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Image courtesy Matt Corley\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Tsunamis_MCorley_2_IMG_3906.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Tsunamis_MCorley_2_IMG_3906-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Just after a devastating tsunami struck the coast of Japan in March 2011, the tsunami waves struck the coast of California, where they damaged harbors, including the Santa Cruz harbor. Image courtesy Matt Corley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The two tragedies ratcheted up the pressure to shore up California’s tsunami preparedness and response efforts. 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The playbooks model the strength of the currents and the amount of flooding possible from mild, moderate and severe tsunamis, which would help coastal communities update evacuation plans and minimize the damage to harbors and boats.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In addition, there are now more than 6,000 tsunami hazard signs posted along the California coast help direct residents to higher ground in the event of this potentially deadly natural disaster.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although it’s not possible to predict when the next big earthquake will erupt on the ocean floor and generate another massive tsunami, monitoring signs of tsunami activity in the ocean can yield precious minutes to alert residents to move to higher ground, scientists say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“A tsunami will actually travel at hundreds of miles per hour,” said Tom Evans, a meteorologist and the Director of Operations at the National Weather Service in Honolulu. “So a warning system in place is very necessary,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, a real-time tsunami monitoring system already exists through the \u003ca href=\"http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/\">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) program\u003c/a> which is operated by NOAA. In all, 39 buoys that ring the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean measure signs of early tsunami waves and relay the measurements to warning centers in Hawaii and Alaska.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72523\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/807_tsunamis_update_2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72523\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/807_tsunamis_update_2.jpg\" alt=\"Although rare, massive tsunamis such as the ones that have struck the coasts of Banda Aceh, Japan and Chile, could also strike the California coast. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/807_tsunamis_update_2.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/807_tsunamis_update_2-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Although rare, massive tsunamis such as the ones that have struck the coasts of Banda Aceh, Japan and Chile, could also strike the California coast.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But the system has been hampered by malfunctions and legislative inaction on bills that would fund tsunami preparedness and outreach to vulnerable coastal communities. 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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>Video reported by Gabriela Quirós and Lauren Sommer, who narrates.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Update Nov. 6:\u003c/strong> In the Nov. 4 election, San Benito and Mendocino counties passed bans on fracking, while Santa Barbara’s ballot initiative failed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Original post Oct. 27:\u003c/strong> Three California counties – Santa Barbara, Mendocino and San Benito – will decide this November on ballot initiatives that ask voters to ban hydraulic fracturing, the controversial oil- and gas-extraction technique known as “fracking.” San Benito activists were the first to qualify an anti-fracking initiative in the state, in response to Governor Jerry Brown’s decision to allow the technique to move forward.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/2014/10/10/anti-fracking-activists-in-california-take-fight-to-county-ballots/\">Anti-Fracking Activists in California Take Fight to County Ballots\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/series/fracking-california/\">KQED Science coverage of fracking\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOJUu3T-EY4\">KQED NEWSROOM Special Edition: The Fracking Debate Heats Up In California\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>Video reported by Gabriela Quirós and Lauren Sommer, who narrates.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Update Nov. 6:\u003c/strong> In the Nov. 4 election, San Benito and Mendocino counties passed bans on fracking, while Santa Barbara’s ballot initiative failed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Original post Oct. 27:\u003c/strong> Three California counties – Santa Barbara, Mendocino and San Benito – will decide this November on ballot initiatives that ask voters to ban hydraulic fracturing, the controversial oil- and gas-extraction technique known as “fracking.” San Benito activists were the first to qualify an anti-fracking initiative in the state, in response to Governor Jerry Brown’s decision to allow the technique to move forward.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/2014/10/10/anti-fracking-activists-in-california-take-fight-to-county-ballots/\">Anti-Fracking Activists in California Take Fight to County Ballots\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/series/fracking-california/\">KQED Science coverage of fracking\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOJUu3T-EY4\">KQED NEWSROOM Special Edition: The Fracking Debate Heats Up In California\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Fossil Burrows Shed Light on Great Plains' Roots",
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"content": "\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/FossilBurrows.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71960\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71960 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI.jpg\" alt=\"Shane Tucker holds a fossil gopher tooth next to a modern pocket gopher skull.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Shane Tucker holds a fossil gopher tooth (left) next to a modern pocket gopher skull. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71983\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_57122.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71983 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_57122-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Jesslyn Weiner leads a tour\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jesslyn Weiner says the fossil burrows are now a regular part of her tours at Happy Jack Chalk Mine. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you drive through central Nebraska and go an hour north of Grand Island, you’ll find Happy Jack Chalk Mine just off Highway 11. It’s been an active chalk mine, an abandoned mine, a state-owned wayside park, and recently a privately owned tourist attraction. But the mine’s significance goes way back before its modern history -- five million years back. In fact, these mines contain a curious collection of clues that are helping scientists learn more about the last great period of climate change, a time of global cooling and drying that occurred right before the most recent Ice Age.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jesslyn Weiner has been a tour guide at the mine for five years. She enters the mine through a shack at the foot of the hill.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We do have lights in here, but this first one’s burned out and it’s not one we can fix. And these are the burrows,” Weiner points to a dark gray balloon-shaped rock embedded in the stark white rock of the mine’s wall. There's another one less than a foot away. Weiner points out another one, “And this is just one of the burrows, but it looks like a rabbit. Can you see its ears?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71958\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5709.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71958 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5709-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"A cross-section of one of the burrows\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A cross-section of one of the fossil burrows showing a shaft rodents may have used as an entrance. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The burrows are all over the ceiling and walls in the 6,000-square-foot mine. It wasn’t until recently that they became a regular part of the tour. In 2002, the mine’s owners invited University of Nebraska-Lincoln geologist Matt Joeckel to visit and give tour guides some background on the mine’s geology. Joeckel expected to talk about the chalky rock that makes up the mine, called diatomite, but he got a surprise when he walked in: “The minute we walked into the mine we recognized the features on the wall as being fossil burrows. We picked them out right away.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71959\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5692.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71959 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5692-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cross-sections showing chambers in the fossil burrows. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch2>Digging in\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>According to Joeckel, rodents dug the long, nearly vertical tunnels and large chambers into the soft rock in the mine about five million years ago. Some time later sand washed in and filled in the burrows, helping to preserve them as fossils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since 2002, Joeckel and his colleague Shane Tucker, a paleontologist for the University of Nebraska Museum, have mapped out the locations of all the burrows in the mine, which wasn’t easy. Parts of the mine are cramped and narrow, and Joeckel is a little claustrophobic. Tucker remembers when they had to start photographing the ceiling. “So we brought one of the museum carts and Matt lay down on his back. He had the light and was looking up,” Tucker said. “And I would push him.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Joeckel interrupted, “It sounds like that would be great fun, for me, lying on my back on this little four-wheeled cart. But it wasn’t. It was more like a medieval torture chamber.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Joeckel and Tucker have been meticulously mapping out the burrows because these burrows are one of the few ancient burrows that have been preserved in the world. Burrows are hard to preserve as fossils because they’re often made in soft soil that erodes easily. In this case, Joeckel and Tucker got lucky that the burrows were made in harder rock.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Looking for the burrowmakers\u003c/h2>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71970\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5637-labels.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71970 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5637-labels-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Fossil squirrel tooth and fossil gopher tooth\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tucker compares a pair of teeth found among the fossil burrows. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71967\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5660-labels.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71967 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5660-labels-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"A handful of fossils\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tucker and Joeckel have only found a handful of body fossils from the burrows so far. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Burrowing is a very common rodent behavior now, but it wasn’t always. The first thing Tucker and Joeckel wanted to do was try and figure out what kind of animal made these burrows. They sifted through 500 pounds of sediment from the mine looking for body fossils. What they found fits into the palm of one hand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Out of the 20-some different body fossils we got from there, six teeth were well preserved. So…not great,” Tucker said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, Tucker added, the burrows themselves are just as important as body fossils to identify what made them. Tucker and Joeckel made a silicone mold of one burrow to create a plaster replica they could study back at UNL.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We have an exact carbon copy of what we saw at the diatomite mine. And in some portions of the wall you could see the striations, these paired grooves, much more easily,” Tucker said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those grooves are evidence of ancient rodents using their top teeth to anchor into the rock and gnawing with their lower teeth to dig.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71964\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5664.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71964 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5664-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Shane Tucker holds up the mold and cast of one of the burrow chambers\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Shane Tucker holds up the mold and cast of one of the burrow chambers that he and Matt Joeckel are using to study the burrows more closely. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Those grooves and the burrow’s general shape suggest that a kind of ground squirrel, like modern prairie dogs, built the burrows. Joeckel says these rodents may have started spending more time underground in response to the disappearance of ancient forests and the formation of open grasslands like the Great Plains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Why would they do that? Well, open grasslands are a somewhat harsh environment. There could be prairie fires. There could be extremes in temperature. So we’re seeing a snapshot of the emergence of the modern grassland environment, which is no small thing,” Joeckel explained.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71971\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5827.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71971 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5827-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Striations in the burrows\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">These striations are teeth marks that are helping Joeckel and Tucker identify the burrows' origins. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch2>The beginning of the Great Plains\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Sometime in the late Oligocene, around the time when huge portions of the earth began to dry, forests gave way to open land. Grasses started growing on those open areas in the late Miocene. Scientists know rodents started burrowing around this time, but because burrows are hard to fossilize they haven’t had any direct evidence -- until now.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The burrows at Happy Jack show that complex burrowing behavior that included tunnels and hibernation dens had already evolved in some rodents by the late Miocene. The burrows are also giving us details like what specific kinds of plants made up the first grasslands and how much seasons developed as the climate changed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Joeckel says it’s hard to find rocks from that specific time period in Nebraska, so these burrows can help fill in those gaps. But there’s a lot more they’d like to know. Joeckel compares it to having a big picture versus a closeup. “We’re looking through a glass darkly at an emerging world. There are a lot of things we don’t know.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71973\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_58751.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71973 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_58751-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Overlooking the Loup River\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Happy Jack Chalk Mine sits under a hill that overlooks the Loup River in Central Nebraska. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>For instance, Joeckel and Tucker want to know how seeds of specific plants responded to the cooling and drying period right before the Ice Age, and they want to know more about how these rodent burrows may have shaped the Great Plains ecosystem as we know it today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As is usually the case with these kinds of geological studies, it probably raises more questions than it answers. I personally find that comforting,” Joeckel said. “I don’t think I want to know everything. I think I want to be in the business of always trying to come up with interesting ways of approaching an understanding of the history of the planet.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The Great Plains didn't evolve in a vacuum. Ancient rodents helped shape the ecosystem we know today. Fossil burrows are helping scientists figure out how.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/FossilBurrows.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71960\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71960 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI.jpg\" alt=\"Shane Tucker holds a fossil gopher tooth next to a modern pocket gopher skull.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5687-FI-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Shane Tucker holds a fossil gopher tooth (left) next to a modern pocket gopher skull. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71983\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_57122.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71983 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_57122-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Jesslyn Weiner leads a tour\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jesslyn Weiner says the fossil burrows are now a regular part of her tours at Happy Jack Chalk Mine. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you drive through central Nebraska and go an hour north of Grand Island, you’ll find Happy Jack Chalk Mine just off Highway 11. It’s been an active chalk mine, an abandoned mine, a state-owned wayside park, and recently a privately owned tourist attraction. But the mine’s significance goes way back before its modern history -- five million years back. In fact, these mines contain a curious collection of clues that are helping scientists learn more about the last great period of climate change, a time of global cooling and drying that occurred right before the most recent Ice Age.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jesslyn Weiner has been a tour guide at the mine for five years. She enters the mine through a shack at the foot of the hill.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We do have lights in here, but this first one’s burned out and it’s not one we can fix. And these are the burrows,” Weiner points to a dark gray balloon-shaped rock embedded in the stark white rock of the mine’s wall. There's another one less than a foot away. Weiner points out another one, “And this is just one of the burrows, but it looks like a rabbit. Can you see its ears?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71958\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5709.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71958 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5709-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"A cross-section of one of the burrows\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A cross-section of one of the fossil burrows showing a shaft rodents may have used as an entrance. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The burrows are all over the ceiling and walls in the 6,000-square-foot mine. It wasn’t until recently that they became a regular part of the tour. In 2002, the mine’s owners invited University of Nebraska-Lincoln geologist Matt Joeckel to visit and give tour guides some background on the mine’s geology. Joeckel expected to talk about the chalky rock that makes up the mine, called diatomite, but he got a surprise when he walked in: “The minute we walked into the mine we recognized the features on the wall as being fossil burrows. We picked them out right away.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71959\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5692.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71959 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5692-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cross-sections showing chambers in the fossil burrows. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch2>Digging in\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>According to Joeckel, rodents dug the long, nearly vertical tunnels and large chambers into the soft rock in the mine about five million years ago. Some time later sand washed in and filled in the burrows, helping to preserve them as fossils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since 2002, Joeckel and his colleague Shane Tucker, a paleontologist for the University of Nebraska Museum, have mapped out the locations of all the burrows in the mine, which wasn’t easy. Parts of the mine are cramped and narrow, and Joeckel is a little claustrophobic. Tucker remembers when they had to start photographing the ceiling. “So we brought one of the museum carts and Matt lay down on his back. He had the light and was looking up,” Tucker said. “And I would push him.