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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of Jupiter's most controversial campaign promises included demoting Mercury to a \"toy planet,\" a new category of not-quite-planet to be created specifically for objects of approximately Mercury's size and obstinate disposition. This move would leave room in the nine-seat Congress for gas-sympathizers Ganymede and Titan. The Advisory Council has been silent on whether or not such a move would be permissible. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jupiter has promised to lengthen the years of every planet, but particularly those of the gas giants. In Earth Year 1997, Mars, along with Mercury, Earth, and then-planet Pluto, famously questioned where the funding for these time increases will come from; Jupiter has maintained that the additional time provided per annum will leave ample opportunity for funding strategies to be developed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While Earth's jobs as Minority Whip and Prime Minister of the Inner Circle High Council remain unthreatened, it could find its political influence eclipsed by the rising gas giants' power.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa has, as expected, refrained from comment, consistent with its change in border status in Earth Year 2001.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "California's (and the World's) Oldest Rocks",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33953\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33953\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"preCgneiss\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33953\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The nearest place to see California's oldest rock is around Mount Pinos, near Frazier Park west of the Grapevine on I-5. But you can touch a piece of the oldest rock on the whole planet much closer to the Bay Area. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I'm glad to see that Ben Burress, my colleague at KQED QUEST, was open to the thrill of deep time as \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/\">he laid hands on some of California's oldest rock\u003c/a> in Death Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When I went to geology school, back in the ice ages, I brought with me the same normal, healthy fascination with extreme age—geological age. At that time there was still a great deal of mystery about the earliest times. To me, the most mysterious thing you could call a rock was \"Precambrian,\" that is, rock dating from the time before the earliest hard fossils appeared, marking the base of the Cambrian Period. Precambrian time amounts to four billion years, nine-tenths of all Earth history. Unlike familiar, fossil-studded post-Precambrian time (I know that's a weird term: geologists call it the Phanerozoic Eon), the Precambrian was an endless succession of enigmatic, mashed-up rocks. Their story wasn't really a story but a pile of hints and fragments—mountain ranges rising and eroding, continents merging and separating, just one damn thing after (or before?) another in the dimness of deep time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have a better picture of the Precambrian now, but really, it's still pretty blurry. If you look at the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geotime_dating/a/Geologic-Time-Scale-All-Periods.htm\">geologic time scale\u003c/a>, you'll see that the Precambrian time divisions are set at arbitrary even numbers of years, not significant geologic events. In California, our oldest rocks all originated around 1700 million years ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era, and they all sit in the corner of the state outlined on this geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33952\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 459px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33952\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/PreCgeomap-459x360.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"PreCgeomap\" width=\"459\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-33952\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian rocks are shown as scattered patches of dark brown on this high-level geologic map of California. Click it to see it at 1000 pixels.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The outline marks a segment of the North American continent's ancient foundation—the craton—called Mojavia for the Mojave Desert. It's a pretty young part of the craton, and it's all we've got.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The oldest basement rocks of Mojavia are all highly altered—squeezed and stretched rocks classified as gneiss or schist. And they're still on the move today as plate-tectonic interactions are both stretching western North America apart and, in California, yanking it northward along the San Andreas fault system. Just as Sierran granite (shown in red) has been pulled all the way up to the Bay Area, so has a big chunk of Mojavia making up the San Gabriel Mountains. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The westernmost outlier of those Paleoproterozoic rocks crops out in the San Emigdio Range, which forms the rim of the Central Valley southwest of Bakersfield. The quickest way to see them is to turn west off of Interstate 5 toward Frazier Park, then drive up either Frazier Mountain or Mount Pinos (Cerro Noroeste is also possible if you're ambitious). The gneiss shown at the top of this post is on Mount Pinos. It was turned into gneiss around 1450 million years ago, but the rock originated as something else, probably a sandy mudstone, around 1700 million years ago (source, USGS OF-02-406).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Elsewhere in California, you can repeat Ben Burress's experience in Death Valley by walking up the canyon at Badwater, but a more interesting canyon hike with the same Paleoproterozoic rocks starts about 2 miles north of Badwater. And blogger Garry Hayes \u003ca href=\"http://geotripper.blogspot.com/2012/01/other-california-oldest-rocks-well.html\">describes more Paleoproterozoic rocks in the San Gabriels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The really old rocks in America are found in Wyoming and the states around Minnesota. They date from the Paleoarchean Era and are more than 3 billion years old. One example can be easily seen in Washington, D.C., in a prominent spot between the White House and the Washington Monument: the twin \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_dc/ig/washdcgeology/wdchauptfount.htm\">Haupt Fountains\u003c/a>, each one made from a 55-ton slab of Montevideo Gneiss from Minnesota. At the time they were made, this was considered the oldest rock in the country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/hauptftn/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33950\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"hauptftn\" width=\"600\" height=\"429\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33950\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn-400x286.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reddish, scrambled-looking Morton Gneiss is a popular stone for buildings and gravestones, and at 3524 million years of age it's considered to be the oldest bedrock in the United States. You could travel to Minnesota to see it (\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=ccd13c2e-afb5-4922-b058-622efcb413f1\">there's even an EarthCache for it\u003c/a> west of Minneapolis), but don't bother—you probably have samples right in your own town. David B. Williams, author of \u003ci>Stories in Stone\u003c/i>, calls it \u003ca href=\"http://stories-in-stone.blogspot.com/2009/06/most-beautiful-building-stone-in.html\">the country's most beautiful building stone\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/mortongneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33951\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mortongneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33951\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But you can go older still. There's a Canadian rock from a spot in Labrador called Nuvvuagituq said to be 4.28 billion years old, \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2012/03/25/whats-up-with-nuvvuagittuq.htm\">but the date is still not settled\u003c/a>. Today the Acasta Gneiss, also from northern Canada, is the world's oldest firmly dated rock at 4.03 billion years. You can see that one at Rocklin, just up the road. Go to the campus of Sierra College, on the south side, and locate the excellent Earth History Rock Walk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/rockwalk/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33948\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"rockwalk\" width=\"600\" height=\"472\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33948\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk-400x315.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There, among the assorted amazing and instructive boulders, is a nice chunk of Acasta Gneiss.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/acastagneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33949\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"acastagneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33949\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss-400x280.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But whenever I want to experience the deepest possible deep time, I reach for a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">meteorite\u003c/a> from my collection and lick it. Nearly every common meteorite is older than Earth itself.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "California has some pretty ancient rocks, but to experience \u003ci>really\u003c/i> old rocks you don't need to look far.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33953\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33953\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"preCgneiss\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33953\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The nearest place to see California's oldest rock is around Mount Pinos, near Frazier Park west of the Grapevine on I-5. But you can touch a piece of the oldest rock on the whole planet much closer to the Bay Area. