report",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/californiareport",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "kqed",
"order": 8
},
"link": "/californiareport",
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"amazon": "https://music.amazon.com/podcasts/26099305-72af-4542-9dde-ac1807fe36d5/kqed-s-the-california-report",
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}
},
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"id": "californiareportmagazine",
"title": "The California Report Magazine",
"tagline": "Your state, your stories",
"info": "Every week, The California Report Magazine takes you on a road trip for the ears: to visit the places and meet the people who make California unique. The in-depth storytelling podcast from the California Report.",
"airtime": "FRI 4:30pm-5pm, 6:30pm-7pm, 11pm-11:30pm",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/californiareportmagazine",
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"order": 10
},
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM3NjkwNjk1OTAz",
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},
"city-arts": {
"id": "city-arts",
"title": "City Arts & Lectures",
"info": "A one-hour radio program to hear celebrated writers, artists and thinkers address contemporary ideas and values, often discussing the creative process. Please note: tapes or transcripts are not available",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/05/cityartsandlecture-300x300.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.cityarts.net/",
"airtime": "SUN 1pm-2pm, TUE 10pm, WED 1am",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "City Arts & Lectures"
},
"link": "https://www.cityarts.net",
"subscribe": {
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/radio/City-Arts-and-Lectures-p692/",
"rss": "https://www.cityarts.net/feed/"
}
},
"closealltabs": {
"id": "closealltabs",
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"info": "Close All Tabs breaks down how digital culture shapes our world through thoughtful insights and irreverent humor.",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/closealltabs",
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"order": 1
},
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"code-switch-life-kit": {
"id": "code-switch-life-kit",
"title": "Code Switch / Life Kit",
"info": "\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />",
"airtime": "SUN 9pm-10pm",
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"meta": {
"site": "radio",
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},
"link": "/radio/program/code-switch-life-kit",
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy",
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"commonwealth-club": {
"id": "commonwealth-club",
"title": "Commonwealth Club of California Podcast",
"info": "The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.",
"airtime": "THU 10pm, FRI 1am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "Commonwealth Club of California"
},
"link": "/radio/program/commonwealth-club",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw",
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}
},
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"id": "forum",
"title": "Forum",
"tagline": "The conversation starts here",
"info": "KQED’s live call-in program discussing local, state, national and international issues, as well as in-depth interviews.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 9am-11am, 10pm-11pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Forum-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Forum with Mina Kim and Alexis Madrigal",
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"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 9
},
"link": "/forum",
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM5NTU3MzgxNjMz",
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},
"freakonomics-radio": {
"id": "freakonomics-radio",
"title": "Freakonomics Radio",
"info": "Freakonomics Radio is a one-hour award-winning podcast and public-radio project hosted by Stephen Dubner, with co-author Steve Levitt as a regular guest. It is produced in partnership with WNYC.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/freakonomicsRadio.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://freakonomics.com/",
"airtime": "SUN 1am-2am, SAT 3pm-4pm",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WNYC"
},
"link": "/radio/program/freakonomics-radio",
"subscribe": {
"npr": "https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/4s8b",
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/freakonomics-radio/id354668519",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/WNYC-Podcasts/Freakonomics-Radio-p272293/",
"rss": "https://feeds.feedburner.com/freakonomicsradio"
}
},
"fresh-air": {
"id": "fresh-air",
"title": "Fresh Air",
"info": "Hosted by Terry Gross, \u003cem>Fresh Air from WHYY\u003c/em> is the Peabody Award-winning weekday magazine of contemporary arts and issues. One of public radio's most popular programs, Fresh Air features intimate conversations with today's biggest luminaries.",
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"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Fresh-Air-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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"meta": {
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"link": "/radio/program/fresh-air",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=214089682&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/381444908/podcast.xml"
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"here-and-now": {
"id": "here-and-now",
"title": "Here & Now",
"info": "A live production of NPR and WBUR Boston, in collaboration with stations across the country, Here & Now reflects the fluid world of news as it's happening in the middle of the day, with timely, in-depth news, interviews and conversation. Hosted by Robin Young, Jeremy Hobson and Tonya Mosley.",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510051/podcast.xml"