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Joeckel interrupted, “It sounds like that would be great fun, for me, lying on my back on this little four-wheeled cart. But it wasn’t. It was more like a medieval torture chamber.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Joeckel and Tucker have been meticulously mapping out the burrows because these burrows are one of the few ancient burrows that have been preserved in the world. Burrows are hard to preserve as fossils because they’re often made in soft soil that erodes easily. In this case, Joeckel and Tucker got lucky that the burrows were made in harder rock.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Looking for the burrowmakers\u003c/h2>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71970\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5637-labels.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71970 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5637-labels-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Fossil squirrel tooth and fossil gopher tooth\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tucker compares a pair of teeth found among the fossil burrows. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71967\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5660-labels.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71967 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5660-labels-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"A handful of fossils\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tucker and Joeckel have only found a handful of body fossils from the burrows so far. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Burrowing is a very common rodent behavior now, but it wasn’t always. The first thing Tucker and Joeckel wanted to do was try and figure out what kind of animal made these burrows. They sifted through 500 pounds of sediment from the mine looking for body fossils. What they found fits into the palm of one hand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Out of the 20-some different body fossils we got from there, six teeth were well preserved. So…not great,” Tucker said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, Tucker added, the burrows themselves are just as important as body fossils to identify what made them. Tucker and Joeckel made a silicone mold of one burrow to create a plaster replica they could study back at UNL.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We have an exact carbon copy of what we saw at the diatomite mine. And in some portions of the wall you could see the striations, these paired grooves, much more easily,” Tucker said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those grooves are evidence of ancient rodents using their top teeth to anchor into the rock and gnawing with their lower teeth to dig.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71964\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5664.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71964 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5664-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Shane Tucker holds up the mold and cast of one of the burrow chambers\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Shane Tucker holds up the mold and cast of one of the burrow chambers that he and Matt Joeckel are using to study the burrows more closely. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Those grooves and the burrow’s general shape suggest that a kind of ground squirrel, like modern prairie dogs, built the burrows. Joeckel says these rodents may have started spending more time underground in response to the disappearance of ancient forests and the formation of open grasslands like the Great Plains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Why would they do that? Well, open grasslands are a somewhat harsh environment. There could be prairie fires. There could be extremes in temperature. So we’re seeing a snapshot of the emergence of the modern grassland environment, which is no small thing,” Joeckel explained.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71971\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5827.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71971 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_5827-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Striations in the burrows\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">These striations are teeth marks that are helping Joeckel and Tucker identify the burrows' origins. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch2>The beginning of the Great Plains\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Sometime in the late Oligocene, around the time when huge portions of the earth began to dry, forests gave way to open land. Grasses started growing on those open areas in the late Miocene. Scientists know rodents started burrowing around this time, but because burrows are hard to fossilize they haven’t had any direct evidence -- until now.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The burrows at Happy Jack show that complex burrowing behavior that included tunnels and hibernation dens had already evolved in some rodents by the late Miocene. The burrows are also giving us details like what specific kinds of plants made up the first grasslands and how much seasons developed as the climate changed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Joeckel says it’s hard to find rocks from that specific time period in Nebraska, so these burrows can help fill in those gaps. But there’s a lot more they’d like to know. Joeckel compares it to having a big picture versus a closeup. “We’re looking through a glass darkly at an emerging world. There are a lot of things we don’t know.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71973\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_58751.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71973 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/IMG_58751-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Overlooking the Loup River\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Happy Jack Chalk Mine sits under a hill that overlooks the Loup River in Central Nebraska. (Photo credit: Jackie Sojico, QUEST Nebraska)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>For instance, Joeckel and Tucker want to know how seeds of specific plants responded to the cooling and drying period right before the Ice Age, and they want to know more about how these rodent burrows may have shaped the Great Plains ecosystem as we know it today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As is usually the case with these kinds of geological studies, it probably raises more questions than it answers. I personally find that comforting,” Joeckel said. “I don’t think I want to know everything. I think I want to be in the business of always trying to come up with interesting ways of approaching an understanding of the history of the planet.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Deep-Sea Mining Might Happen. So What?",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An Expert Opinion: Dr. Cindy Lee Van Dover\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71789\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 189px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71789\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b-189x253.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\" width=\"189\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Dr. Cindy Van Dover is the director of the \u003ca href=\"http://nicholas.duke.edu/marinelab\" target=\"_blank\">Duke University Marine Laboratory\u003c/a>. She has spent the last 30 years exploring the deep sea. Her research has led her to hydrothermal vent fields thousands of meters below the ocean surface, as well as to conference tables around the world, where she is now helping to develop regulations around deep-sea mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.whoi.edu/main/topic/seafloor-mining\" target=\"_blank\">Deep-sea mining\u003c/a> is the process of extracting mineral-rich deposits from hydrothermal vents and other deep seafloor settings. The upside is more copper, manganese, and rare earth minerals to power things like wind turbines, cell phones, and computers. The downside is … unknown. Dr. Van Dover is working with an international community of governments and industry to mitigate the collateral environmental damage that will result from seafloor mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71784\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 175px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71784\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend-175x253.jpg\" alt=\"Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\" width=\"175\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An example of a deep-sea mining operation. Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do you reconcile your passion for the deep sea with your work with the mining community?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhen I first started thinking about deep-sea mining in the mid-2000s, I thought I would be long retired before mining really became an issue. I also thought, “I’ve helped explore the deep sea and love it; it hurts to think we will willingly damage this extraordinary environment.” But from conversations with the Secretary General of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.isa.org.jm/en/home\" target=\"_blank\">International Seabed Authority\u003c/a> and with others, seabed mining of some form or other seems inevitable. If this is so, if mining does proceed, then my role as a scientist is to use my knowledge to help minimize the environmental impacts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I think that my generation of deep-sea scientists will be judged a century from now by the quality of environmental regulations we help to put in place. How important are the right regulations? If we don’t get it right, if we degrade the seabed, we can’t fix it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The deep sea is not on most people’s radar. Why should we care? \u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nAs we have learned the hard way more than once, the biosphere of Earth is interconnected – what happens in one place, affects what happens elsewhere. The seafloor seems so remote to us, yet so did the ozone layer. Humans have a tremendous capacity to modify the global environment, in ways we often don’t anticipate and in ways that are very detrimental to our quality of life. Can we avoid making mistakes in the deep sea? We have to try.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71808\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 238px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-71808\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\" width=\"238\" height=\"179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it a free-for-all on the sea floor, or is there a governing body making sure companies and countries act responsibly?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThe mineral resources of the seabed in international waters are governed by a very interesting regime. \u003ca href=\"http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea\u003c/a> came into force in 1994 and as part of this Convention, seabed minerals in the area beyond national jurisdictions became the common heritage of mankind, with equitable access and benefit sharing for all nations. The intent is that developing countries, land-locked countries, and geographically disadvantaged countries should have access to seabed minerals, not just the developed countries.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where are these mineral deposits located?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are three different kinds of mineral resources of interest to the mining industry. Hydrothermal vents associated with volcanic systems on the seafloor are copper-rich and sometimes gold- and silver-rich. Fossil vent deposits of economic interest form over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. Manganese nodules are a second kind of mineral resource, found lying on top of sediments of the abyssal plain, typically beneath 5,000 meters of water. These nodules take millennia -- millions of years -- to form. The third major mineral resource is cobalt crusts. These crusts typically are found on seamounts and are often colonized by ancient, slow-growing corals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71806\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71806\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The sea is vast. Can you help put the size of potential mining sites in perspective?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nIt IS hard to comprehend dimensions as big as the deep sea. A single mining event at a hydrothermal deposit might cover an area the size of a dozen or fewer football fields. For manganese nodules, the scale of a mining area is much, much greater. Exploration lease sites for manganese nodules in international waters are extensive, the size of small countries.\u003cbr>\nWe don’t yet understand what the direct, indirect, or cumulative environmental impacts might be of mining in the deep sea on such a scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is there a baseline for the ecosystem services provided by the deep sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are very few quantitative numbers about ecosystem services in the deep sea. This is an area of research that is critical if we are to understand how deep-sea industrialization may affect ecosystem health and ecosystem services. How can we know what is at risk, if we do not have validated quantitative models of deep-sea processes?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71807\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71807\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it difficult to separate your passion from the science?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nI have learned to do this, to recognize that there are valid perspectives of and interests in the deep sea that are different from mine as an ecologist. As a scientist, I am obliged to give as unbiased an answer as I possibly can when asked for information about deep-sea ecosystems. The questions that I am asked by those interested in mining and environmental management of mining activities are always intellectually engaging and often difficult to answer precisely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about being at sea when you’re on land?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhat I love is the focus that comes with being at sea with colleagues. We are together on a ship, working toward common goals, with very few distractions. I miss that focus, the time to just do science, 24/7.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about land when you’re at sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nGreen. There is very little green at sea, not even on the ship. Everything is blue water, blue sky, white clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>*This interview has been condensed and edited.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An Expert Opinion: Dr. Cindy Lee Van Dover\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71789\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 189px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71789\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b-189x253.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\" width=\"189\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Dr. Cindy Van Dover is the director of the \u003ca href=\"http://nicholas.duke.edu/marinelab\" target=\"_blank\">Duke University Marine Laboratory\u003c/a>. She has spent the last 30 years exploring the deep sea. Her research has led her to hydrothermal vent fields thousands of meters below the ocean surface, as well as to conference tables around the world, where she is now helping to develop regulations around deep-sea mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.whoi.edu/main/topic/seafloor-mining\" target=\"_blank\">Deep-sea mining\u003c/a> is the process of extracting mineral-rich deposits from hydrothermal vents and other deep seafloor settings. The upside is more copper, manganese, and rare earth minerals to power things like wind turbines, cell phones, and computers. The downside is … unknown. Dr. Van Dover is working with an international community of governments and industry to mitigate the collateral environmental damage that will result from seafloor mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71784\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 175px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71784\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend-175x253.jpg\" alt=\"Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\" width=\"175\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An example of a deep-sea mining operation. Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do you reconcile your passion for the deep sea with your work with the mining community?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhen I first started thinking about deep-sea mining in the mid-2000s, I thought I would be long retired before mining really became an issue. I also thought, “I’ve helped explore the deep sea and love it; it hurts to think we will willingly damage this extraordinary environment.” But from conversations with the Secretary General of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.isa.org.jm/en/home\" target=\"_blank\">International Seabed Authority\u003c/a> and with others, seabed mining of some form or other seems inevitable. If this is so, if mining does proceed, then my role as a scientist is to use my knowledge to help minimize the environmental impacts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I think that my generation of deep-sea scientists will be judged a century from now by the quality of environmental regulations we help to put in place. How important are the right regulations? If we don’t get it right, if we degrade the seabed, we can’t fix it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The deep sea is not on most people’s radar. Why should we care? \u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nAs we have learned the hard way more than once, the biosphere of Earth is interconnected – what happens in one place, affects what happens elsewhere. The seafloor seems so remote to us, yet so did the ozone layer. Humans have a tremendous capacity to modify the global environment, in ways we often don’t anticipate and in ways that are very detrimental to our quality of life. Can we avoid making mistakes in the deep sea? We have to try.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71808\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 238px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-71808\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\" width=\"238\" height=\"179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it a free-for-all on the sea floor, or is there a governing body making sure companies and countries act responsibly?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThe mineral resources of the seabed in international waters are governed by a very interesting regime. \u003ca href=\"http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea\u003c/a> came into force in 1994 and as part of this Convention, seabed minerals in the area beyond national jurisdictions became the common heritage of mankind, with equitable access and benefit sharing for all nations. The intent is that developing countries, land-locked countries, and geographically disadvantaged countries should have access to seabed minerals, not just the developed countries.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where are these mineral deposits located?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are three different kinds of mineral resources of interest to the mining industry. Hydrothermal vents associated with volcanic systems on the seafloor are copper-rich and sometimes gold- and silver-rich. Fossil vent deposits of economic interest form over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. Manganese nodules are a second kind of mineral resource, found lying on top of sediments of the abyssal plain, typically beneath 5,000 meters of water. These nodules take millennia -- millions of years -- to form. The third major mineral resource is cobalt crusts. These crusts typically are found on seamounts and are often colonized by ancient, slow-growing corals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71806\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71806\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The sea is vast. Can you help put the size of potential mining sites in perspective?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nIt IS hard to comprehend dimensions as big as the deep sea. A single mining event at a hydrothermal deposit might cover an area the size of a dozen or fewer football fields. For manganese nodules, the scale of a mining area is much, much greater. Exploration lease sites for manganese nodules in international waters are extensive, the size of small countries.\u003cbr>\nWe don’t yet understand what the direct, indirect, or cumulative environmental impacts might be of mining in the deep sea on such a scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is there a baseline for the ecosystem services provided by the deep sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are very few quantitative numbers about ecosystem services in the deep sea. This is an area of research that is critical if we are to understand how deep-sea industrialization may affect ecosystem health and ecosystem services. How can we know what is at risk, if we do not have validated quantitative models of deep-sea processes?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71807\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71807\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it difficult to separate your passion from the science?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nI have learned to do this, to recognize that there are valid perspectives of and interests in the deep sea that are different from mine as an ecologist. As a scientist, I am obliged to give as unbiased an answer as I possibly can when asked for information about deep-sea ecosystems. The questions that I am asked by those interested in mining and environmental management of mining activities are always intellectually engaging and often difficult to answer precisely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about being at sea when you’re on land?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhat I love is the focus that comes with being at sea with colleagues. We are together on a ship, working toward common goals, with very few distractions. I miss that focus, the time to just do science, 24/7.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about land when you’re at sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nGreen. There is very little green at sea, not even on the ship. Everything is blue water, blue sky, white clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Dating Drought in the Nebraska Sandhills",