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I'm glad to see that Ben Burress, my colleague at KQED QUEST, was open to the thrill of deep time as \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/\">he laid hands on some of California's oldest rock\u003c/a> in Death Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When I went to geology school, back in the ice ages, I brought with me the same normal, healthy fascination with extreme age—geological age. At that time there was still a great deal of mystery about the earliest times. To me, the most mysterious thing you could call a rock was \"Precambrian,\" that is, rock dating from the time before the earliest hard fossils appeared, marking the base of the Cambrian Period. Precambrian time amounts to four billion years, nine-tenths of all Earth history. Unlike familiar, fossil-studded post-Precambrian time (I know that's a weird term: geologists call it the Phanerozoic Eon), the Precambrian was an endless succession of enigmatic, mashed-up rocks. Their story wasn't really a story but a pile of hints and fragments—mountain ranges rising and eroding, continents merging and separating, just one damn thing after (or before?) another in the dimness of deep time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have a better picture of the Precambrian now, but really, it's still pretty blurry. If you look at the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geotime_dating/a/Geologic-Time-Scale-All-Periods.htm\">geologic time scale\u003c/a>, you'll see that the Precambrian time divisions are set at arbitrary even numbers of years, not significant geologic events. In California, our oldest rocks all originated around 1700 million years ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era, and they all sit in the corner of the state outlined on this geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33952\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 459px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33952\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/PreCgeomap-459x360.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"PreCgeomap\" width=\"459\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-33952\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian rocks are shown as scattered patches of dark brown on this high-level geologic map of California. Click it to see it at 1000 pixels.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The outline marks a segment of the North American continent's ancient foundation—the craton—called Mojavia for the Mojave Desert. It's a pretty young part of the craton, and it's all we've got.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The oldest basement rocks of Mojavia are all highly altered—squeezed and stretched rocks classified as gneiss or schist. And they're still on the move today as plate-tectonic interactions are both stretching western North America apart and, in California, yanking it northward along the San Andreas fault system. Just as Sierran granite (shown in red) has been pulled all the way up to the Bay Area, so has a big chunk of Mojavia making up the San Gabriel Mountains. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The westernmost outlier of those Paleoproterozoic rocks crops out in the San Emigdio Range, which forms the rim of the Central Valley southwest of Bakersfield. The quickest way to see them is to turn west off of Interstate 5 toward Frazier Park, then drive up either Frazier Mountain or Mount Pinos (Cerro Noroeste is also possible if you're ambitious). The gneiss shown at the top of this post is on Mount Pinos. It was turned into gneiss around 1450 million years ago, but the rock originated as something else, probably a sandy mudstone, around 1700 million years ago (source, USGS OF-02-406).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Elsewhere in California, you can repeat Ben Burress's experience in Death Valley by walking up the canyon at Badwater, but a more interesting canyon hike with the same Paleoproterozoic rocks starts about 2 miles north of Badwater. And blogger Garry Hayes \u003ca href=\"http://geotripper.blogspot.com/2012/01/other-california-oldest-rocks-well.html\">describes more Paleoproterozoic rocks in the San Gabriels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The really old rocks in America are found in Wyoming and the states around Minnesota. They date from the Paleoarchean Era and are more than 3 billion years old. One example can be easily seen in Washington, D.C., in a prominent spot between the White House and the Washington Monument: the twin \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_dc/ig/washdcgeology/wdchauptfount.htm\">Haupt Fountains\u003c/a>, each one made from a 55-ton slab of Montevideo Gneiss from Minnesota. At the time they were made, this was considered the oldest rock in the country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/hauptftn/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33950\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"hauptftn\" width=\"600\" height=\"429\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33950\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn-400x286.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reddish, scrambled-looking Morton Gneiss is a popular stone for buildings and gravestones, and at 3524 million years of age it's considered to be the oldest bedrock in the United States. You could travel to Minnesota to see it (\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=ccd13c2e-afb5-4922-b058-622efcb413f1\">there's even an EarthCache for it\u003c/a> west of Minneapolis), but don't bother—you probably have samples right in your own town. David B. Williams, author of \u003ci>Stories in Stone\u003c/i>, calls it \u003ca href=\"http://stories-in-stone.blogspot.com/2009/06/most-beautiful-building-stone-in.html\">the country's most beautiful building stone\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/mortongneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33951\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mortongneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33951\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But you can go older still. There's a Canadian rock from a spot in Labrador called Nuvvuagituq said to be 4.28 billion years old, \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2012/03/25/whats-up-with-nuvvuagittuq.htm\">but the date is still not settled\u003c/a>. Today the Acasta Gneiss, also from northern Canada, is the world's oldest firmly dated rock at 4.03 billion years. You can see that one at Rocklin, just up the road. Go to the campus of Sierra College, on the south side, and locate the excellent Earth History Rock Walk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/rockwalk/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33948\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"rockwalk\" width=\"600\" height=\"472\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33948\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk-400x315.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There, among the assorted amazing and instructive boulders, is a nice chunk of Acasta Gneiss.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/acastagneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33949\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"acastagneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33949\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss-400x280.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But whenever I want to experience the deepest possible deep time, I reach for a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">meteorite\u003c/a> from my collection and lick it. Nearly every common meteorite is older than Earth itself.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33722\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/mosaiccanyon/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33722\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg\" alt=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" title=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33722\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What's the oldest stuff you’ve ever seen, or better still, touched? Have you ever felt awe from contact with something of great antiquity? How old can stuff be? These are questions that have ravaged my mind since childhood. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've always loved things of antiquity—antique objects, artifacts, fossils, and rocks. \"Like.\" But what's that got to do with astronomy and space? Well, that's where all the oldest stuff originally comes from...but I'll get to that in a moment. First, an anecdote about old stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In search of the oldest stuff, there I was at Badwater, in Death Valley, the lowest point in the continental US (the place where you crane your neck and strain your eyes to make out the words \"Sea Level\" on the sign \u003ca href=\"http://images.californiathroughmylens.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/badwater-below-sea-level.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">waaaay up the cliff\u003c/a>). Not far off, to the south, an alluvial fan slouched off into the salt pan, issuing from an unseen but obviously existent canyon in the mountains that make up the east wall of the valley. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I had learned at the visitor center that those mountains (the Black Mountains) are made of some \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/deva/ftbad1.html\" target=\"_blank\">very old rock\u003c/a>: Precambrian rock that was originally laid down about 1.7 billion years ago!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, up the alluvial fan I scramble, turn left, and up the deep, narrow canyon that the alluvium betrayed…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to the base of a dry waterfall…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to a wall of raw, exposed rock, the very bones of the Black Mountains…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…and reach out a hand, pressing palm and fingers firmly to the stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ahh….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>1.7 billion years old; that rock I touched had been rock (albeit slowly transforming) for over a third of Earth's existence, and over a tenth the age of the universe itself. I don't know about you, but I find that awesome! And I had my hand right on it! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we talk about the age of a rock, it is measured from the time the rock solidified (\"aggregated\"), either with the cooling of molten lava or magma, or the solidification of sediment. Finding really old rocks on Earth is complicated by weather and geologic processes, which continually transform, bury, and \"disaggregate\" them. Even so, very old rock can be found in certain places, like Greenland, Canada, Australia, and Africa. We're talking about ages between 2.5 and 3.8 billion years, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080925144624.htm\" target=\"_blank\">maybe more\u003c/a>. I'd like to get my hand on some of that!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get away from Earth and its rock-disaggregating processes and you can find some much older stuff. On the Moon, pretty much all of the material you find lying about is \u003ca href=\"http://www.moonzoo.org/Lunar_Geology\" target=\"_blank\">at least twice as old\u003c/a> as that stuff I put my hand on at the base of the Black Mountains. On the Moon, significant surface activity (volcanism, bombardment by asteroids) ended some 3 billion years ago, and since then the crust has remained more or less unchanged, other than alterations caused by the occasional meteorite impact. The youngest rocks on the Moon are about the same age as most of the Earth's oldest stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We even have a piece of that old stuff at Chabot: a chunk of 3.3 billion year old basalt brought back by Apollo 15 astronauts--and the only things that separate my hand from its speckly gray surface are two panes of glass and some nitrogen gas. Alas!