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},
"hidden-brain": {
"id": "hidden-brain",
"title": "Hidden Brain",
"info": "Shankar Vedantam uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, shape our choices and direct our relationships.",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/series/423302056/hidden-brain",
"airtime": "SUN 7pm-8pm",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "NPR"
},
"link": "/radio/program/hidden-brain",
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"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/Science-Podcasts/Hidden-Brain-p787503/",
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},
"how-i-built-this": {
"id": "how-i-built-this",
"title": "How I Built This with Guy Raz",
"info": "Guy Raz dives into the stories behind some of the world's best known companies. How I Built This weaves a narrative journey about innovators, entrepreneurs and idealists—and the movements they built.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/howIBuiltThis.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510313/how-i-built-this",
"airtime": "SUN 7:30pm-8pm",
"meta": {
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"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/how-i-built-this",
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"npr": "https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/3zxy",
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/how-i-built-this-with-guy-raz/id1150510297?mt=2",
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},
"hyphenacion": {
"id": "hyphenacion",
"title": "Hyphenación",
"tagline": "Where conversation and cultura meet",
"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hyphenacion_FinalAssets_PodcastTile.png",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/hyphenacion",
"meta": {
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"order": 15
},
"link": "/podcasts/hyphenacion",
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"spotify": "https://open.spotify.com/show/2p3Fifq96nw9BPcmFdIq0o?si=39209f7b25774f38",
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},
"jerrybrown": {
"id": "jerrybrown",
"title": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown",
"tagline": "Lessons from a lifetime in politics",
"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-Political-Mind-of-Jerry-Brown-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
"meta": {
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"order": 18
},
"link": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/id1492194549",
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}
},
"latino-usa": {
"id": "latino-usa",
"title": "Latino USA",
"airtime": "MON 1am-2am, SUN 6pm-7pm",
"info": "Latino USA, the radio journal of news and culture, is the only national, English-language radio program produced from a Latino perspective.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/latinoUsa.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://latinousa.org/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/latino-usa",
"subscribe": {
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=79681317&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510016/podcast.xml"
}
},
"marketplace": {
"id": "marketplace",
"title": "Marketplace",
"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 4pm-4:30pm, MON-WED 6:30pm-7pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marketplace-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.marketplace.org/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "American Public Media"
},
"link": "/radio/program/marketplace",
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"rss": "https://feeds.publicradio.org/public_feeds/marketplace-pm/rss/rss"
}
},
"masters-of-scale": {
"id": "masters-of-scale",
"title": "Masters of Scale",
"info": "Masters of Scale is an original podcast in which LinkedIn co-founder and Greylock Partner Reid Hoffman sets out to describe and prove theories that explain how great entrepreneurs take their companies from zero to a gazillion in ingenious fashion.",
"airtime": "Every other Wednesday June 12 through October 16 at 8pm (repeats Thursdays at 2am)",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Masters-of-Scale-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://mastersofscale.com/",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WaitWhat"
},
"link": "/radio/program/masters-of-scale",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "http://mastersofscale.app.link/",
"rss": "https://rss.art19.com/masters-of-scale"
}
},
"mindshift": {
"id": "mindshift",
"title": "MindShift",
"tagline": "A podcast about the future of learning and how we raise our kids",
"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/mindshift/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "kqed",
"order": 12
},
"link": "/podcasts/mindshift",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5",
"npr": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast",
"stitcher": "https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share",
"spotify": "https://open.spotify.com/show/0MxSpNYZKNprFLCl7eEtyx"
}
},
"morning-edition": {
"id": "morning-edition",
"title": "Morning Edition",
"info": "\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 3am-9am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Morning-Edition-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/programs/morning-edition/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/morning-edition"
},
"onourwatch": {
"id": "onourwatch",
"title": "On Our Watch",
"tagline": "Deeply-reported investigative journalism",
"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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