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"content": "\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/SandhillsDrought2014web.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Plains have experienced prolonged, and in some places severe, drought during the last several years. But could drought ever make Nebraska’s Sandhills resemble the Sahara? Yes—and it has, several times before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71930\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71930 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands that support a robust ranching economy. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands, but in the last century they've been rolling bare dunes. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Sandhills are a lush and complex grassland ecosystem sitting atop the massive Oglalla aquifer, supporting many cattle ranches and species of wildlife. So it’s quite a contrast to visit the research sites of David Wedin, an ecology professor at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. On a warm summer day, Wedin lead the way to one circular plot plot he’s put through what he calls the “death and destruction” treatment, killed once every three years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We actually herbicide it with Roundup, glyphosate,” Wedin said. “So we’re simulating a severe disturbance of some kind.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wedin’s \u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/sandhills-biocomplexity/gdex.htm\">Grassland Destabilization Experiment\u003c/a> has been going on for about a decade on university property in north-central Nebraska. Several test plots hold only patchy vegetation and lots of bare sand. In addition to herbicides, he’s used an agricultural disk to scrape off the grass in some places.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71928\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71928 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We’re trying to understand what happens when the system goes past its point of resilience and loses its stability, and kinda how the Sandhills fall apart,” Wedin said, “What happens ecologically in that process.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During the last 10,000 years, data point to four periods of “mega-drought”— one lasting nearly 3,000 years. That drought, possibly exacerbated by strong winds, wiped out vegetation across the Sandhills. Wedin said during the most recent mega-drought 800 years ago, “you would have been standing at this point and looking at the largest set of moving sand dunes in the western hemisphere.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>UNL scientists have spent the last 15 years dating the Sandhills through a process called optically stimulated luminescence, which measures the electrical charge of sand grains. UNL Professor Paul Hanson, a geologist with the\u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/csd/surveyareas/geology.asp\"> Nebraska Geologic Survey\u003c/a>, uses this technique to study how and when the sand dunes last moved.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson said to think of each sand grain as an individual rechargeable battery. “The sand grains are exposed to sunlight, they lose their electrical charge. And when those sand grains are buried in the ground they’re gaining that electrical charge again. So the length of time they’re buried dictates how full that battery is,” Hanson said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson and his colleagues drill down 60 to 80 feet to take core samples of the dunes, then return to their lab to study them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the UNL campus, Hanson leads the way through a rotating door of darkness to enter the lab lit by red and amber lights. Inside, Hanson and his students remove the outer edges of the core sample to work with the unexposed sand grains in the middle. After sifting the sand down to the right grain size, they treat it in several different acids to concentrate the quartz. Then they load the individual grains of sand onto disks into a machine that reads the luminescence—like what you see from fireflies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So if your eyes were more sensitive and could actually see smaller quantities of light, you could actually see the sand grains give off the light under the right conditions,” Hanson said. But since our eyes aren’t that sensitive, this machine runs 24/7, dating sand one individual grain at a time. By averaging the useful data from enough grains of sand, “you can use that as a clock to tell how long the grains have been buried,” said Hanson, and thus the last time the dune was bare and moving.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The geologic history Paul Hanson constructs provides context for the ecological research Dave Wedin is doing: trying to understand what conditions are necessary to make a healthy grassland destabilize and fall apart, and how long it takes to recover. Wedin said he’s been quite surprised by the plots killed every three years, particularly given the extreme drought in 2012.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I never would have thought you could completely kill the vegetation out here and it could go another four years before you started to see erosion. And by saying there wasn’t significant erosion I mean less than an inch,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71929\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71929 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Even with surface vegetation killed, the stressed grasslands proved far more resilient than Wedin imagined, retaining their root systems, sand, and organic matter for years. He’s now trying to revegetate the plots, which he said has been even harder:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a situation where the professors come out and learn something that everybody that lives out here already knew, \" said Wedin, \"that it’s easier to destroy the stability out here in the Sandhills than it is to restore it once it’s lost. And that was humbling.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ultimately, Wedin and Hanson agree droughts capable of making the Sandhills resemble the Sahara are very long, probably on the order of decades or a couple hundred years. They’d have to be far more severe than what we’ve seen in the last two hundred years, but not in the last millennium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If we know that in the last 1000 years this landscape produced droughts that destabilized the whole landscape, it seems prudent to think that can do that again. And that discussion is without human-caused climate change. But we don’t even need to invoke human-caused climate change to say, it’s a reasonable prediction [that] sometime in the next couple hundred years we’re going to see droughts out here that the whole thing falls apart,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And long before things reach that point, he noted that a few hard years with no grass could be devastating for the Sandhills ranching economy.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Could the Nebraska Sandhills resemble the Sahara? They have before. Join QUEST as we explore dating and recreating drought in dunes.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/SandhillsDrought2014web.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Plains have experienced prolonged, and in some places severe, drought during the last several years. But could drought ever make Nebraska’s Sandhills resemble the Sahara? Yes—and it has, several times before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71930\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71930 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands that support a robust ranching economy. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands, but in the last century they've been rolling bare dunes. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Sandhills are a lush and complex grassland ecosystem sitting atop the massive Oglalla aquifer, supporting many cattle ranches and species of wildlife. So it’s quite a contrast to visit the research sites of David Wedin, an ecology professor at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. On a warm summer day, Wedin lead the way to one circular plot plot he’s put through what he calls the “death and destruction” treatment, killed once every three years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We actually herbicide it with Roundup, glyphosate,” Wedin said. “So we’re simulating a severe disturbance of some kind.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wedin’s \u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/sandhills-biocomplexity/gdex.htm\">Grassland Destabilization Experiment\u003c/a> has been going on for about a decade on university property in north-central Nebraska. Several test plots hold only patchy vegetation and lots of bare sand. In addition to herbicides, he’s used an agricultural disk to scrape off the grass in some places.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71928\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71928 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We’re trying to understand what happens when the system goes past its point of resilience and loses its stability, and kinda how the Sandhills fall apart,” Wedin said, “What happens ecologically in that process.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During the last 10,000 years, data point to four periods of “mega-drought”— one lasting nearly 3,000 years. That drought, possibly exacerbated by strong winds, wiped out vegetation across the Sandhills. Wedin said during the most recent mega-drought 800 years ago, “you would have been standing at this point and looking at the largest set of moving sand dunes in the western hemisphere.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>UNL scientists have spent the last 15 years dating the Sandhills through a process called optically stimulated luminescence, which measures the electrical charge of sand grains. UNL Professor Paul Hanson, a geologist with the\u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/csd/surveyareas/geology.asp\"> Nebraska Geologic Survey\u003c/a>, uses this technique to study how and when the sand dunes last moved.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson said to think of each sand grain as an individual rechargeable battery. “The sand grains are exposed to sunlight, they lose their electrical charge. And when those sand grains are buried in the ground they’re gaining that electrical charge again. So the length of time they’re buried dictates how full that battery is,” Hanson said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson and his colleagues drill down 60 to 80 feet to take core samples of the dunes, then return to their lab to study them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the UNL campus, Hanson leads the way through a rotating door of darkness to enter the lab lit by red and amber lights. Inside, Hanson and his students remove the outer edges of the core sample to work with the unexposed sand grains in the middle. After sifting the sand down to the right grain size, they treat it in several different acids to concentrate the quartz. Then they load the individual grains of sand onto disks into a machine that reads the luminescence—like what you see from fireflies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So if your eyes were more sensitive and could actually see smaller quantities of light, you could actually see the sand grains give off the light under the right conditions,” Hanson said. But since our eyes aren’t that sensitive, this machine runs 24/7, dating sand one individual grain at a time. By averaging the useful data from enough grains of sand, “you can use that as a clock to tell how long the grains have been buried,” said Hanson, and thus the last time the dune was bare and moving.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The geologic history Paul Hanson constructs provides context for the ecological research Dave Wedin is doing: trying to understand what conditions are necessary to make a healthy grassland destabilize and fall apart, and how long it takes to recover. Wedin said he’s been quite surprised by the plots killed every three years, particularly given the extreme drought in 2012.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I never would have thought you could completely kill the vegetation out here and it could go another four years before you started to see erosion. And by saying there wasn’t significant erosion I mean less than an inch,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71929\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71929 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Even with surface vegetation killed, the stressed grasslands proved far more resilient than Wedin imagined, retaining their root systems, sand, and organic matter for years. He’s now trying to revegetate the plots, which he said has been even harder:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a situation where the professors come out and learn something that everybody that lives out here already knew, \" said Wedin, \"that it’s easier to destroy the stability out here in the Sandhills than it is to restore it once it’s lost. And that was humbling.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ultimately, Wedin and Hanson agree droughts capable of making the Sandhills resemble the Sahara are very long, probably on the order of decades or a couple hundred years. They’d have to be far more severe than what we’ve seen in the last two hundred years, but not in the last millennium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If we know that in the last 1000 years this landscape produced droughts that destabilized the whole landscape, it seems prudent to think that can do that again. And that discussion is without human-caused climate change. But we don’t even need to invoke human-caused climate change to say, it’s a reasonable prediction [that] sometime in the next couple hundred years we’re going to see droughts out here that the whole thing falls apart,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And long before things reach that point, he noted that a few hard years with no grass could be devastating for the Sandhills ranching economy.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>QUEST North Carolina’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/dlane/\">Daniel Lane\u003c/a> contributed to this article.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a Sunday in February in Eden, North Carolina, a sinkhole formed in the middle of a pond of coal ash slurry next to the retired Dan River Steam Station. A stormwater pipe underneath the ash pond cracked and was sucking in ash and shuttling it to the nearby river. Duke Energy, owner of the facility, sent emergency crews to the site, but it was a complicated fix. By the time they got it securely sealed on Thursday, the 48-inch pipe had belched more than 39,000 tons of coal ash into the Dan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Dan, a major tributary of one of the largest and least disturbed ecosystems on the East Coast, ran gray. From Danville, Virginia, whose 42,000 residents draw their water from the river, to Kerr Lake, home to seven recreation areas with 800 miles of trails, a gray ribbon of coal ash was visible along 70 miles of prime sport-fishing territory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71432\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 326px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71432 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation-326x253.jpg\" alt=\" \" width=\"326\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Coal ash can have 24 times the concentration of selenium compared to native soil. Click to enlarge. Courtesy: EPA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Is Coal Ash?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Coal ash is a byproduct of burning coal to make electricity. For every nine million tons of coal burned in the U.S., approximately \u003ca href=\"http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/coal/coalmyb01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">one ton of coal ash is produced\u003c/a>. Coal ash is a highly concentrated source of the mineral content that is left after the carbon is burned. It is similar to soil in terms of grain size and texture but contains high concentrations of toxic elements like selenium and arsenic. Coal ash is typically stored wet behind earthen dams adjacent to the power plant. The security of these impoundments is currently under review. The EPA is assessing the hazard potential of the 676 impoundments around the country. As of March 2014, 52 surface impoundments were given a “high” hazard potential rating by the EPA, meaning a failure of the impoundment is “probable, one or more expected.”\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nWhy This Matters\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Water tests at the Danville water treatment plant showed a spike in arsenic in the first days of the contamination, but arsenic levels returned to normal a week later. The ash, however, was not gone. It was just gone from view, merged with the most fertile zone in a river -- the nutrient-rich and life-giving layer of sediment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most species of aquatic insects live in the sediment, collecting, filtering, and grazing upon minute particles of food. Nothing goes to waste down there, not even the arsenic and selenium from coal ash. Heavy metals get lodged into the tissues of any insect that eats them. When minnows eat the insects, they consume the toxins. Larger fish get toxins from every minnow they eat. As you climb higher in the food chain, the amount of arsenic or selenium you find multiplies progressively. This process is called \u003ca href=\"http://sustainablenano.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/3-bioaccumulation-vs-biomagnification.png\" target=\"_blank\">biomagnification\u003c/a> and it has impacts on a food web from bottom to top.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://media.news.wfu.edu/experts/dennis-lemly/\" target=\"_blank\">Dr. Dennis Lemly\u003c/a>, research fish biologist and professor of biology at Wake Forest University, calls selenium an “invisible” toxin because it doesn’t directly harm the fish that eats it. “Instead, it migrates to the ovaries and enters growing embryos, causing defects in major organs and physical deformities in the head, spine, mouth, and fins (see effects of selenium poisoning in North Carolina \u003ca href=\"http://appvoices.org/2013/12/05/effects-of-selenium-poisoning-deformed-and-dying-fish-at-sutton-lake/\" target=\"_blank\">here\u003c/a>). A lot of them die shortly after birth,” Lemly said. “So over a period of two or three years, the older fish die off and there’s no young ones to replace them and repopulate. They just die off.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71431\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 367px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71431\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg\" alt=\"Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\" width=\"367\" height=\"232\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-800x505.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-1180x746.