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get out to an asteroid or a comet and you may very well be setting foot on stuff that's over 4.5 billion years old, unchanged since the formation of our solar system! Within our solar system, that's about as old as stuff gets, but venture beyond it, perhaps to a planetary system that is older than ours, and you'll undoubtedly find older stuff! (This blog post is beginning to ring of George Carlin material.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what's the oldest stuff? I can't give you a rock of age beyond a certain point in time, because it took the early universe some time to develop the elements needed to build rocks-as-we-know-them, through nucleosynthesis in the cores of stars. Before that time, the only \"stuff\" around (at least that we would recognize as stuff; we won't go into dark stuff right now) was hydrogen and helium, which cannot by themselves a rock make. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But that primordial hydrogen and helium, the original building blocks of all material substances, has been around almost from the beginning of time, 13.7 billion years ago, soon after the Big Bang burst forth on the scene (whatever scene that may have been). Hydrogen, found in every water molecule in every glass of water you drink, in vast abundance within the oceans and waterways of the Earth, and through and through your own body, head to toe, is stuff we live and breathe, and is as old as the universe itself! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don't know about you, but I find that spine-tingling.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33722\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/mosaiccanyon/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33722\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg\" alt=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" title=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33722\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What's the oldest stuff you’ve ever seen, or better still, touched? Have you ever felt awe from contact with something of great antiquity? How old can stuff be? These are questions that have ravaged my mind since childhood. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've always loved things of antiquity—antique objects, artifacts, fossils, and rocks. \"Like.\" But what's that got to do with astronomy and space? Well, that's where all the oldest stuff originally comes from...but I'll get to that in a moment. First, an anecdote about old stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In search of the oldest stuff, there I was at Badwater, in Death Valley, the lowest point in the continental US (the place where you crane your neck and strain your eyes to make out the words \"Sea Level\" on the sign \u003ca href=\"http://images.californiathroughmylens.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/badwater-below-sea-level.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">waaaay up the cliff\u003c/a>). Not far off, to the south, an alluvial fan slouched off into the salt pan, issuing from an unseen but obviously existent canyon in the mountains that make up the east wall of the valley. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I had learned at the visitor center that those mountains (the Black Mountains) are made of some \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/deva/ftbad1.html\" target=\"_blank\">very old rock\u003c/a>: Precambrian rock that was originally laid down about 1.7 billion years ago!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, up the alluvial fan I scramble, turn left, and up the deep, narrow canyon that the alluvium betrayed…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to the base of a dry waterfall…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to a wall of raw, exposed rock, the very bones of the Black Mountains…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…and reach out a hand, pressing palm and fingers firmly to the stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ahh….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>1.7 billion years old; that rock I touched had been rock (albeit slowly transforming) for over a third of Earth's existence, and over a tenth the age of the universe itself. I don't know about you, but I find that awesome! And I had my hand right on it! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we talk about the age of a rock, it is measured from the time the rock solidified (\"aggregated\"), either with the cooling of molten lava or magma, or the solidification of sediment. Finding really old rocks on Earth is complicated by weather and geologic processes, which continually transform, bury, and \"disaggregate\" them. Even so, very old rock can be found in certain places, like Greenland, Canada, Australia, and Africa. We're talking about ages between 2.5 and 3.8 billion years, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080925144624.htm\" target=\"_blank\">maybe more\u003c/a>. I'd like to get my hand on some of that!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get away from Earth and its rock-disaggregating processes and you can find some much older stuff. On the Moon, pretty much all of the material you find lying about is \u003ca href=\"http://www.moonzoo.org/Lunar_Geology\" target=\"_blank\">at least twice as old\u003c/a> as that stuff I put my hand on at the base of the Black Mountains. On the Moon, significant surface activity (volcanism, bombardment by asteroids) ended some 3 billion years ago, and since then the crust has remained more or less unchanged, other than alterations caused by the occasional meteorite impact. The youngest rocks on the Moon are about the same age as most of the Earth's oldest stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We even have a piece of that old stuff at Chabot: a chunk of 3.3 billion year old basalt brought back by Apollo 15 astronauts--and the only things that separate my hand from its speckly gray surface are two panes of glass and some nitrogen gas. Alas!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get out to an asteroid or a comet and you may very well be setting foot on stuff that's over 4.5 billion years old, unchanged since the formation of our solar system! Within our solar system, that's about as old as stuff gets, but venture beyond it, perhaps to a planetary system that is older than ours, and you'll undoubtedly find older stuff! (This blog post is beginning to ring of George Carlin material.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what's the oldest stuff? I can't give you a rock of age beyond a certain point in time, because it took the early universe some time to develop the elements needed to build rocks-as-we-know-them, through nucleosynthesis in the cores of stars. Before that time, the only \"stuff\" around (at least that we would recognize as stuff; we won't go into dark stuff right now) was hydrogen and helium, which cannot by themselves a rock make. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But that primordial hydrogen and helium, the original building blocks of all material substances, has been around almost from the beginning of time, 13.7 billion years ago, soon after the Big Bang burst forth on the scene (whatever scene that may have been). Hydrogen, found in every water molecule in every glass of water you drink, in vast abundance within the oceans and waterways of the Earth, and through and through your own body, head to toe, is stuff we live and breathe, and is as old as the universe itself! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don't know about you, but I find that spine-tingling.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Solar FireworX: First X-Class Flare of the Year ",
"title": "Solar FireworX: First X-Class Flare of the Year ",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32565\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/09/solar-fireworks-first-x-class-flare-of-the-year/sdo-solarflare-030712/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32565\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/SDO-solarflare-030712.jpg\" alt=\"SDO Solar Flare on March 7 2012\" title=\"SDO Solar Flare on March 7 2012\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32565\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/SDO-solarflare-030712.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/SDO-solarflare-030712-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">SDO Solar Flare--the bright spot on the left--on March 7 2012. Credit: NASA/SDO\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The first X-Class solar flare of the year went off on March 7th in \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/News030712-X5-4.html\" title=\"March 7/8 2012 Solar Flare\" target=\"_blank\">spectacular fashion\u003c/a>. Fortunately the flare went off where it's supposed to: on the Sun. Had this intense magneto-plasmic explosion gone off on Earth, we'd be toast; one of these releases an amount of energy on the order of 100 billion megatons of TNT. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar flares are highly energetic bursts of energy ignited by magnetically active regions on the Sun. Magnetic fields, generated by the motion of the Sun's hot, electrically charged gases, cause many of the Sun's more showy features, including the blemish familiar to most, the sunspot. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yesterday, that's exactly what we saw from Chabot's observatory deck: a sunspot…and we didn't even need a telescope to see it! Let me explain. The active region that produced the powerful X-class flare only hours earlier left its mark on the Sun's bright complexion with a large cluster of sunspots—such an expansive cluster that it could be seen with the \"naked eye.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, when I say naked eye, in this case I don't mean we were encouraging our visitors (mostly school kids at the time) to stare at the Sun directly. That would be pointless since the Sun is so bright at midday that it blinds us to any features we might see (and could blind us permanently if we look too long, even with sunglasses). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, we have the kids look at the Sun through pieces of welder's goggle glass #14. It's a very dark filter—so dark that you pretty much can't see anything other than the Sun, or a welding torch, through it. This Sun-looking glass lets us peer safely into that wonderland in the sky, the solar disk, which ordinarily averts our attention by sheer brilliance. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through the glass the Sun becomes a greenish disk, the same apparent size as the Moon. Most of the time, that's all we see: a glowing green disk in a sky of blackness. But even that is actually pretty awesome, and the sight routinely catches people by surprise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yesterday, however, the sunspot cluster marking the active region that produced the X-class flare was easily seen, unmagnified: a little dark spot on the Sun. And our eyes didn't even sting. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, a day after the flare, Earth is in the midst of a blast of plasma that was triggered by the flare activity, and a geomagnetic storm is in progress: the impact of an enormous bubble of plasma (electrically charged gas) that was blown in our direction has clobbered Earth's deflector screen, aka its global magnetic field. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though the effects of a solar blast like this one and the geomagnetic storm it can produce usually go unnoticed by most, the event can cross over into our lives, if severe enough. Interference in telecommunications from atmospheric disturbance and even the rare power blackout caused by a magnetically induced overload of a power grid, have happened. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In space, satellites have been damaged by these storms, and astronauts on the space station generally take cover and wait them out. And closer to Earth's poles, lucky residents may be treated to a bright display of the Aurora—the Northern and Southern lights—as auroras are powered by solar activity. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://spaceweather.com/\" title=\"Spaceweather.com\" target=\"_blank\">We should expect more strong flares\u003c/a> over the next year or so as the Sun proceeds through the peak in its current activity cycle, expected to climax sometime in 2013. I fully expect to view more \"naked-but-protected-eye\" sunspots, and to enjoy plenty of colorful movies of solar activity from NASA's \u003ca href=\"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/\" title=\"Solar Dynamics Observatory\" target=\"_blank\">Solar Dynamics Observatory\u003c/a> (now on display in Chabot's telescope domes). Drop by Chabot on a sunny day and we'll put spots in your eyes. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The first X-Class solar flare of the year went off yesterday, on March 7th, in spectacular fashion. Fortunately the flare went off where it's supposed to: on the Sun. Had this intense magneto-plasmic explosion gone off on Earth, we'd be toast; one of these releases an amount of energy on the order of 100 billion megatons of TNT. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32565\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/09/solar-fireworks-first-x-class-flare-of-the-year/sdo-solarflare-030712/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32565\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/SDO-solarflare-030712.jpg\" alt=\"SDO Solar Flare on March 7 2012\" title=\"SDO Solar Flare on March 7 2012\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32565\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/SDO-solarflare-030712.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/SDO-solarflare-030712-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">SDO Solar Flare--the bright spot on the left--on March 7 2012. Credit: NASA/SDO\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The first X-Class solar flare of the year went off on March 7th in \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/News030712-X5-4.html\" title=\"March 7/8 2012 Solar Flare\" target=\"_blank\">spectacular fashion\u003c/a>. Fortunately the flare went off where it's supposed to: on the Sun. Had this intense magneto-plasmic explosion gone off on Earth, we'd be toast; one of these releases an amount of energy on the order of 100 billion megatons of TNT. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar flares are highly energetic bursts of energy ignited by magnetically active regions on the Sun. Magnetic fields, generated by the motion of the Sun's hot, electrically charged gases, cause many of the Sun's more showy features, including the blemish familiar to most, the sunspot. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yesterday, that's exactly what we saw from Chabot's observatory deck: a sunspot…and we didn't even need a telescope to see it! Let me explain. The active region that produced the powerful X-class flare only hours earlier left its mark on the Sun's bright complexion with a large cluster of sunspots—such an expansive cluster that it could be seen with the \"naked eye.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, when I say naked eye, in this case I don't mean we were encouraging our visitors (mostly school kids at the time) to stare at the Sun directly. That would be pointless since the Sun is so bright at midday that it blinds us to any features we might see (and could blind us permanently if we look too long, even with sunglasses). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, we have the kids look at the Sun through pieces of welder's goggle glass #14. It's a very dark filter—so dark that you pretty much can't see anything other than the Sun, or a welding torch, through it. This Sun-looking glass lets us peer safely into that wonderland in the sky, the solar disk, which ordinarily averts our attention by sheer brilliance. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through the glass the Sun becomes a greenish disk, the same apparent size as the Moon. Most of the time, that's all we see: a glowing green disk in a sky of blackness. But even that is actually pretty awesome, and the sight routinely catches people by surprise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yesterday, however, the sunspot cluster marking the active region that produced the X-class flare was easily seen, unmagnified: a little dark spot on the Sun. And our eyes didn't even sting. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, a day after the flare, Earth is in the midst of a blast of plasma that was triggered by the flare activity, and a geomagnetic storm is in progress: the impact of an enormous bubble of plasma (electrically charged gas) that was blown in our direction has clobbered Earth's deflector screen, aka its global magnetic field. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though the effects of a solar blast like this one and the geomagnetic storm it can produce usually go unnoticed by most, the event can cross over into our lives, if severe enough. Interference in telecommunications from atmospheric disturbance and even the rare power blackout caused by a magnetically induced overload of a power grid, have happened. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In space, satellites have been damaged by these storms, and astronauts on the space station generally take cover and wait them out. And closer to Earth's poles, lucky residents may be treated to a bright display of the Aurora—the Northern and Southern lights—as auroras are powered by solar activity. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://spaceweather.com/\" title=\"Spaceweather.com\" target=\"_blank\">We should expect more strong flares\u003c/a> over the next year or so as the Sun proceeds through the peak in its current activity cycle, expected to climax sometime in 2013. I fully expect to view more \"naked-but-protected-eye\" sunspots, and to enjoy plenty of colorful movies of solar activity from NASA's \u003ca href=\"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/\" title=\"Solar Dynamics Observatory\" target=\"_blank\">Solar Dynamics Observatory\u003c/a> (now on display in Chabot's telescope domes). Drop by Chabot on a sunny day and we'll put spots in your eyes. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Starship Math: Are the Stars Our Destiny?",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31191\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/24/starship-math-are-the-stars-our-destiny/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31191\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani.jpg\" alt=\"Hypothetical Space Shuttle at Epsilon Eridani\" title=\"Hypothetical Space Shuttle at Epsilon Eridani\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31191\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hypothetical Space Shuttle at Epsilon Eridani. Credit for base image: NASA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Once again I have drifted off thinking about the size and scale of space--the things in it and the distances between them--and once again have brought pen and paper, math, and a spreadsheet to bear on the question: are the stars in our destiny, or is the notion of physically reaching them (in person, at least) beyond the available realities?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With all of the science fiction stories devised to get their characters to other stars not only within their lifetimes, but sometimes within a few paltry days, it’s easy to think of interstellar travel as something we might eventually get around to, given the technology, time, and money. We just need to figure out how warp drive or hyperspace work, and how to exploit them, and we’re off!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But putting teleportation and wormhole expressways and their ilk on the shelf labeled, “Cool, but probably just fancy” for a moment, what are the Newtonian-Einsteinian requirements to get us to, say, the nearest known \u003ca href=\"http://exoplanet.eu/catalog.php\" title=\"Exoplanet Database\" target=\"_blank\">extrasolar planet\u003c/a>, which orbits the star Epsilon Eridani, 10.4 light years away from us? It’s a gas giant planet larger than Jupiter and orbits well beyond its star’s habitable zone, but it’s a planet after all, and we star-seekers just love planets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now the math that will get us there. I had to assume a mass for our would-be starship, conservatively chosen as 2000 metric tons, or about the weight of the Space Shuttle. In reality that’s far too small a ship for any human interstellar journey, unless the crew are all frozen. And keep in mind, my calculation does not take into account the weight of any fuel we need to carry with us. I’m also choosing a top cruising (coasting) speed of one-tenth the speed of light, or 30,000 kilometers per second. A tenth light speed is pretty darned fast, but not so fast that we need to worry much about \u003ca href=\"http://www.1728.org/reltivty.htm\" title=\"Relativity Calculator\" target=\"_blank\">relativistic mass\u003c/a>—that is, the increase in the spaceship’s effective mass when traveling a significant fraction of the speed of light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If our engines can produce thrust sufficient to accelerate our 2000 ton spaceship at a rate of “1 gee”, or one Earth-gravity equivalent (~10 meters per second, per second), then to achieve a velocity of one-tenth light speed we’ll need to run those engines for about 35 days, non-stop. We should assume our engines are powered by nuclear fusion or even antimatter reaction (possible future technologies that today present technical challenges, but which aren’t on that shelf of sci-fi fancy). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The energy required for this 1-gee, 35-day engine burn of our 2000 ton spaceship is about 900,000,000,000,000 (yes, 900 trillion) MegaJoules, or 250 trillion kilowatt-hours. That’s the same amount of energy required to launch 20 million normal Space Shuttle flights to low Earth orbit, or almost twice the world’s annual energy consumption. And that’s just to get this little ship accelerated to cruising speed. We’d need another like amount of energy to slow it down to its destination in the Epsilon Eridani system. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for how long the trip would take, forgetting the 35 days spent getting up to speed and the 35 days spent slowing down again, traveling 10.4 light years at one-tenth the speed of light would take 104 years, one way. (Although, moving at a tenth light speed, the trip would only feel like 103.5 years due to relativistic effects.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What about the weight of fuel required to do the job? Forget normal rocket fuel; we’d need the energy contained in about 20 billion tons of it just to get to cruising speed—and that doesn’t take into account the mass of the fuel itself, which would also need to be accelerated. Two-thousand ton spacecraft + 20 billion tons of fuel = not practical.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If our engine is powered by hydrogen fusion, we may only need about 3000 tons of fuel (and I’m assuming our fuel is also our propellant—the mass we need to fling out of the engine to accelerate the ship by reaction force; probably not a conservative assumption, in reality). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And if we could use antimatter as our fuel, as does the Starship Enterprise, releasing energy by mixing equal parts antimatter with normal matter, we could carry in our fuel tanks as little as 5 tons of the stuff (plus, I think, 5 tons of normal matter to react with) to achieve cruising speed. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And of course double the fuel amounts if you plan to come to a stop at your destination, 104 years from now.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In summary: tiny cramped ship, 20 tons of antimatter/matter fuel to pack the necessary 500 trillion kilowatt-hours of energy, and 104 years to delivery you to the fabulous Epsilon Eridani system with its one known super-Jupiter sized planet. Anyone interested? Or should we leave space travel to the robot crowd....\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31191\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/24/starship-math-are-the-stars-our-destiny/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31191\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani.jpg\" alt=\"Hypothetical Space Shuttle at Epsilon Eridani\" title=\"Hypothetical Space Shuttle at Epsilon Eridani\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31191\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/spaceshuttle-epsiloneridani-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hypothetical Space Shuttle at Epsilon Eridani. Credit for base image: NASA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Once again I have drifted off thinking about the size and scale of space--the things in it and the distances between them--and once again have brought pen and paper, math, and a spreadsheet to bear on the question: are the stars in our destiny, or is the notion of physically reaching them (in person, at least) beyond the available realities?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With all of the science fiction stories devised to get their characters to other stars not only within their lifetimes, but sometimes within a few paltry days, it’s easy to think of interstellar travel as something we might eventually get around to, given the technology, time, and money. We just need to figure out how warp drive or hyperspace work, and how to exploit them, and we’re off!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But putting teleportation and wormhole expressways and their ilk on the shelf labeled, “Cool, but probably just fancy” for a moment, what are the Newtonian-Einsteinian requirements to get us to, say, the nearest known \u003ca href=\"http://exoplanet.eu/catalog.php\" title=\"Exoplanet Database\" target=\"_blank\">extrasolar planet\u003c/a>, which orbits the star Epsilon Eridani, 10.4 light years away from us? It’s a gas giant planet larger than Jupiter and orbits well beyond its star’s habitable zone, but it’s a planet after all, and we star-seekers just love planets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now the math that will get us there. I had to assume a mass for our would-be starship, conservatively chosen as 2000 metric tons, or about the weight of the Space Shuttle. In reality that’s far too small a ship for any human interstellar journey, unless the crew are all frozen. And keep in mind, my calculation does not take into account the weight of any fuel we need to carry with us. I’m also choosing a top cruising (coasting) speed of one-tenth the speed of light, or 30,000 kilometers per second. A tenth light speed is pretty darned fast, but not so fast that we need to worry much about \u003ca href=\"http://www.1728.org/reltivty.htm\" title=\"Relativity Calculator\" target=\"_blank\">relativistic mass\u003c/a>—that is, the increase in the spaceship’s effective mass when traveling a significant fraction of the speed of light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If our engines can produce thrust sufficient to accelerate our 2000 ton spaceship at a rate of “1 gee”, or one Earth-gravity equivalent (~10 meters per second, per second), then to achieve a velocity of one-tenth light speed we’ll need to run those engines for about 35 days, non-stop. We should assume our engines are powered by nuclear fusion or even antimatter reaction (possible future technologies that today present technical challenges, but which aren’t on that shelf of sci-fi fancy). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The energy required for this 1-gee, 35-day engine burn of our 2000 ton spaceship is about 900,000,000,000,000 (yes, 900 trillion) MegaJoules, or 250 trillion kilowatt-hours. That’s the same amount of energy required to launch 20 million normal Space Shuttle flights to low Earth orbit, or almost twice the world’s annual energy consumption. And that’s just to get this little ship accelerated to cruising speed. We’d need another like amount of energy to slow it down to its destination in the Epsilon Eridani system. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for how long the trip would take, forgetting the 35 days spent getting up to speed and the 35 days spent slowing down again, traveling 10.4 light years at one-tenth the speed of light would take 104 years, one way. (Although, moving at a tenth light speed, the trip would only feel like 103.5 years due to relativistic effects.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What about the weight of fuel required to do the job? Forget normal rocket fuel; we’d need the energy contained in about 20 billion tons of it just to get to cruising speed—and that doesn’t take into account the mass of the fuel itself, which would also need to be accelerated. Two-thousand ton spacecraft + 20 billion tons of fuel = not practical.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If our engine is powered by hydrogen fusion, we may only need about 3000 tons of fuel (and I’m assuming our fuel is also our propellant—the mass we need to fling out of the engine to accelerate the ship by reaction force; probably not a conservative assumption, in reality). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And if we could use antimatter as our fuel, as does the Starship Enterprise, releasing energy by mixing equal parts antimatter with normal matter, we could carry in our fuel tanks as little as 5 tons of the stuff (plus, I think, 5 tons of normal matter to react with) to achieve cruising speed. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And of course double the fuel amounts if you plan to come to a stop at your destination, 104 years from now.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In summary: tiny cramped ship, 20 tons of antimatter/matter fuel to pack the necessary 500 trillion kilowatt-hours of energy, and 104 years to delivery you to the fabulous Epsilon Eridani system with its one known super-Jupiter sized planet. Anyone interested? Or should we leave space travel to the robot crowd....\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Up All Night on NASA's Flying Telescope",
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"content": "\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/02/2012-02-20-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26551\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"NASA-Sofia\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-26551\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, also known as SOFIA. (Photo: NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The new \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/\">SOFIA observatory\u003c/a> isn't your average NASA project. Engineers took a 30-year old 747 airplane, cut a hole in the side and installed a 17-ton telescope. Most telescopes are either on the ground or somewhere in orbit, but SOFIA falls somewhere in the middle, flying around at about 40,000 feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got the chance to hitch a ride on one of its recent research flights as the plane left Moffett Field at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/index.html\">NASA Ames Research Center\u003c/a>. It's definitely not the kind of flight where you get a bag of peanuts and movie. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers take advantage of the nighttime sky, so we left at dusk for 10-hour tour flying zigzags across the Pacific Ocean. Each leg of the journey is carefully calculated so the telescope can pinpoint a far away star. The plane interior is packed with computers and equipment. It also lacks insulation since much of it was removed to install the telescope, so it's both cold and loud inside. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At four in the morning, the astronomers are still hard at work. If they're as tired as I am, they certainly aren't showing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"For me, this is very exciting,\" says Ian McLean, a professor at the University of California-Los Angeles. He usually works on the ground. \"All my career has been ground-based astronomy. So, it's only my second flight.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says there's a good reason to do astronomy in the stratosphere. The atmosphere is thinner, which means it's easier for the telescope to see the stars. \"It's almost as good as space,\" says McLean. \"Not quite, but almost.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And unlike the \u003ca href=\"http://hubblesite.org/\">Hubble Space Telescope\u003c/a>, this telescope lands everyday, which means the scientists can update and fix the equipment. \"By the time you get a mission into orbit, the technology you're using is relatively old. Here we can stay state of the art all the time,\" says McLean. NASA began developing SOFIA in 1997 and almost cancelled the project at one point. It flew its first science mission in November 2010 and now costs about $80 million a year to operate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Searching for a \"Holy Grail\"\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says the SOFIA telescope could show astronomers something that's considered a Holy Grail in their field: seeing a star being born. It happens in huge, dusty clouds – stellar nurseries, as Mclean calls them. \"The cloud is huge, light years across and it's gradually contracting to form a whole nursery of stars.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26560\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679\" width=\"320\" height=\"207\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26560\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Inside NASA's SOFIA Observatory, somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But there's a problem. Astronomers can't see what's happening inside the clouds because, once again, they're made of dust and it's hard to see through.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We don't mean dust bunnies, but we mean little, tiny little grains of solid material. Doesn't matter how big a telescope you have, you can't see inside it,\" McLean says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why SOFIA looks at a special kind of light called \u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">infrared light\u003c/a>. If you look through a telescope on the ground, you're looking at the visible light from space – the light our eyes can see. Infrared light is invisible to us, but it penetrates space dust, which means the telescope can see through the dust too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You get to see what you can't see with your eye. It's like a window has been opened,\" says McLean. They're looking for exactly how stellar nurseries give birth to young stars. McLean says catching a star as it's forming can reveal clues about how own solar system formed. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But star birth isn't the only thing these researchers want to see. They're also looking at the way stars die.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Star on the Way Out\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the plane makes as sharp right turn, the telescope focuses on an object called NGC 7027. It's a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula\">planetary nebula\u003c/a> – also known as a dying star. McLean and his team are capturing an infrared image of the nebula, which is about 3,000 light years away. They can also see what it's made of.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It has a distinctive shape. It's oval. There's a hole in the middle and that's because it literally is a shell of gas that came off the star,\" says McLean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>7027 is dying because the star has run out of fuel – the same fate that our sun will face in about five billion years. As it dies, the star casts off its outer layers, shedding huge amounts of material to form a cloud around it. But it's not entirely a sad story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It won't be wasted,\" says McLean. \"The material that was thrown off by that star in its dying phase, somewhere, millions, perhaps billions of years from now, will find its way into a new star and the planets that form around it.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From dead stars come new stars – and planets like our own. The oxygen and nitrogen in our bodies were once formed inside a star. \"The cosmos is within us,\" as astronomer \u003ca href=\"http://www.carlsagan.com/\">Carl Sagan\u003c/a> once said. \"We're made of star stuff.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As sky begins to lighten, we descend towards the Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility in the Mojave Desert, where the plane is based. The SOFIA telescope is now undergoing service upgrades and then will return to the skies three times a week. Astronomers from around the world are lining up to get on board.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe src=\"http://kqed03.streamguys.us/anon.kqed/slideshow/sofia_slideshow/_files/iframe.html?noscale=640x393\" width=\"640\" height=\"393\" scrolling=\"no\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The Obama Administration’s new budget for NASA was released last week, and calls for cuts to many space programs. But one California-based project is likely to get more money. The SOFIA flying observatory, a telescope mounted on an airplane, is considered more nimble and cost-effective than other projects. Reporter Lauren Sommer recently caught a ride as it flew over the Pacific Ocean.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/02/2012-02-20-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26551\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/NASA-Sofia-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"NASA-Sofia\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-26551\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, also known as SOFIA. (Photo: NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The new \u003ca href=\"http://www.sofia.usra.edu/\">SOFIA observatory\u003c/a> isn't your average NASA project. Engineers took a 30-year old 747 airplane, cut a hole in the side and installed a 17-ton telescope. Most telescopes are either on the ground or somewhere in orbit, but SOFIA falls somewhere in the middle, flying around at about 40,000 feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I got the chance to hitch a ride on one of its recent research flights as the plane left Moffett Field at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/index.html\">NASA Ames Research Center\u003c/a>. It's definitely not the kind of flight where you get a bag of peanuts and movie. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers take advantage of the nighttime sky, so we left at dusk for 10-hour tour flying zigzags across the Pacific Ocean. Each leg of the journey is carefully calculated so the telescope can pinpoint a far away star. The plane interior is packed with computers and equipment. It also lacks insulation since much of it was removed to install the telescope, so it's both cold and loud inside. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At four in the morning, the astronomers are still hard at work. If they're as tired as I am, they certainly aren't showing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"For me, this is very exciting,\" says Ian McLean, a professor at the University of California-Los Angeles. He usually works on the ground. \"All my career has been ground-based astronomy. So, it's only my second flight.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says there's a good reason to do astronomy in the stratosphere. The atmosphere is thinner, which means it's easier for the telescope to see the stars. \"It's almost as good as space,\" says McLean. \"Not quite, but almost.\" \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And unlike the \u003ca href=\"http://hubblesite.org/\">Hubble Space Telescope\u003c/a>, this telescope lands everyday, which means the scientists can update and fix the equipment. \"By the time you get a mission into orbit, the technology you're using is relatively old. Here we can stay state of the art all the time,\" says McLean. NASA began developing SOFIA in 1997 and almost cancelled the project at one point. It flew its first science mission in November 2010 and now costs about $80 million a year to operate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Searching for a \"Holy Grail\"\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McLean says the SOFIA telescope could show astronomers something that's considered a Holy Grail in their field: seeing a star being born. It happens in huge, dusty clouds – stellar nurseries, as Mclean calls them. \"The cloud is huge, light years across and it's gradually contracting to form a whole nursery of stars.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26560\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"SOFIA_101711_JoshC_7679\" width=\"320\" height=\"207\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26560\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Inside NASA's SOFIA Observatory, somewhere over the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But there's a problem. Astronomers can't see what's happening inside the clouds because, once again, they're made of dust and it's hard to see through.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We don't mean dust bunnies, but we mean little, tiny little grains of solid material. Doesn't matter how big a telescope you have, you can't see inside it,\" McLean says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why SOFIA looks at a special kind of light called \u003ca href=\"http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html\">infrared light\u003c/a>. If you look through a telescope on the ground, you're looking at the visible light from space – the light our eyes can see. Infrared light is invisible to us, but it penetrates space dust, which means the telescope can see through the dust too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You get to see what you can't see with your eye. It's like a window has been opened,\" says McLean. They're looking for exactly how stellar nurseries give birth to young stars. McLean says catching a star as it's forming can reveal clues about how own solar system formed. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But star birth isn't the only thing these researchers want to see. They're also looking at the way stars die.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Star on the Way Out\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the plane makes as sharp right turn, the telescope focuses on an object called NGC 7027. It's a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_nebula\">planetary nebula\u003c/a> – also known as a dying star. McLean and his team are capturing an infrared image of the nebula, which is about 3,000 light years away. They can also see what it's made of.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It has a distinctive shape. It's oval. There's a hole in the middle and that's because it literally is a shell of gas that came off the star,\" says McLean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>7027 is dying because the star has run out of fuel – the same fate that our sun will face in about five billion years. As it dies, the star casts off its outer layers, shedding huge amounts of material to form a cloud around it. But it's not entirely a sad story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It won't be wasted,\" says McLean. \"The material that was thrown off by that star in its dying phase, somewhere, millions, perhaps billions of years from now, will find its way into a new star and the planets that form around it.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From dead stars come new stars – and planets like our own. The oxygen and nitrogen in our bodies were once formed inside a star. \"The cosmos is within us,\" as astronomer \u003ca href=\"http://www.carlsagan.com/\">Carl Sagan\u003c/a> once said. \"We're made of star stuff.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As sky begins to lighten, we descend towards the Dryden Aircraft Operations Facility in the Mojave Desert, where the plane is based. The SOFIA telescope is now undergoing service upgrades and then will return to the skies three times a week. Astronomers from around the world are lining up to get on board.