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-960x607.jpg 960w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg 1396w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 367px) 100vw, 367px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Click to enlarge. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Future of Coal Ash Disposal\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhile the long-term effects of the Dan River coal ash spill won't be known for a while, the short-term effects may be influencing regulation. In 2008, the catastrophic 1.1 billion gallon spill in Kingston, Tennessee, galvanized public debate about coal ash storage. In 2010, the EPA proposed the nation’s first-ever rules to ensure the safe disposal of coal ash. According to the EPA, “these rules would ensure stronger oversight of the structural integrity of impoundments in order to prevent future accidents.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Lemly is in favor of more regulation, “I have been on record many times recommending a complete banning of the surface disposal in impoundments. I continue to do that. I’m hopeful that the EPA ruling on coal ash that is supposed to come out in December will provide a complete ban on surface impoundment disposal.” The EPA is expected to finalize their rules for coal ash on December 19.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>QUEST North Carolina’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/dlane/\">Daniel Lane\u003c/a> contributed to this article.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a Sunday in February in Eden, North Carolina, a sinkhole formed in the middle of a pond of coal ash slurry next to the retired Dan River Steam Station. A stormwater pipe underneath the ash pond cracked and was sucking in ash and shuttling it to the nearby river. Duke Energy, owner of the facility, sent emergency crews to the site, but it was a complicated fix. By the time they got it securely sealed on Thursday, the 48-inch pipe had belched more than 39,000 tons of coal ash into the Dan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Dan, a major tributary of one of the largest and least disturbed ecosystems on the East Coast, ran gray. From Danville, Virginia, whose 42,000 residents draw their water from the river, to Kerr Lake, home to seven recreation areas with 800 miles of trails, a gray ribbon of coal ash was visible along 70 miles of prime sport-fishing territory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71432\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 326px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71432 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation-326x253.jpg\" alt=\" \" width=\"326\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Coal ash can have 24 times the concentration of selenium compared to native soil. Click to enlarge. Courtesy: EPA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Is Coal Ash?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Coal ash is a byproduct of burning coal to make electricity. For every nine million tons of coal burned in the U.S., approximately \u003ca href=\"http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/coal/coalmyb01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">one ton of coal ash is produced\u003c/a>. Coal ash is a highly concentrated source of the mineral content that is left after the carbon is burned. It is similar to soil in terms of grain size and texture but contains high concentrations of toxic elements like selenium and arsenic. Coal ash is typically stored wet behind earthen dams adjacent to the power plant. The security of these impoundments is currently under review. The EPA is assessing the hazard potential of the 676 impoundments around the country. As of March 2014, 52 surface impoundments were given a “high” hazard potential rating by the EPA, meaning a failure of the impoundment is “probable, one or more expected.”\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nWhy This Matters\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Water tests at the Danville water treatment plant showed a spike in arsenic in the first days of the contamination, but arsenic levels returned to normal a week later. The ash, however, was not gone. It was just gone from view, merged with the most fertile zone in a river -- the nutrient-rich and life-giving layer of sediment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most species of aquatic insects live in the sediment, collecting, filtering, and grazing upon minute particles of food. Nothing goes to waste down there, not even the arsenic and selenium from coal ash. Heavy metals get lodged into the tissues of any insect that eats them. When minnows eat the insects, they consume the toxins. Larger fish get toxins from every minnow they eat. As you climb higher in the food chain, the amount of arsenic or selenium you find multiplies progressively. This process is called \u003ca href=\"http://sustainablenano.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/3-bioaccumulation-vs-biomagnification.png\" target=\"_blank\">biomagnification\u003c/a> and it has impacts on a food web from bottom to top.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://media.news.wfu.edu/experts/dennis-lemly/\" target=\"_blank\">Dr. Dennis Lemly\u003c/a>, research fish biologist and professor of biology at Wake Forest University, calls selenium an “invisible” toxin because it doesn’t directly harm the fish that eats it. “Instead, it migrates to the ovaries and enters growing embryos, causing defects in major organs and physical deformities in the head, spine, mouth, and fins (see effects of selenium poisoning in North Carolina \u003ca href=\"http://appvoices.org/2013/12/05/effects-of-selenium-poisoning-deformed-and-dying-fish-at-sutton-lake/\" target=\"_blank\">here\u003c/a>). A lot of them die shortly after birth,” Lemly said. “So over a period of two or three years, the older fish die off and there’s no young ones to replace them and repopulate. They just die off.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71431\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 367px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71431\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg\" alt=\"Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\" width=\"367\" height=\"232\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-800x505.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-1180x746.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-960x607.jpg 960w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg 1396w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 367px) 100vw, 367px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Click to enlarge. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Future of Coal Ash Disposal\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhile the long-term effects of the Dan River coal ash spill won't be known for a while, the short-term effects may be influencing regulation. In 2008, the catastrophic 1.1 billion gallon spill in Kingston, Tennessee, galvanized public debate about coal ash storage. In 2010, the EPA proposed the nation’s first-ever rules to ensure the safe disposal of coal ash. According to the EPA, “these rules would ensure stronger oversight of the structural integrity of impoundments in order to prevent future accidents.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Lemly is in favor of more regulation, “I have been on record many times recommending a complete banning of the surface disposal in impoundments. I continue to do that. I’m hopeful that the EPA ruling on coal ash that is supposed to come out in December will provide a complete ban on surface impoundment disposal.” The EPA is expected to finalize their rules for coal ash on December 19.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Out of Sight, Out of Mine",
"title": "Out of Sight, Out of Mine",
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"content": "\u003cp>Ohio University professor \u003ca href=\"http://www.ohio.edu/biosci/profiles/johnson.html\" target=\"_blank\">Kelly Johnson\u003c/a> often finds herself knee deep in streams. Net in hand, she leads her biology students through lessons about life in southern Ohio’s waterways -- and the lack thereof.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In healthy waters, Johnson and her students kick up streambeds to free large insects; they sweep mayflies and caddisflies into nets and pour hundreds out on the ground for examination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But their adventure gets murkier in certain waterways where the toxic legacy of the coal-mining industry lives on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Students expecting to see clean blue streams instead run into crunchy waters thick with rusty buildup. When the crust is broken, Johnson said, streams looks orange, like “orange juice [that] someone poured some milk in.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67639\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 403px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/photo_20110308_114717.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-67639 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/photo_20110308_114717-480x360.jpg\" alt=\"Acid mine drainage, thick with metals, spills through a Southern Ohio stream. Credit: ODNR\" width=\"403\" height=\"302\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Acid mine drainage spills through an Ohio stream. Credit: ODNR\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These waters are \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2014/05/13/coal-to-canvas-an-artist-turns-toxic-runoff-into-paints/\">colored by metals\u003c/a> like iron and nickel that coat and suffocate streambeds in glittering layers. Frothy plumes of aluminum make up the creamy haze in the water column above. Conspicuously missing are living things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ll do a kick and we might get four or five living things in the net,” Johnson said. “These streams are biologically dead.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It all looks wrong,” Johnson added. “You know this is not normal.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thirty-two Ohio counties intersect the Appalachian Coal Basin, one of America’s largest coalfields. While many Midwestern mines ceased operation long ago, surrounding land and streams still feel their effects. Cascades of toxic waters seep daily from \u003ca href=\"http://abandonedmines.gov/\">abandoned mines across the country \u003c/a>and introduce leached metals and acidity into nearby streams, a process known as acid mine drainage (AMD). Throughout Ohio, \u003ca href=\"http://minerals.ohiodnr.gov/\">4,400 abandoned mines pollute at least 1,300 miles of once fresh water\u003c/a>, threatening biodiversity and natural resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/AMD12.aspx\">Remediation projects \u003c/a>exist but are hard to fund and maintain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists and activists claim that AMD is as damaging as it is little acknowledged. The \u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/nps/acid_mine.cfm\">EPA\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/whitemountain/landmanagement/projects/?cid=stelprdb5209652\">USDA\u003c/a> both recognize that AMD may present human health hazards, but confined to poorer rural areas, activists say it’s been difficult to attract dollars and ears to the issue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In an effort to tackle the daunting and costly task of remediating such a large problem, states like Pennsylvania \u003ca href=\"http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Mining/Abandoned%20Mine%20Reclamation/AbandonedMinePortalFiles/MIW/Final_MIW_White_Paper.pdf\">have gone so far as to encourage hydraulic fracturing companies to join the fight. The state is in discussion with fracking companies about the prospect of cleaning AMD\u003c/a> for use in place of fresh water, which is used to help blast through shale and free up natural gas and oil deposits. In January 2014, Pennsylvania \u003ca href=\"http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2014/01/14/senate-panel-approves-bill-encouraging-acid-mine-drainage-use-in-fracking/\">even relaxed environmental policies\u003c/a> to sweeten the deal. Fracking is divisive in the Midwest, and many \u003ca href=\"http://nicholas.duke.edu/news/acid-mine-drainage-reduces-radioactivity-fracking-waste\">worry that plans like this might contribute to other environmental issues\u003c/a>. Still, Mark Bruce of the Ohio Department of Natural Resources says researchers are looking into the safety of doing the same in Ohio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Deadly Chemistry\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67650\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 346px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/img_0565.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-67650 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/img_0565-480x360.jpg\" alt='Owing its coloring to iron precipitates,bright yellow drainage has earned the nickname \"Yellow Boy.\" Credit: ODNR' width=\"346\" height=\"259\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Owing its coloring to iron precipitates,bright yellow drainage has earned the nickname \"Yellow Boy.\" Credit: ODNR\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>AMD is essentially acidic water filled with metals like iron pyrite. It results from mineral deposits’ exposure to air and water in mineshafts. \u003ca href=\"http://www.ei.lehigh.edu/envirosci/enviroissue/amd/links/science2.html\">When all three meet, metals become solvent in water and produce hydrogen-rich sulfuric acids\u003c/a>. As water pressure builds, the toxic cocktail dribbles out of mines and into nearby streams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most animals aren’t adapted for influxes of AMD. Healthy streams support 30 to 40 species, but acidic streams are lucky to have any.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some animals like the green sunfish and yellow perch can handle acidic waters, but that doesn’t mean they’ll survive them. Dissolved metals present other dangers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When AMD meets a less acidic stream, metals within it precipitate out. They crust over the water while gilding and clogging streambed habitat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Even if (animals and insects) could tolerate the chemical stress, they have nowhere to sort of get down in and live and know where to feed,” Johnson said. Species sensitive to both AMD and habitat loss like mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies are the first to go and last to return.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Collectively, the impacts of AMD decay food webs -- and even hardy predators can’t survive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67616\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 1735px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-67616\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1.jpg\" alt=\"Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge.\" width=\"1735\" height=\"907\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1.jpg 1735w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-400x209.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-800x418.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-1440x753.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-1180x617.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-960x502.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1735px) 100vw, 1735px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Tricky Remedies\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It takes only minutes for acid mine drainage to infiltrate a stream, but getting rid of it is far more complicated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We can have an effect on the water quality of our streams, but it's not something that will ever go away,” said \u003ca href=\"http://www.huffrun.org/marissa%20intro\">Marissa Geib\u003c/a>, watershed coordinator for \u003ca href=\"http://www.huffrun.org/\">Huff Run Watershed Restoration P\u003c/a>\u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">artnership\u003c/span> in Mineral City, Ohio. “It was hard to swallow when I realized Huff Run is always going to be orange. There's no way that all of the dissolved metals will get out of the stream.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>AMD is an opened can of worms -- reactions among metals, water, and air are hard to stop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“By and large, the most effective thing is to prevent the water from going into the mine to start with, or prevent the water from coming out of the mine,” Johnson said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67615\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 1673px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-67615\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21.jpg\" alt=\"Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge. \" width=\"1673\" height=\"941\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21.jpg 1673w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-800x450.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1673px) 100vw, 1673px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But plugging mines to keep out new water can increase pressure and force new seepages, and regrading surrounding land to drain water away is no mean feat. Teams neutralize AMD by dumping basic materials like limestone chips into shafts and streams, or by installing devices that treat drainage as it comes out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Odds aside, a busy network of concerned parties is working to curb AMD. In Ohio, watershed groups like Geib’s work with the EPA and ODNR to acquire grant funding and complete remediation plans. Long-term monitoring -- cleaning valves, monitoring populations, and sampling water -- is left to volunteers, while ODNR engineers and contractors are in charge of project design and coordination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Streams that receive help can see dramatic improvements. When Huff Run volunteers started treatment in the mid-1990s, the only species in the 9.9-mile stretch of stream was the resilient green sunfish. Since then they’ve found 22 species in the stream.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Together, Ohio remediation teams treat 10,886 pounds of acidity a day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67644\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 257px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-67644 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013.jpg\" alt=\"To date, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources has partnered with watershed groups to complete 55 AMD projects. Credit: Ohio Department of Natural Resources\" width=\"257\" height=\"333\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013.jpg 1102w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013-400x518.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013-800x1035.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013-960x1242.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 257px) 100vw, 257px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">To date, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources has partnered with watershed groups to complete 55 AMD projects. Credit: Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Click to enlarge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But remediation is trial and error. “We've looked at restoration options with acid mine drainage and I can honestly say we have not seen too much success,” said \u003ca href=\"http://www.indstate.edu/biology/faculty/simon.htm\">Thomas P. Simon\u003c/a>, a professor of ichthyology at Indiana University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We just kind of compound the problem sometimes,” Simon added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Mark Bruce, ODNR and restoration groups have spent $26 million completing \u003ca href=\"http://watersheddata.com/default.aspx\">55 remediation projects in seven Ohio watersheds\u003c/a>. Funding comes largely from \u003ca href=\"http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/30/1231\">federal \u003c/a>and \u003ca href=\"http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Portals/10/pdf/GeoFacts/geof15.pdf\">state excise taxes on mined coal\u003c/a>, paid by operating mining companies. Some worry this funding will dry up as energy companies turn toward natural gas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Extending responsibility for remediation to Ohioans all across the state has been challenging.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is ultimately a problem that's happening in Appalachian Ohio and oftentimes that doesn't get communicated up to Columbus,” said Ohio University professor \u003ca href=\"http://www.ohio.edu/voinovichschool/upload/Kruse-CV-January-2013.pdf\">Natalie Kruse\u003c/a>, who teaches environmental studies courses about watershed management.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When problems are out of sight, they’re out of mind. But the thing about water is that it doesn't often stay in one place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Everyone is part of a watershed,” Geib said, “and all watersheds connect at some point.