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe src=\"http://kqed03.streamguys.us/anon.kqed/slideshow/sofia_slideshow/_files/iframe.html?noscale=640x393\" width=\"640\" height=\"393\" scrolling=\"no\" frameborder=\"0\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "European Comet Blockbuster Currently in Production ",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30304\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/10/european-comet-blockbuster-currently-in-production/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30304\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work.jpg\" alt=\"Rosetta-Philae lander on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko - artist concept\" title=\"Rosetta-Philae lander on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko - artist concept\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30304\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rosetta-Philae lander on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko - artist concept\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scene: Spacecraft hurtling through space, approaching a giant 4-kilometer flying mountain of ice and rock. The two hurtle on together, flying closer and closer to the hot, radiant Sun. Things get dicey as the comet, under fire from the Sun's intense rays, begins to come apart, erupting with great jets of gas and dust liberated from eons of frozen preservation. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then, the spacecraft deploys a lander, maneuvering dangerously close to the hard ice and unpredictable blasts of shrapnel from within. The lander manages to safely set down, shooting harpoon anchors into the ice to fasten it securely to the comet in the low gravity environment. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(If you're envisioning explosions right and left, great shards of sharp ice ejecting skyward, frozen cutting shrapnel flying in every direction and bouncing off the lander's armored hull, please continue; it could add to the dramatic effect….)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then… (wavy curtain distortions indicating that we're entering a dream state) …the hatch opens and out steps Bruce Willis, a custom-made comet-smashing bazooka in one hand, a rocket-powered grappling hook that would make Batman proud in the other…. (End wavy curtain distortions; back to reality, alas….)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sounds like a thrilling blockbuster movie. But it gets better! (Yes, minus the wavy curtains….)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The European Space Agency's (ESA) Rosetta spacecraft is currently hibernating its way through space, en route to comet (get your pen ready) \u003ca href=\"http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Rosetta/ESAGJF7708D_0.html\" target=\"_blank\">67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko\u003c/a>, which is also currently in comet-hibernation far out in space. \u003ca href=\"http://www.perihelio.org/67porb.htm\" target=\"_blank\">At this moment\u003c/a>, in fact, the comet is almost as far from the Sun as it gets: about 5.6 Astronomical Units, or a little beyond the orbit of Jupiter. The comet and the spacecraft will rendezvous in 2014, then together swing closest to the Sun in mid-2015, at a distance somewhat within Mars' orbit (1.29 AU). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FoePrO4-fGQ&noredirect=1\" target=\"_blank\">TRUE mission of Rosetta\u003c/a>, and its lander Philae, are not to save the comet from destruction, or to destroy it—but a kind of combination of the two: to observe and study it while the comet is in the process of falling apart, under duress from the Sun. The Rosetta orbiter and Philae lander will accompany the comet from a point in space still relatively distant from the Sun, and follow it along its eccentric orbit sunward. The comet and its stalking spacecraft will swing by the Sun, then outward into deep space again.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All the while, we will witness, for the first time, the process of a comet heating up under increasingly intense solar radiation, up close—not only up close from orbit, but with an observer \"on the ground\" as well. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We've watched comets do their Inner Solar System dance with the Sun since prehistoric times. The image of a comet that probably comes to your mind is what humans have watched in the skies, periodically, since long before telescopes: the fuzzy knot of the comet's coma—the shroud of gas surrounding the icy nucleus—and the long blurry, feather-like smear of its tail, blown off into space by the solar wind. This is the characteristic appearance of comets that human eyes are able to see, at least the ones that come close enough to the Sun to be warmed and exude a tail (or tails—usually one tail of gas, another of dust) and close enough to Earth to become a fixture in our night skies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In recent years we've begun to witness comets up close with several fly-by spacecraft missions: comets \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap961210.html\" target=\"_blank\">Halley\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2010-371\" target=\"_blank\">Hartley 2\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/photo/cometwild2.html\" target=\"_blank\">Wild 2\u003c/a>, and some others. The Stardust mission actually captured dust particles from the tail of its comet quarry and returned the sample to Earth. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rosetta will not only be our first up-close look at Comet 67P (etc.), it will be the first mission to follow the progress of a comet as it swings by the Sun, erupting in all its comet glory, then back out again toward another deep freeze cycle. It will also be the first landing on a comet ever. Should be pretty exciting. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I expect the time-compressed movie constructed from images taken by Rosetta and Philae to show a lot of explosions, sharp icy shrapnel bouncing off of armor…oh, and of course a treasure trove of less flashy but more substantial scientific knowledge of the life and times of a frozen time capsule that hasn't changed much since the formation of the Solar System five billion years ago….\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30304\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/10/european-comet-blockbuster-currently-in-production/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30304\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work.jpg\" alt=\"Rosetta-Philae lander on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko - artist concept\" title=\"Rosetta-Philae lander on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko - artist concept\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30304\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/rosetta-philae-lander-at-work-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rosetta-Philae lander on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko - artist concept\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scene: Spacecraft hurtling through space, approaching a giant 4-kilometer flying mountain of ice and rock. The two hurtle on together, flying closer and closer to the hot, radiant Sun. Things get dicey as the comet, under fire from the Sun's intense rays, begins to come apart, erupting with great jets of gas and dust liberated from eons of frozen preservation. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then, the spacecraft deploys a lander, maneuvering dangerously close to the hard ice and unpredictable blasts of shrapnel from within. The lander manages to safely set down, shooting harpoon anchors into the ice to fasten it securely to the comet in the low gravity environment. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(If you're envisioning explosions right and left, great shards of sharp ice ejecting skyward, frozen cutting shrapnel flying in every direction and bouncing off the lander's armored hull, please continue; it could add to the dramatic effect….)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then… (wavy curtain distortions indicating that we're entering a dream state) …the hatch opens and out steps Bruce Willis, a custom-made comet-smashing bazooka in one hand, a rocket-powered grappling hook that would make Batman proud in the other…. (End wavy curtain distortions; back to reality, alas….)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sounds like a thrilling blockbuster movie. But it gets better! (Yes, minus the wavy curtains….)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The European Space Agency's (ESA) Rosetta spacecraft is currently hibernating its way through space, en route to comet (get your pen ready) \u003ca href=\"http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Rosetta/ESAGJF7708D_0.html\" target=\"_blank\">67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko\u003c/a>, which is also currently in comet-hibernation far out in space. \u003ca href=\"http://www.perihelio.org/67porb.htm\" target=\"_blank\">At this moment\u003c/a>, in fact, the comet is almost as far from the Sun as it gets: about 5.6 Astronomical Units, or a little beyond the orbit of Jupiter. The comet and the spacecraft will rendezvous in 2014, then together swing closest to the Sun in mid-2015, at a distance somewhat within Mars' orbit (1.29 AU). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FoePrO4-fGQ&noredirect=1\" target=\"_blank\">TRUE mission of Rosetta\u003c/a>, and its lander Philae, are not to save the comet from destruction, or to destroy it—but a kind of combination of the two: to observe and study it while the comet is in the process of falling apart, under duress from the Sun. The Rosetta orbiter and Philae lander will accompany the comet from a point in space still relatively distant from the Sun, and follow it along its eccentric orbit sunward. The comet and its stalking spacecraft will swing by the Sun, then outward into deep space again.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All the while, we will witness, for the first time, the process of a comet heating up under increasingly intense solar radiation, up close—not only up close from orbit, but with an observer \"on the ground\" as well. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We've watched comets do their Inner Solar System dance with the Sun since prehistoric times. The image of a comet that probably comes to your mind is what humans have watched in the skies, periodically, since long before telescopes: the fuzzy knot of the comet's coma—the shroud of gas surrounding the icy nucleus—and the long blurry, feather-like smear of its tail, blown off into space by the solar wind. This is the characteristic appearance of comets that human eyes are able to see, at least the ones that come close enough to the Sun to be warmed and exude a tail (or tails—usually one tail of gas, another of dust) and close enough to Earth to become a fixture in our night skies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In recent years we've begun to witness comets up close with several fly-by spacecraft missions: comets \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap961210.html\" target=\"_blank\">Halley\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2010-371\" target=\"_blank\">Hartley 2\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/photo/cometwild2.html\" target=\"_blank\">Wild 2\u003c/a>, and some others. The Stardust mission actually captured dust particles from the tail of its comet quarry and returned the sample to Earth. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rosetta will not only be our first up-close look at Comet 67P (etc.), it will be the first mission to follow the progress of a comet as it swings by the Sun, erupting in all its comet glory, then back out again toward another deep freeze cycle. It will also be the first landing on a comet ever. Should be pretty exciting. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I expect the time-compressed movie constructed from images taken by Rosetta and Philae to show a lot of explosions, sharp icy shrapnel bouncing off of armor…oh, and of course a treasure trove of less flashy but more substantial scientific knowledge of the life and times of a frozen time capsule that hasn't changed much since the formation of the Solar System five billion years ago….\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?",