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the face of all this, activists and scientists focus on the good they can do and perceived risks of doing nothing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you stop treating (AMD) and we just declare that these creeks are dead and that that's okay -- that it's okay that we kill creeks -- then that sets a very scary precedent to me,” Kruse said.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"description": "Hannah Weinberger, a May 2013 graduate of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and native Clevelander, is QUEST Ohio’s jack-of-all-trades intern. Despite majoring in Mandarin Chinese, Hannah developed an interest in journalism that solidified during an internship with CNN. Hannah joined QUEST after completing a writing fellowship with multimedia journalism lab Powering a Nation, in which she investigated water use along the Colorado River. When not chasing down a lead, Hannah plays guitar, explores the Cleveland Metroparks and restrains herself from petting woodland creatures.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Ohio University professor \u003ca href=\"http://www.ohio.edu/biosci/profiles/johnson.html\" target=\"_blank\">Kelly Johnson\u003c/a> often finds herself knee deep in streams. Net in hand, she leads her biology students through lessons about life in southern Ohio’s waterways -- and the lack thereof.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In healthy waters, Johnson and her students kick up streambeds to free large insects; they sweep mayflies and caddisflies into nets and pour hundreds out on the ground for examination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But their adventure gets murkier in certain waterways where the toxic legacy of the coal-mining industry lives on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Students expecting to see clean blue streams instead run into crunchy waters thick with rusty buildup. When the crust is broken, Johnson said, streams looks orange, like “orange juice [that] someone poured some milk in.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67639\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 403px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/photo_20110308_114717.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-67639 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/photo_20110308_114717-480x360.jpg\" alt=\"Acid mine drainage, thick with metals, spills through a Southern Ohio stream. Credit: ODNR\" width=\"403\" height=\"302\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Acid mine drainage spills through an Ohio stream. Credit: ODNR\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These waters are \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2014/05/13/coal-to-canvas-an-artist-turns-toxic-runoff-into-paints/\">colored by metals\u003c/a> like iron and nickel that coat and suffocate streambeds in glittering layers. Frothy plumes of aluminum make up the creamy haze in the water column above. Conspicuously missing are living things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ll do a kick and we might get four or five living things in the net,” Johnson said. “These streams are biologically dead.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It all looks wrong,” Johnson added. “You know this is not normal.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thirty-two Ohio counties intersect the Appalachian Coal Basin, one of America’s largest coalfields. While many Midwestern mines ceased operation long ago, surrounding land and streams still feel their effects. Cascades of toxic waters seep daily from \u003ca href=\"http://abandonedmines.gov/\">abandoned mines across the country \u003c/a>and introduce leached metals and acidity into nearby streams, a process known as acid mine drainage (AMD). Throughout Ohio, \u003ca href=\"http://minerals.ohiodnr.gov/\">4,400 abandoned mines pollute at least 1,300 miles of once fresh water\u003c/a>, threatening biodiversity and natural resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.dep.wv.gov/WWE/getinvolved/sos/Pages/AMD12.aspx\">Remediation projects \u003c/a>exist but are hard to fund and maintain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists and activists claim that AMD is as damaging as it is little acknowledged. The \u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/nps/acid_mine.cfm\">EPA\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/whitemountain/landmanagement/projects/?cid=stelprdb5209652\">USDA\u003c/a> both recognize that AMD may present human health hazards, but confined to poorer rural areas, activists say it’s been difficult to attract dollars and ears to the issue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In an effort to tackle the daunting and costly task of remediating such a large problem, states like Pennsylvania \u003ca href=\"http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Mining/Abandoned%20Mine%20Reclamation/AbandonedMinePortalFiles/MIW/Final_MIW_White_Paper.pdf\">have gone so far as to encourage hydraulic fracturing companies to join the fight. The state is in discussion with fracking companies about the prospect of cleaning AMD\u003c/a> for use in place of fresh water, which is used to help blast through shale and free up natural gas and oil deposits. In January 2014, Pennsylvania \u003ca href=\"http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2014/01/14/senate-panel-approves-bill-encouraging-acid-mine-drainage-use-in-fracking/\">even relaxed environmental policies\u003c/a> to sweeten the deal. Fracking is divisive in the Midwest, and many \u003ca href=\"http://nicholas.duke.edu/news/acid-mine-drainage-reduces-radioactivity-fracking-waste\">worry that plans like this might contribute to other environmental issues\u003c/a>. Still, Mark Bruce of the Ohio Department of Natural Resources says researchers are looking into the safety of doing the same in Ohio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Deadly Chemistry\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67650\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 346px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/img_0565.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-67650 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/img_0565-480x360.jpg\" alt='Owing its coloring to iron precipitates,bright yellow drainage has earned the nickname \"Yellow Boy.\" Credit: ODNR' width=\"346\" height=\"259\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Owing its coloring to iron precipitates,bright yellow drainage has earned the nickname \"Yellow Boy.\" Credit: ODNR\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>AMD is essentially acidic water filled with metals like iron pyrite. It results from mineral deposits’ exposure to air and water in mineshafts. \u003ca href=\"http://www.ei.lehigh.edu/envirosci/enviroissue/amd/links/science2.html\">When all three meet, metals become solvent in water and produce hydrogen-rich sulfuric acids\u003c/a>. As water pressure builds, the toxic cocktail dribbles out of mines and into nearby streams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most animals aren’t adapted for influxes of AMD. Healthy streams support 30 to 40 species, but acidic streams are lucky to have any.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some animals like the green sunfish and yellow perch can handle acidic waters, but that doesn’t mean they’ll survive them. Dissolved metals present other dangers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When AMD meets a less acidic stream, metals within it precipitate out. They crust over the water while gilding and clogging streambed habitat.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Even if (animals and insects) could tolerate the chemical stress, they have nowhere to sort of get down in and live and know where to feed,” Johnson said. Species sensitive to both AMD and habitat loss like mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies are the first to go and last to return.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Collectively, the impacts of AMD decay food webs -- and even hardy predators can’t survive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67616\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 1735px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-67616\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1.jpg\" alt=\"Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge.\" width=\"1735\" height=\"907\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1.jpg 1735w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-400x209.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-800x418.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-1440x753.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-1180x617.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/celldamage1-960x502.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1735px) 100vw, 1735px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Tricky Remedies\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It takes only minutes for acid mine drainage to infiltrate a stream, but getting rid of it is far more complicated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We can have an effect on the water quality of our streams, but it's not something that will ever go away,” said \u003ca href=\"http://www.huffrun.org/marissa%20intro\">Marissa Geib\u003c/a>, watershed coordinator for \u003ca href=\"http://www.huffrun.org/\">Huff Run Watershed Restoration P\u003c/a>\u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">artnership\u003c/span> in Mineral City, Ohio. “It was hard to swallow when I realized Huff Run is always going to be orange. There's no way that all of the dissolved metals will get out of the stream.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>AMD is an opened can of worms -- reactions among metals, water, and air are hard to stop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“By and large, the most effective thing is to prevent the water from going into the mine to start with, or prevent the water from coming out of the mine,” Johnson said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67615\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 1673px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-67615\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21.jpg\" alt=\"Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge. \" width=\"1673\" height=\"941\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21.jpg 1673w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-800x450.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/phscale21-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1673px) 100vw, 1673px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Credit: Hannah Weinberger, ideastream. Click to enlarge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But plugging mines to keep out new water can increase pressure and force new seepages, and regrading surrounding land to drain water away is no mean feat. Teams neutralize AMD by dumping basic materials like limestone chips into shafts and streams, or by installing devices that treat drainage as it comes out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Odds aside, a busy network of concerned parties is working to curb AMD. In Ohio, watershed groups like Geib’s work with the EPA and ODNR to acquire grant funding and complete remediation plans. Long-term monitoring -- cleaning valves, monitoring populations, and sampling water -- is left to volunteers, while ODNR engineers and contractors are in charge of project design and coordination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Streams that receive help can see dramatic improvements. When Huff Run volunteers started treatment in the mid-1990s, the only species in the 9.9-mile stretch of stream was the resilient green sunfish. Since then they’ve found 22 species in the stream.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Together, Ohio remediation teams treat 10,886 pounds of acidity a day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_67644\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 257px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-67644 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013.jpg\" alt=\"To date, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources has partnered with watershed groups to complete 55 AMD projects. Credit: Ohio Department of Natural Resources\" width=\"257\" height=\"333\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013.jpg 1102w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013-400x518.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013-800x1035.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/09/Status-of-AMDAT-Plans-in-Ohio-2013-960x1242.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 257px) 100vw, 257px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">To date, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources has partnered with watershed groups to complete 55 AMD projects. Credit: Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Click to enlarge.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But remediation is trial and error. “We've looked at restoration options with acid mine drainage and I can honestly say we have not seen too much success,” said \u003ca href=\"http://www.indstate.edu/biology/faculty/simon.htm\">Thomas P. Simon\u003c/a>, a professor of ichthyology at Indiana University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We just kind of compound the problem sometimes,” Simon added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Mark Bruce, ODNR and restoration groups have spent $26 million completing \u003ca href=\"http://watersheddata.com/default.aspx\">55 remediation projects in seven Ohio watersheds\u003c/a>. Funding comes largely from \u003ca href=\"http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/30/1231\">federal \u003c/a>and \u003ca href=\"http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Portals/10/pdf/GeoFacts/geof15.pdf\">state excise taxes on mined coal\u003c/a>, paid by operating mining companies. Some worry this funding will dry up as energy companies turn toward natural gas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Extending responsibility for remediation to Ohioans all across the state has been challenging.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is ultimately a problem that's happening in Appalachian Ohio and oftentimes that doesn't get communicated up to Columbus,” said Ohio University professor \u003ca href=\"http://www.ohio.edu/voinovichschool/upload/Kruse-CV-January-2013.pdf\">Natalie Kruse\u003c/a>, who teaches environmental studies courses about watershed management.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When problems are out of sight, they’re out of mind. But the thing about water is that it doesn't often stay in one place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Everyone is part of a watershed,” Geib said, “and all watersheds connect at some point.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the face of all this, activists and scientists focus on the good they can do and perceived risks of doing nothing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you stop treating (AMD) and we just declare that these creeks are dead and that that's okay -- that it's okay that we kill creeks -- then that sets a very scary precedent to me,” Kruse said.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003ch2>\u003cspan style=\"color: #888888\">\u003cstrong>An Expert Opinion: \u003c/strong>\u003c/span>\u003cstrong>Dr. Diana Wall\u003c/strong>\u003c/h2>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66060\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 168px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-DrDianaWall_one-1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-66060\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-DrDianaWall_one-1-168x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dr. Diana Wall\" width=\"168\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dr. Diana Wall\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> “The Nation that destroys its soil destroys itself.”\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003cem> \u003ca href=\"http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15373\">Franklin D\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15373\">. Roosevelt\u003c/a>, February 26, 1937\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Civilizations and their economies can rise and fall based on the availability of fertile, healthy soils. Dr. Diana Wall, the winner of the 2013 \u003ca href=\"http://www.tylerprize.usc.edu/press/pr2013.html\">Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement\u003c/a>, has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of the hidden ecosystems that lie beneath our feet. We talked with Dr. Wall about her work and why soil health and human health are so fundamentally intertwined.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\"Dirt\" or \"soil\" -- which term do you use?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>I like soil. Dirt gives the idea that there is nothing beautiful in soil, that it is “dirty” and “dead,” yet the many organisms in soil can be extraordinarily beautiful if you put them under a microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Your work in Antarctica and elsewhere has revealed we never really understood soil at all. How has our understanding changed?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Work in the Antarctic Dry Valleys, an extreme cold desert, has shown that tiny, microscopic invertebrates can be the top animals in the food web of this type of ecosystem. They are the “elephants and tigers” of the Dry Valleys even though they are hidden in soil. One species, a nematode roundworm [called] \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oiggTr83jc\">Scottnema\u003c/a>, occupies the majority of the landscape and contributes about 7 percent to the valley soil carbon turnover, a needed contribution to regulating global carbon cycling. Soils in different locations have very different “communities” of organisms. It’s just like the life above ground -- a desert has very different species compared to a tropical forest. We have just begun to scratch the surface and explore soils to discover the exciting food webs under our feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66151\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Dry-Valley-Abbey-Road.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-66151\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Dry-Valley-Abbey-Road-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"Dr. Wall and her team of scientists conduct research in the Antarctic to better understand the relation between biodiversity above and below ground. Photos courtesy Dr. Wall/nemablog\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dr. Wall and her team of scientists conduct research in the Antarctic to better understand the relation between biodiversity above and below ground. Photos courtesy Dr. Wall/\u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/nemablog/\">nemablog\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is biodiversity underground really as important as biodiversity above ground?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Absolutely! We wouldn’t see the diversity above ground if we didn’t have the diversity below ground. The species above ground, from the birds to the plant species, depend on specific communities of small organisms in the soil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The organisms in the food webs below ground work for us cleansing our water, decaying leaves and trees, and returning nutrients to make soils fertile; detoxifying chemicals; stabilizing soils and preventing erosion; and as biocontrol agents, controlling diseases that affect animals, plants, and humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66154\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Worm-Farms.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-66154\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Worm-Farms-640x180.jpg\" alt=\"Worm Farms\" width=\"640\" height=\"180\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Worm farms in Antactica's McMurdo Dry Valley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How will climate change impact life underground?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Climate change can have a huge impact on life underground. What’s surprising for many is that life underground can also have a huge impact on climate change. It’s a cycle.\u003cbr>\nClimate change can alter soil moisture through droughts or excessive rainfall or soil temperatures, which affects the soil habitat, the food that the organisms eat, and the physiology of the organisms. What we’re trying to do now is to learn more about where and when these changes in soil biodiversity will affect [our ability to] sustain our food, soils, air, and life above ground.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66063\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-NatureGeosciences2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-66063\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-NatureGeosciences2-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"0000022496-NatureGeosciences2\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some of the “elephants and tigers” found in Antarctica's soil.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What's your favorite soil mini-beast and why?