"title": "What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Does the prospect of life in subglacial Lake Vostok really point to the same on the icy satellite Europa? The answer may surprise you.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Sun Shows A Flare for the Dramatic ",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29788\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/27/the-sun-shows-a-flare-for-the-dramatic/sdo-m9flare-012312/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29788\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/SDO-m9flare-012312.gif\" alt=\"M9 Solar Flare of January 23 2012; credit: Solar Dynamics Observatory\" title=\"M9 Solar Flare of January 23 2012; credit: Solar Dynamics Observatory\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29788\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">M9 Solar Flare of January 23 2012; credit: Solar Dynamics Observatory\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Let's see, what's the weather like right now (sticks finger into the air). Speed, 1.2 million miles per hour, density 1.1 protons per cubic centimeter, temperature 200,000 degrees Celsius. Sound a bit extreme? Surely climate change hasn't made things THAT batty. As a matter of fact, conditions have calmed down in the last several hours. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, I'm not talking Earth weather—if I were, we'd all be dead, fast. I'm talking space weather, and a subsidence in its condition following a powerful solar flare whose ejecta struck Earth on Tuesday, causing a strong \u003ca href=\"http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/NOAAscales/#GeomagneticStorms\" target=\"_blank\">geomagnetic storm\u003c/a>, and some pretty \u003ca href=\"http://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=25&month=01&year=2012\" target=\"_blank\">Northern and Southern Lights\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The flare in question, associated with the big sunspot numbered 1402, erupted on January 23rd, launching a coronal mass ejection--a \"cantaloupe\" of plasma that makes Earth look like a grape. Rated as an M9-class flare, it packed umph just shy of what's necessary for adult \"X-class\" flaredom, the most power kind. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When it reached us the megablob of plasma struck Earth's magnetic field, causing the geomagnetic storm and a minor list of annoyances (communications interference, for the most part, and some reported concern to an electrical grid operator). On the showier side of solar activity, the storm generated spectacular auroras in high latitudes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Sun's magnetic activity—the source of disturbances like flares and oft-associated coronal mass ejections—has been on the rise for the last couple of years, heading for a forecasted peak in activity (\"Solar Maximum\") in 2013. We're in \"storm season,\" with respect to the Sun's 11-year magnetic activity cycle, so we can expect more, and stronger, flares and geomagnetic storms in the next year or two to come. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back when I was growing up (1960's) I learned that space is a vacuum, void of the gases we find in Earth's atmosphere. It was a stark picture of emptiness, at least as this child comprehended the data. Sure, sunlight and starlight streams through that vacuum, but other than that, Dr. Science explained, if I took one space-step outside of my personal Mercury space capsule without protection, I'd suffocate and my blood would boil and freeze at the same time—not to mention that I'd get cooked by the dangerous ultraviolet and X-ray radiation shining from the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, close the Time-Life science series book entitled \"Space\" and open an astrophysics textbook of my 1960's youth era, and I would have learned that there's more to the vacuum of space than nothing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Our Sun\u003c/a>, a gargantuan fusion bomb that consumes a mass of hydrogen comparable to that of the entire human race each second, continually spews more than just sunlight into the space around it. Hot, electrically charged gas (plasma), mostly hydrogen nuclei and electrons, blended with an accompaniment of magnetic fields, blow outward from the Sun's surface and atmosphere all the time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's the solar wind, and its conditions, whether normal or stormy, is what makes space weather. So when you're curious about the weather conditions in the space surrounding Earth and its protective magnetic field, poke your finger skyward and extend your arm—oh—about 50,000 miles…or just go to a space weather website like \u003ca href=\"http://spaceweather.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Spaceweather.com\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "A solar flare, associated with the big sunspot numbered 1402, erupted on January 23rd, launching a coronal mass ejection--a \"cantaloupe\" of plasma that makes Earth look like a grape. Rated as an M9-class flare, it packed umph just shy of what's necessary for adult \"X-class\" flaredom, the most powerful kind. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29788\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/27/the-sun-shows-a-flare-for-the-dramatic/sdo-m9flare-012312/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29788\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/SDO-m9flare-012312.gif\" alt=\"M9 Solar Flare of January 23 2012; credit: Solar Dynamics Observatory\" title=\"M9 Solar Flare of January 23 2012; credit: Solar Dynamics Observatory\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29788\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">M9 Solar Flare of January 23 2012; credit: Solar Dynamics Observatory\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Let's see, what's the weather like right now (sticks finger into the air). Speed, 1.2 million miles per hour, density 1.1 protons per cubic centimeter, temperature 200,000 degrees Celsius. Sound a bit extreme? Surely climate change hasn't made things THAT batty. As a matter of fact, conditions have calmed down in the last several hours. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, I'm not talking Earth weather—if I were, we'd all be dead, fast. I'm talking space weather, and a subsidence in its condition following a powerful solar flare whose ejecta struck Earth on Tuesday, causing a strong \u003ca href=\"http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/NOAAscales/#GeomagneticStorms\" target=\"_blank\">geomagnetic storm\u003c/a>, and some pretty \u003ca href=\"http://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=25&month=01&year=2012\" target=\"_blank\">Northern and Southern Lights\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The flare in question, associated with the big sunspot numbered 1402, erupted on January 23rd, launching a coronal mass ejection--a \"cantaloupe\" of plasma that makes Earth look like a grape. Rated as an M9-class flare, it packed umph just shy of what's necessary for adult \"X-class\" flaredom, the most power kind. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When it reached us the megablob of plasma struck Earth's magnetic field, causing the geomagnetic storm and a minor list of annoyances (communications interference, for the most part, and some reported concern to an electrical grid operator). On the showier side of solar activity, the storm generated spectacular auroras in high latitudes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Sun's magnetic activity—the source of disturbances like flares and oft-associated coronal mass ejections—has been on the rise for the last couple of years, heading for a forecasted peak in activity (\"Solar Maximum\") in 2013. We're in \"storm season,\" with respect to the Sun's 11-year magnetic activity cycle, so we can expect more, and stronger, flares and geomagnetic storms in the next year or two to come. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Back when I was growing up (1960's) I learned that space is a vacuum, void of the gases we find in Earth's atmosphere. It was a stark picture of emptiness, at least as this child comprehended the data. Sure, sunlight and starlight streams through that vacuum, but other than that, Dr. Science explained, if I took one space-step outside of my personal Mercury space capsule without protection, I'd suffocate and my blood would boil and freeze at the same time—not to mention that I'd get cooked by the dangerous ultraviolet and X-ray radiation shining from the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Okay, close the Time-Life science series book entitled \"Space\" and open an astrophysics textbook of my 1960's youth era, and I would have learned that there's more to the vacuum of space than nothing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Our Sun\u003c/a>, a gargantuan fusion bomb that consumes a mass of hydrogen comparable to that of the entire human race each second, continually spews more than just sunlight into the space around it. Hot, electrically charged gas (plasma), mostly hydrogen nuclei and electrons, blended with an accompaniment of magnetic fields, blow outward from the Sun's surface and atmosphere all the time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's the solar wind, and its conditions, whether normal or stormy, is what makes space weather. So when you're curious about the weather conditions in the space surrounding Earth and its protective magnetic field, poke your finger skyward and extend your arm—oh—about 50,000 miles…or just go to a space weather website like \u003ca href=\"http://spaceweather.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Spaceweather.com\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"soldout": {
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