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Ahh… without a doubt it is Scottnema, the small, tough, resilient nematode roundworm from the driest desert on the earth, the \u003ca href=\"https://www.google.com/search?q=McMurdo+Dry+Valley&espv=210&es_sm=119&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=P6LVUueBN8rNsQTAlID4Bg&ved=0CDcQsAQ&biw=1136&bih=634\">McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica\u003c/a>. It is hard to believe it survives in such a hostile environment, but it survives by changing its physiology from worm-like to a tiny “Cheerio” -- and then blows across the landscape with the cold winter winds. Despite this, this tough animal seems very sensitive to changes in temperature and to increasing soil moisture, which is a concern with increasing warming in Antarctica.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How can soil scientists help advance our land management practices?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Let’s face it -- soils are under threat. We need lots of fertile soils to sustain our populations for the future. Soil scientists have the training to appreciate the different soil habitats and the individual contributions that soil organisms make to fertile and stable soils. All scientists can help to integrate and transfer this new knowledge about soil biodiversity for improved soil health, for the health of us all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66165\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 331px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Breana-Diana-and-Ed-with-Penguin_2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-66165 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Breana-Diana-and-Ed-with-Penguin_2-331x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dr. Wall and her team encounter a Penguin on a field study in Antarctica in 2006.\" width=\"331\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dr. Wall and her team encounter a Penguin on a field study in Antarctica in 2006.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>If everyone reading this interview committed to one thing to protect soil life, what should that one thing be?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>They can help us protect and conserve and restore our living, teeming soils just as we protect clean air and clean water. Soils are being degraded at a rapid rate. We can all work to address the causes: contamination and pollution, erosion, sealing of soils by concrete, climate change, invasive plant and animal species, and the decline of organic matter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Follow Dr. Wall’s current Antarctic research endeavors at her blog,\u003ca href=\"http://nemablog.wordpress.com/\">The World of Nematodes\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003ch2>\u003cspan style=\"color: #888888\">\u003cstrong>An Expert Opinion: \u003c/strong>\u003c/span>\u003cstrong>Dr. Diana Wall\u003c/strong>\u003c/h2>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66060\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 168px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-DrDianaWall_one-1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-66060\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-DrDianaWall_one-1-168x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dr. Diana Wall\" width=\"168\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dr. Diana Wall\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> “The Nation that destroys its soil destroys itself.”\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003cem> \u003ca href=\"http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15373\">Franklin D\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15373\">. Roosevelt\u003c/a>, February 26, 1937\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Civilizations and their economies can rise and fall based on the availability of fertile, healthy soils. Dr. Diana Wall, the winner of the 2013 \u003ca href=\"http://www.tylerprize.usc.edu/press/pr2013.html\">Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement\u003c/a>, has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of the hidden ecosystems that lie beneath our feet. We talked with Dr. Wall about her work and why soil health and human health are so fundamentally intertwined.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\"Dirt\" or \"soil\" -- which term do you use?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>I like soil. Dirt gives the idea that there is nothing beautiful in soil, that it is “dirty” and “dead,” yet the many organisms in soil can be extraordinarily beautiful if you put them under a microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Your work in Antarctica and elsewhere has revealed we never really understood soil at all. How has our understanding changed?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Work in the Antarctic Dry Valleys, an extreme cold desert, has shown that tiny, microscopic invertebrates can be the top animals in the food web of this type of ecosystem. They are the “elephants and tigers” of the Dry Valleys even though they are hidden in soil. One species, a nematode roundworm [called] \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oiggTr83jc\">Scottnema\u003c/a>, occupies the majority of the landscape and contributes about 7 percent to the valley soil carbon turnover, a needed contribution to regulating global carbon cycling. Soils in different locations have very different “communities” of organisms. It’s just like the life above ground -- a desert has very different species compared to a tropical forest. We have just begun to scratch the surface and explore soils to discover the exciting food webs under our feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66151\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Dry-Valley-Abbey-Road.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-66151\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Dry-Valley-Abbey-Road-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"Dr. Wall and her team of scientists conduct research in the Antarctic to better understand the relation between biodiversity above and below ground. Photos courtesy Dr. Wall/nemablog\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dr. Wall and her team of scientists conduct research in the Antarctic to better understand the relation between biodiversity above and below ground. Photos courtesy Dr. Wall/\u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/nemablog/\">nemablog\u003c/a>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is biodiversity underground really as important as biodiversity above ground?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Absolutely! We wouldn’t see the diversity above ground if we didn’t have the diversity below ground. The species above ground, from the birds to the plant species, depend on specific communities of small organisms in the soil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The organisms in the food webs below ground work for us cleansing our water, decaying leaves and trees, and returning nutrients to make soils fertile; detoxifying chemicals; stabilizing soils and preventing erosion; and as biocontrol agents, controlling diseases that affect animals, plants, and humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66154\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Worm-Farms.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-66154\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Worm-Farms-640x180.jpg\" alt=\"Worm Farms\" width=\"640\" height=\"180\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Worm farms in Antactica's McMurdo Dry Valley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How will climate change impact life underground?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Climate change can have a huge impact on life underground. What’s surprising for many is that life underground can also have a huge impact on climate change. It’s a cycle.\u003cbr>\nClimate change can alter soil moisture through droughts or excessive rainfall or soil temperatures, which affects the soil habitat, the food that the organisms eat, and the physiology of the organisms. What we’re trying to do now is to learn more about where and when these changes in soil biodiversity will affect [our ability to] sustain our food, soils, air, and life above ground.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66063\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 405px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-NatureGeosciences2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-66063\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/0000022496-NatureGeosciences2-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"0000022496-NatureGeosciences2\" width=\"405\" height=\"228\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some of the “elephants and tigers” found in Antarctica's soil.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What's your favorite soil mini-beast and why?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Ahh… without a doubt it is Scottnema, the small, tough, resilient nematode roundworm from the driest desert on the earth, the \u003ca href=\"https://www.google.com/search?q=McMurdo+Dry+Valley&espv=210&es_sm=119&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=P6LVUueBN8rNsQTAlID4Bg&ved=0CDcQsAQ&biw=1136&bih=634\">McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica\u003c/a>. It is hard to believe it survives in such a hostile environment, but it survives by changing its physiology from worm-like to a tiny “Cheerio” -- and then blows across the landscape with the cold winter winds. Despite this, this tough animal seems very sensitive to changes in temperature and to increasing soil moisture, which is a concern with increasing warming in Antarctica.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How can soil scientists help advance our land management practices?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Let’s face it -- soils are under threat. We need lots of fertile soils to sustain our populations for the future. Soil scientists have the training to appreciate the different soil habitats and the individual contributions that soil organisms make to fertile and stable soils. All scientists can help to integrate and transfer this new knowledge about soil biodiversity for improved soil health, for the health of us all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_66165\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 331px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Breana-Diana-and-Ed-with-Penguin_2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-66165 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/10/Breana-Diana-and-Ed-with-Penguin_2-331x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dr. Wall and her team encounter a Penguin on a field study in Antarctica in 2006.\" width=\"331\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dr. Wall and her team encounter a Penguin on a field study in Antarctica in 2006.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>If everyone reading this interview committed to one thing to protect soil life, what should that one thing be?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>They can help us protect and conserve and restore our living, teeming soils just as we protect clean air and clean water. Soils are being degraded at a rapid rate. We can all work to address the causes: contamination and pollution, erosion, sealing of soils by concrete, climate change, invasive plant and animal species, and the decline of organic matter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Follow Dr. Wall’s current Antarctic research endeavors at her blog,\u003ca href=\"http://nemablog.wordpress.com/\">The World of Nematodes\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "How Were Fossil Fuels Formed?",
"title": "How Were Fossil Fuels Formed?",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>This slideshow was produced by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/gviebranz/\">George Vibranz \u003c/a>and \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/anneglausser/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Anne Glausser\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Shale gas is a fossil fuel that formed millions of years ago. Different kinds of fossil fuels -- coals, oils, and natural gases -- formed as dead plants and animals decayed. Scientists refer to such remains as “organic matter.” The element carbon is the foundation for organic matter on Earth. That means that countless carbon-based molecules remain buried far below Earth’s surface. Many of the carbon compounds are combustible -- they can be used to release heat energy to produce electricity; power cars, planes, or trains; or keep your house warm on a cold evening. But once we use them we can’t reuse them. We call them non-renewable natural resources. In this activity you will learn more about how one fossil fuel -- shale gas -- formed thousands of feet beneath certain parts of the United States.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This narrated slide show is part of our \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/challenges-of-non-renewable-energy/\">\u003cstrong>Challenges of Non-Renewable Energy\u003c/strong>\u003c/a> series\u003cstrong>.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Pre-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What do you already know about fossil fuels?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Which types of fossil energy do you think people rely on the most?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How many years do you think Earth’s fossil energy supplies will last: 100? 500? Forever? How could you gather information to answer a question like this?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Focus Questions for Viewing\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>How did shale form over time?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What caused natural gas (shale gas) to form?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why are scientists and engineers interested in the Marcellus Shale formation?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What are some of the challenges involved in obtaining trapped shale gas?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Post-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Scientists say that nearly all of the energy on Earth comes from the sun. How do you think the sun contributed to the development of Earth’s fossil fuels?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why is there interest in finding new sources of energy within the United States?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What daily activities of yours connect you to the use of and need for fossil fuels?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Extension Activity\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Conduct research to find shale gas deposits that have been discovered near your state. Use various sources to determine an estimate of all the shale gas that lies within the current “shale plays.” Compare the formation and location of coal and petroleum to that of shale. Look for similarities and differences among the three fossil fuels and predict why this may be. Develop an explanation for how different types of fossil energy occur in different places.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Links to Learn More\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Portals/10/pdf/HandsOn/HandsOn08.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Make a Geologic Timeline\u003c/a> , Ohio Department of Natural Resources: Geologic time is very difficult to think about in terms of a human lifetime. This activity will help you to understand how long ago the resources we use today were formed.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.cetconnect.org/ohiorocks/resources/docs/GeologicHistoryofOhio.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Ohio “Geofacts” – Millions of Years in the Making\u003c/a>, Ohio Department of Natural Resources: See how Earth's crust near Ohio formed over a span of hundreds of millions of years.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/portals/10/pdf/stratcol.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">See How Geologists Have Mapped the Earth’s Crust in Ohio\u003c/a>, Ohio Department of Natural Resources: In order to find fossil fuels, geologists create maps that show the different layers of deposition within Earth's crust. This map gives you a sense of the composition and depth of the Ohio bedrock.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">See How the Continents Formed and Moved Over Time\u003c/a> , C.R. Scotese, PALEOMAP Project: Earth's surface has changed dramatically in the past 4.5 billion years. These maps show you the changes over time up to the present day.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/d/dunkleosteus.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Learn About Devonian Life\u003c/a> Prehistoric-Wildlife.com: How much organic plant and animal life existed 400 million years ago? 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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>This slideshow was produced by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/gviebranz/\">George Vibranz \u003c/a>and \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/anneglausser/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Anne Glausser\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Shale gas is a fossil fuel that formed millions of years ago. Different kinds of fossil fuels -- coals, oils, and natural gases -- formed as dead plants and animals decayed. Scientists refer to such remains as “organic matter.” The element carbon is the foundation for organic matter on Earth. That means that countless carbon-based molecules remain buried far below Earth’s surface. Many of the carbon compounds are combustible -- they can be used to release heat energy to produce electricity; power cars, planes, or trains; or keep your house warm on a cold evening. But once we use them we can’t reuse them. We call them non-renewable natural resources. In this activity you will learn more about how one fossil fuel -- shale gas -- formed thousands of feet beneath certain parts of the United States.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This narrated slide show is part of our \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/challenges-of-non-renewable-energy/\">\u003cstrong>Challenges of Non-Renewable Energy\u003c/strong>\u003c/a> series\u003cstrong>.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Pre-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What do you already know about fossil fuels?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Which types of fossil energy do you think people rely on the most?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How many years do you think Earth’s fossil energy supplies will last: 100? 500? Forever? How could you gather information to answer a question like this?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Focus Questions for Viewing\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>How did shale form over time?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What caused natural gas (shale gas) to form?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why are scientists and engineers interested in the Marcellus Shale formation?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What are some of the challenges involved in obtaining trapped shale gas?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Post-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Scientists say that nearly all of the energy on Earth comes from the sun. How do you think the sun contributed to the development of Earth’s fossil fuels?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why is there interest in finding new sources of energy within the United States?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What daily activities of yours connect you to the use of and need for fossil fuels?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Extension Activity\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Conduct research to find shale gas deposits that have been discovered near your state. Use various sources to determine an estimate of all the shale gas that lies within the current “shale plays.” Compare the formation and location of coal and petroleum to that of shale. Look for similarities and differences among the three fossil fuels and predict why this may be. Develop an explanation for how different types of fossil energy occur in different places.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Links to Learn More\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/Portals/10/pdf/HandsOn/HandsOn08.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Make a Geologic Timeline\u003c/a> , Ohio Department of Natural Resources: Geologic time is very difficult to think about in terms of a human lifetime. This activity will help you to understand how long ago the resources we use today were formed.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.cetconnect.org/ohiorocks/resources/docs/GeologicHistoryofOhio.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Ohio “Geofacts” – Millions of Years in the Making\u003c/a>, Ohio Department of Natural Resources: See how Earth's crust near Ohio formed over a span of hundreds of millions of years.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/portals/10/pdf/stratcol.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">See How Geologists Have Mapped the Earth’s Crust in Ohio\u003c/a>, Ohio Department of Natural Resources: In order to find fossil fuels, geologists create maps that show the different layers of deposition within Earth's crust. This map gives you a sense of the composition and depth of the Ohio bedrock.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">See How the Continents Formed and Moved Over Time\u003c/a> , C.R. Scotese, PALEOMAP Project: Earth's surface has changed dramatically in the past 4.5 billion years. These maps show you the changes over time up to the present day.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/d/dunkleosteus.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Learn About Devonian Life\u003c/a> Prehistoric-Wildlife.com: How much organic plant and animal life existed 400 million years ago? Find out by exploring this history of the Devonian Period.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>NGSS Correlations\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Advocates of hydraulic fracturing list the many benefits of the practice. The infographic above shows the four reasons cited most often. To think critically and scientifically, it is good practice to balance benefits against challenges, and people’s wants or needs against economic or environmental costs. In the science of sustainability we must always look at how today's practices might impact people and Earth’s systems in the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-66354\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141.jpg\" alt=\"Frack Benefits 1.10.2014\" width=\"1426\" height=\"1102\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141.jpg 1426w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-400x309.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-800x618.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-1180x912.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-960x742.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1426px) 100vw, 1426px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Click on the infographic above to see a larger version.\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nLearn more about claims that hydraulic fracturing helps people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This infographic is part of a five-part educational series called \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/challenges-of-non-renewable-energy/\">\u003cspan style=\"color: #000000\">\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Challenges of Non-Renewable Energy.\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Pre-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>How can people be persuaded to change their views or beliefs?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How would you define a person who is an \"advocate\"? What do advocates do?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What is a debate? Why might people debate the impacts of hydraulic fracturing?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Focus Questions for Viewing and Reading the Infographic\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What claims do fracking advocates make with regard to the following?\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Environmental impact\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Economic impact\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Sustainability of energy\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Post-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Which of the four points made in the infographic do you believe is most defensible? Why?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Are there any points that you find hard to defend? What are they? Why is defending them difficult?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Do you see any places in the graphic where some additional information may have been intentionally omitted to sway you toward favoring the idea of fracking for energy?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Extension Activity\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Write an argument supporting the creation of an infrastructure that increases the use and distribution of natural gas within the United States. What do you think critics would point to as drawbacks to your plan? Where would you expect to find tension or competing priorities among people’s needs, economic factors, and environmental factors?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Links to Learn More\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.energyfromshale.org/hydraulic-fracturing/shale-natural-gas\" target=\"_blank\">Advocating for Domestic Supplies of Natural Shale Gas\u003c/a>, EnergyFromShale.org: See what domestic energy advocates have to say about well construction and the use of natural resources.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.energyfromshale.org/stories-from-shale/lorain-ohio\" target=\"_blank\"> Are The Jobs Real? \u003c/a>, EnergyFromShale.org: Read an advocate’s story about how fracking has provided new jobs in Lorain, Ohio, and other places where unemployment is high due to changing economies.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://tinyurl.com/novagreenhouse\" target=\"_blank\">Earth’s Natural Thermostat\u003c/a>, PBS LearningMedia/WGBH Educational Foundation: View this NOVA segment to see how carbon dioxide emissions, created by the combustion of carbon-based fuels, can upset the balance between the sun’s radiant heat entering our atmosphere and that which is emitted back into space.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>NGSS Correlations\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Performance Expectation:\u003c/strong> Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the environment. \u003cstrong>MS-ESS3-3\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Disciplinary Core Idea:\u003c/strong> Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing the extinction of other species. 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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Advocates of hydraulic fracturing list the many benefits of the practice. The infographic above shows the four reasons cited most often. To think critically and scientifically, it is good practice to balance benefits against challenges, and people’s wants or needs against economic or environmental costs. In the science of sustainability we must always look at how today's practices might impact people and Earth’s systems in the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-66354\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141.jpg\" alt=\"Frack Benefits 1.10.2014\" width=\"1426\" height=\"1102\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141.jpg 1426w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-400x309.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-800x618.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-1180x912.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/12/Frack-Benefits-1.10.20141-960x742.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1426px) 100vw, 1426px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Click on the infographic above to see a larger version.\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nLearn more about claims that hydraulic fracturing helps people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This infographic is part of a five-part educational series called \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/challenges-of-non-renewable-energy/\">\u003cspan style=\"color: #000000\">\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Challenges of Non-Renewable Energy.\u003c/strong>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Pre-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>How can people be persuaded to change their views or beliefs?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How would you define a person who is an \"advocate\"? What do advocates do?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What is a debate? Why might people debate the impacts of hydraulic fracturing?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Focus Questions for Viewing and Reading the Infographic\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What claims do fracking advocates make with regard to the following?\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Environmental impact\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Economic impact\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Sustainability of energy\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Post-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Which of the four points made in the infographic do you believe is most defensible? Why?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Are there any points that you find hard to defend? What are they? Why is defending them difficult?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Do you see any places in the graphic where some additional information may have been intentionally omitted to sway you toward favoring the idea of fracking for energy?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Extension Activity\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Write an argument supporting the creation of an infrastructure that increases the use and distribution of natural gas within the United States. What do you think critics would point to as drawbacks to your plan? Where would you expect to find tension or competing priorities among people’s needs, economic factors, and environmental factors?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Links to Learn More\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.energyfromshale.org/hydraulic-fracturing/shale-natural-gas\" target=\"_blank\">Advocating for Domestic Supplies of Natural Shale Gas\u003c/a>, EnergyFromShale.org: See what domestic energy advocates have to say about well construction and the use of natural resources.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.energyfromshale.org/stories-from-shale/lorain-ohio\" target=\"_blank\"> Are The Jobs Real? \u003c/a>, EnergyFromShale.org: Read an advocate’s story about how fracking has provided new jobs in Lorain, Ohio, and other places where unemployment is high due to changing economies.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://tinyurl.com/novagreenhouse\" target=\"_blank\">Earth’s Natural Thermostat\u003c/a>, PBS LearningMedia/WGBH Educational Foundation: View this NOVA segment to see how carbon dioxide emissions, created by the combustion of carbon-based fuels, can upset the balance between the sun’s radiant heat entering our atmosphere and that which is emitted back into space.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>NGSS Correlations\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Performance Expectation:\u003c/strong> Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the environment. \u003cstrong>MS-ESS3-3\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Disciplinary Core Idea:\u003c/strong> Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing the extinction of other species. But changes to Earth’s environments can have different impacts (negative and positive) for different living things. \u003cstrong>ESS3.C Human Impacts on Earth Systems\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Crosscutting Concepts:\u003c/strong> Cause and effect; stability and change\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science and Engineering Practices:\u003c/strong> Asking questions and defining problems\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>[covevideo id=\"http://video.pbs.org/partnerplayer/ihEPQxHXg6Avasbkb5geeQ==/?autoplay=false&start=0&end=0&chapterbar=false&topbar=true&endscreen=false\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\">\u003cem>This video was excerpted from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/fracking-wastewater/\">After the Frack\u003c/a> by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/maryfecteau/\">Mary Fecteau.\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To think critically and scientifically, it is good practice to look at how the wants or needs of people balance against economic or environmental costs. In the science of sustainability we must always look at how the practices of today might impact people and Earth’s systems in the future. There are tradeoffs and risks that must be considered whenever people use Earth’s natural resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This video is part of a five-part educational series called \u003cspan style=\"color: #000000\">\u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/challenges-of-non-renewable-energy/\">\u003cspan style=\"color: #000000\">\u003cstrong>Challenges of Non-Renewable Energy\u003c/strong>.\u003c/span>\u003c/a>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Pre-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What are the important roles of water on Earth?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>When making decisions, what is a \"trade-off\"?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Give your own definition of ‘\"alternatives.\" What might be an example of a scientist talking about alternatives?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Focus Questions for Viewing\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>According to Dr. Weatherington-Rice, which chemicals might return to the surface when shale gas is extracted during fracking?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What has traditionally been done with contaminated fracking fluids?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What concerns do people have about current methods of dealing with fracking waste?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>According to Mr. Kell, how many barrels of contaminated fracking wastewater have been buried in injection wells?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Post-viewing Questions\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Why are these chemicals, heavy metals, and radioactive isotopes present in shale beds?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>The capacity of a barrel is around 55 gallons. How many gallons of water do you estimate are contained in the 300 million barrels that have already been buried in Ohio? How does this compare to the capacity of a lake or reservoir near you?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>From a natural resources perspective, why would people be concerned about the injection of millions of barrels of fracking wastewater into the ground?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Extension Activity\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Research the effects of salts, heavy metals, and radioactive elements on human organ systems. Why would people be concerned about leakage of injection wells onto the surface or into groundwater reserves?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Links to Learn More\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=shale-gas-and-hydraulic-fracturing\" target=\"_blank\">The Science of Wasted Resources\u003c/a>, David Biello, Scientific American: This article from Scientific American highlights the toxic gases, liquids, and solids that must be managed when hydraulic fracturing takes place.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nbcnews.com/science/fracking-practices-blame-ohio-earthquakes-8C11073601\" target=\"_blank\">A New Challenge?\u003c/a>, Charles Q. Chol, NBC NEWS Science: Read about new claims that fracking injections and gas extractions can be linked to seismic shifts in Earth’s crust.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://tinyurl.com/PSEConnections\" target=\"_blank\"> Can Fracking Cause Another Hurricane Sandy?\u003c/a>, Physicians, Scientists, and Engineers for Healthy Energy: See what the Physicians, Scientists, and Engineers for Healthy Energy have to say about current scientific evidence.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>NGSS Correlations\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Performance Expectation\u003c/strong>: Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the environment. \u003cstrong>MS-ESS3-3\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Disciplinary Core Idea\u003c/strong>: Human activities have significantly altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging or destroying natural habitats and causing the extinction of other species. 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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>\"After the Frack\" was produced by QUEST Ohio’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/maryfecteau/\">Mary Fecteau\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hydraulic fracturing -- better known as fracking -- is a process of extracting natural gas that creates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. In this television segment, QUEST explores the science behind the disposal of this waste, and the issues that surround it. We caught up with QUEST Ohio producer \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/maryfecteau/\">Mary Fecteau\u003c/a> to find out more about some of the issues surrounding fracking and her experience creating this video.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fracking is all over the news, and it is controversial. What made you want to take this topic on?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: I wanted to take it on \u003cstrong>because\u003c/strong> it’s all over the news and really controversial. I think there’s a lot of twisting of facts in this topic to serve a specific agenda, and I think the story needed to be told objectively, or as objectively as possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I definitely had that moment when I wondered, “Why did I do this to myself?” The story’s so complex. There’s a lot of rhetoric, and on top of that I was dealing with a lot of ugly footage -- trucks, pipes, and storage tanks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So why focus on the waste created by this fracking process?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_62971\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 381px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Fracking-John_Jack_GH1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-62971\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Fracking-John_Jack_GH1-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"Fracking-John_Jack_GH\" width=\"381\" height=\"212\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">John Jack, Vice President of Business Development at GreenHunter Water, stands in front of large pumps, which pump wastewater from fracking into an underground disposal well.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: The fracking process uses massive amounts of highly pressurized fresh water to create cracks in the bedrock, which frees up the natural gas stored there. Much of this water then comes back up as \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrdc.org/energy/files/fracking-wastewater-fullreport.pdf\">contaminated wastewater\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ohio is, as some say, a “\u003ca href=\"http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-03-22/fracking-fluid-soaks-ohio\">dumping ground\u003c/a>” for this wastewater. Other states truck their wastewater in [to Ohio] to dispose of it here. This is because we have so many \u003ca href=\"http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/tag/deep-injection-well/\">deep injection wells\u003c/a>. Injection wells are the sites deep underground where this wastewater must be put. So we have \u003ca href=\"http://www.crainscleveland.com/article/20130816/ENERGY/130819882\">about 200 injection\u003c/a> wells in the state of Ohio, whereas neighboring states have far fewer. Pennsylvania has \u003ca href=\"http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/maps/location-of-deep-injection-wells-in-pennsylvania/\">about 5 active wells\u003c/a> and West Virginia \u003ca href=\"http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2013/09/23/sites-sought-for-fracking-residue.html\">about 60\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>You can see a lot of these wastewater trucks coming into the state, right? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: Oh yeah, they’re all over. Out toward the border of Pennsylvania you’ll see the trucks at rest stops and gas stations and coming in on I-80.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s the main point of tension in your story? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: The tension centers on scientific disagreement about the potential for harm from the disposal of fracking wastewater. Our key interviewees were with Ohio Department of Natural Resources geologist \u003ca href=\"http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&ved=0CDIQtwIwAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DqHOwqTzl_2M&ei=sX5hUpK_EPal4APKnIHICw&usg=AFQjCNEoLmxEMJvMBIO40mCWcQ6DICmkIQ&sig2=A0Ga2p4TcAYZDs_pC69BiA&bvm=bv.54176721,d.dmg\">Scott Kell\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://ohiocitizen.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/2013-OTCO-Shale-Gas-waste-streams-JWR-3-6-13.pdf\">Dr. Julie Weatherington-Rice\u003c/a>, who researches the fracking process.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do they disagree on?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: Oh, everything -- everything from how long fracking has been practiced to what’s in the wastewater to how harmful is it. They don’t agree on whether injection wells are a safe way to contain the waste.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_62972\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 355px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Julie-and-Mary-closer-best-shot1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-62972\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Julie-and-Mary-closer-best-shot1-480x360.jpg\" alt=\"Julie and Mary closer best shot\" width=\"355\" height=\"264\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Producer Mary Fecteau interviews Dr. Julie Weatherington-Rice.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Weatherington-Rice thinks that as the wells age, there’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.propublica.org/article/injection-wells-the-poison-beneath-us\">great potential for them to leak\u003c/a>, and that there have been documented surface-level leaks before. Kell says the injection well track record is solid, and there have been no instances of groundwater contamination since the process started in the early ’80s. There are also questions and disagreements around the radiation levels in the waste.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Basically, all the facts that are being disputed come down to one question, “Is this a safe process?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What was the main challenge you faced in producing this piece?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: The main challenge was time, the time limitation [eight minutes] in which to tell the story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What did you have to leave on the cutting-room floor? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: So much! One thing I wish I could have gotten into more was the issue of earthquakes. I mentioned them but didn’t go into specifics about \u003ca href=\"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/04/youngstown-ohio-earthquakes-wastewater_n_3869286.html\">how injection wells cause earthquakes\u003c/a>, and what safeguards the Ohio Department of Natural Resources is doing to prevent earthquakes in the future. The underlying science here is basically this: if you pump water deep underground near a fault, it could trigger the fault to slip, causing an \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/explainer/earthquakes/\">earthquake.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I also wish I could have gone more in depth about the \u003ca href=\"http://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Hydraulic-Fracturing-Chemicals-2011-4-18.pdf\">chemicals used to frack\u003c/a>. So, before the water gets injected into the ground to fracture a well, energy companies \u003ca href=\"http://fracfocus.org/chemical-use/why-chemicals-are-used\">lace it\u003c/a> with chemicals, which include benzene and other potentially hazardous chemicals. These chemicals help lubricate the process, prevent corrosion of the pipe, etc. They represent just a small portion of the total frack fluid, but their presence raises concerns for many people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What was your goal in producing this piece?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: I wanted to explore the science behind the disposal of fracking wastewater, and give people tools to form -- and inform -- their own views on it.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, is a process of extracting natural gas that creates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. QUEST travels to Ohio to investigate how this wastewater is produced and the controversy over how to safely dispose of it. ",
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"description": "Hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, is a process of extracting natural gas that creates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. QUEST travels to Ohio to investigate how this wastewater is produced and the controversy over how to safely dispose of it. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>\"After the Frack\" was produced by QUEST Ohio’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/maryfecteau/\">Mary Fecteau\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hydraulic fracturing -- better known as fracking -- is a process of extracting natural gas that creates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. In this television segment, QUEST explores the science behind the disposal of this waste, and the issues that surround it. We caught up with QUEST Ohio producer \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/maryfecteau/\">Mary Fecteau\u003c/a> to find out more about some of the issues surrounding fracking and her experience creating this video.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fracking is all over the news, and it is controversial. What made you want to take this topic on?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: I wanted to take it on \u003cstrong>because\u003c/strong> it’s all over the news and really controversial. I think there’s a lot of twisting of facts in this topic to serve a specific agenda, and I think the story needed to be told objectively, or as objectively as possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I definitely had that moment when I wondered, “Why did I do this to myself?” The story’s so complex. There’s a lot of rhetoric, and on top of that I was dealing with a lot of ugly footage -- trucks, pipes, and storage tanks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>So why focus on the waste created by this fracking process?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_62971\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 381px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Fracking-John_Jack_GH1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-62971\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Fracking-John_Jack_GH1-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"Fracking-John_Jack_GH\" width=\"381\" height=\"212\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">John Jack, Vice President of Business Development at GreenHunter Water, stands in front of large pumps, which pump wastewater from fracking into an underground disposal well.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: The fracking process uses massive amounts of highly pressurized fresh water to create cracks in the bedrock, which frees up the natural gas stored there. Much of this water then comes back up as \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrdc.org/energy/files/fracking-wastewater-fullreport.pdf\">contaminated wastewater\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ohio is, as some say, a “\u003ca href=\"http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-03-22/fracking-fluid-soaks-ohio\">dumping ground\u003c/a>” for this wastewater. Other states truck their wastewater in [to Ohio] to dispose of it here. This is because we have so many \u003ca href=\"http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/tag/deep-injection-well/\">deep injection wells\u003c/a>. Injection wells are the sites deep underground where this wastewater must be put. So we have \u003ca href=\"http://www.crainscleveland.com/article/20130816/ENERGY/130819882\">about 200 injection\u003c/a> wells in the state of Ohio, whereas neighboring states have far fewer. Pennsylvania has \u003ca href=\"http://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/maps/location-of-deep-injection-wells-in-pennsylvania/\">about 5 active wells\u003c/a> and West Virginia \u003ca href=\"http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2013/09/23/sites-sought-for-fracking-residue.html\">about 60\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>You can see a lot of these wastewater trucks coming into the state, right? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: Oh yeah, they’re all over. Out toward the border of Pennsylvania you’ll see the trucks at rest stops and gas stations and coming in on I-80.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s the main point of tension in your story? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: The tension centers on scientific disagreement about the potential for harm from the disposal of fracking wastewater. Our key interviewees were with Ohio Department of Natural Resources geologist \u003ca href=\"http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&ved=0CDIQtwIwAQ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DqHOwqTzl_2M&ei=sX5hUpK_EPal4APKnIHICw&usg=AFQjCNEoLmxEMJvMBIO40mCWcQ6DICmkIQ&sig2=A0Ga2p4TcAYZDs_pC69BiA&bvm=bv.54176721,d.dmg\">Scott Kell\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://ohiocitizen.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/2013-OTCO-Shale-Gas-waste-streams-JWR-3-6-13.pdf\">Dr. Julie Weatherington-Rice\u003c/a>, who researches the fracking process.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do they disagree on?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: Oh, everything -- everything from how long fracking has been practiced to what’s in the wastewater to how harmful is it. They don’t agree on whether injection wells are a safe way to contain the waste.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_62972\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 355px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Julie-and-Mary-closer-best-shot1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-62972\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/08/Julie-and-Mary-closer-best-shot1-480x360.jpg\" alt=\"Julie and Mary closer best shot\" width=\"355\" height=\"264\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Producer Mary Fecteau interviews Dr. Julie Weatherington-Rice.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Weatherington-Rice thinks that as the wells age, there’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.propublica.org/article/injection-wells-the-poison-beneath-us\">great potential for them to leak\u003c/a>, and that there have been documented surface-level leaks before. Kell says the injection well track record is solid, and there have been no instances of groundwater contamination since the process started in the early ’80s. There are also questions and disagreements around the radiation levels in the waste.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Basically, all the facts that are being disputed come down to one question, “Is this a safe process?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What was the main challenge you faced in producing this piece?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: The main challenge was time, the time limitation [eight minutes] in which to tell the story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What did you have to leave on the cutting-room floor? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: So much! One thing I wish I could have gotten into more was the issue of earthquakes. I mentioned them but didn’t go into specifics about \u003ca href=\"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/04/youngstown-ohio-earthquakes-wastewater_n_3869286.html\">how injection wells cause earthquakes\u003c/a>, and what safeguards the Ohio Department of Natural Resources is doing to prevent earthquakes in the future. The underlying science here is basically this: if you pump water deep underground near a fault, it could trigger the fault to slip, causing an \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/explainer/earthquakes/\">earthquake.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I also wish I could have gone more in depth about the \u003ca href=\"http://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Hydraulic-Fracturing-Chemicals-2011-4-18.pdf\">chemicals used to frack\u003c/a>. So, before the water gets injected into the ground to fracture a well, energy companies \u003ca href=\"http://fracfocus.org/chemical-use/why-chemicals-are-used\">lace it\u003c/a> with chemicals, which include benzene and other potentially hazardous chemicals. These chemicals help lubricate the process, prevent corrosion of the pipe, etc. They represent just a small portion of the total frack fluid, but their presence raises concerns for many people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What was your goal in producing this piece?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fecteau\u003c/strong>: I wanted to explore the science behind the disposal of fracking wastewater, and give people tools to form -- and inform -- their own views on it.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />",
"airtime": "SUN 9pm-10pm",
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"meta": {
"site": "radio",
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"id": "commonwealth-club",
"title": "Commonwealth Club of California Podcast",
"info": "The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.",
"airtime": "THU 10pm, FRI 1am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.commonwealthclub.org/podcasts",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "Commonwealth Club of California"
},
"link": "/radio/program/commonwealth-club",
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw",
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}
},
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"id": "forum",
"title": "Forum",
"tagline": "The conversation starts here",
"info": "KQED’s live call-in program discussing local, state, national and international issues, as well as in-depth interviews.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 9am-11am, 10pm-11pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Forum-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Forum with Mina Kim and Alexis Madrigal",
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 9
},
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM5NTU3MzgxNjMz",
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"id": "freakonomics-radio",
"title": "Freakonomics Radio",
"info": "Freakonomics Radio is a one-hour award-winning podcast and public-radio project hosted by Stephen Dubner, with co-author Steve Levitt as a regular guest. It is produced in partnership with WNYC.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/freakonomicsRadio.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://freakonomics.com/",
"airtime": "SUN 1am-2am, SAT 3pm-4pm",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WNYC"
},
"link": "/radio/program/freakonomics-radio",
"subscribe": {
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/freakonomics-radio/id354668519",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/WNYC-Podcasts/Freakonomics-Radio-p272293/",
"rss": "https://feeds.feedburner.com/freakonomicsradio"
}
},
"fresh-air": {
"id": "fresh-air",
"title": "Fresh Air",
"info": "Hosted by Terry Gross, \u003cem>Fresh Air from WHYY\u003c/em> is the Peabody Award-winning weekday magazine of contemporary arts and issues. One of public radio's most popular programs, Fresh Air features intimate conversations with today's biggest luminaries.",
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"link": "/radio/program/fresh-air",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=214089682&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/381444908/podcast.xml"
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"id": "here-and-now",
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"info": "A live production of NPR and WBUR Boston, in collaboration with stations across the country, Here & Now reflects the fluid world of news as it's happening in the middle of the day, with timely, in-depth news, interviews and conversation. Hosted by Robin Young, Jeremy Hobson and Tonya Mosley.",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510051/podcast.xml"
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},
"hidden-brain": {
"id": "hidden-brain",
"title": "Hidden Brain",
"info": "Shankar Vedantam uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, shape our choices and direct our relationships.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/05/hiddenbrain.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/series/423302056/hidden-brain",
"airtime": "SUN 7pm-8pm",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "NPR"
},
"link": "/radio/program/hidden-brain",
"subscribe": {
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"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/Science-Podcasts/Hidden-Brain-p787503/",
"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510308/podcast.xml"
}
},
"how-i-built-this": {
"id": "how-i-built-this",
"title": "How I Built This with Guy Raz",
"info": "Guy Raz dives into the stories behind some of the world's best known companies. How I Built This weaves a narrative journey about innovators, entrepreneurs and idealists—and the movements they built.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/howIBuiltThis.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510313/how-i-built-this",
"airtime": "SUN 7:30pm-8pm",
"meta": {
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"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/how-i-built-this",
"subscribe": {
"npr": "https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/3zxy",
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/how-i-built-this-with-guy-raz/id1150510297?mt=2",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510313/podcast.xml"
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},
"hyphenacion": {
"id": "hyphenacion",
"title": "Hyphenación",
"tagline": "Where conversation and cultura meet",
"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hyphenacion_FinalAssets_PodcastTile.png",
"imageAlt": "KQED Hyphenación",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/hyphenacion",
"meta": {
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"order": 15
},
"link": "/podcasts/hyphenacion",
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"spotify": "https://open.spotify.com/show/2p3Fifq96nw9BPcmFdIq0o?si=39209f7b25774f38",
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"amazon": "https://music.amazon.com/podcasts/6c3dd23c-93fb-4aab-97ba-1725fa6315f1/hyphenaci%C3%B3n",
"rss": "https://feeds.megaphone.fm/KQINC2275451163"
}
},
"jerrybrown": {
"id": "jerrybrown",
"title": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown",
"tagline": "Lessons from a lifetime in politics",
"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-Political-Mind-of-Jerry-Brown-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED The Political Mind of Jerry Brown",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
"meta": {
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"order": 18
},
"link": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/id1492194549",
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}
},
"latino-usa": {
"id": "latino-usa",
"title": "Latino USA",
"airtime": "MON 1am-2am, SUN 6pm-7pm",
"info": "Latino USA, the radio journal of news and culture, is the only national, English-language radio program produced from a Latino perspective.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/latinoUsa.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://latinousa.org/",
"meta": {
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"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/latino-usa",
"subscribe": {
"npr": "https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/xtTd",
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=79681317&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510016/podcast.xml"
}
},
"marketplace": {
"id": "marketplace",
"title": "Marketplace",
"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 4pm-4:30pm, MON-WED 6:30pm-7pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marketplace-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.marketplace.org/",
"meta": {
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"source": "American Public Media"
},
"link": "/radio/program/marketplace",
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"rss": "https://feeds.publicradio.org/public_feeds/marketplace-pm/rss/rss"
}
},
"masters-of-scale": {
"id": "masters-of-scale",
"title": "Masters of Scale",
"info": "Masters of Scale is an original podcast in which LinkedIn co-founder and Greylock Partner Reid Hoffman sets out to describe and prove theories that explain how great entrepreneurs take their companies from zero to a gazillion in ingenious fashion.",
"airtime": "Every other Wednesday June 12 through October 16 at 8pm (repeats Thursdays at 2am)",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Masters-of-Scale-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://mastersofscale.com/",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WaitWhat"
},
"link": "/radio/program/masters-of-scale",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "http://mastersofscale.app.link/",
"rss": "https://rss.art19.com/masters-of-scale"
}
},
"mindshift": {
"id": "mindshift",
"title": "MindShift",
"tagline": "A podcast about the future of learning and how we raise our kids",
"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/mindshift/",
"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 12
},
"link": "/podcasts/mindshift",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/mindshift-podcast/id1078765985",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5",
"npr": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/464615685/mind-shift-podcast",
"stitcher": "https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/kqed/stories-teachers-share",
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}
},
"morning-edition": {
"id": "morning-edition",
"title": "Morning Edition",
"info": "\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 3am-9am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Morning-Edition-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/programs/morning-edition/",
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"link": "/radio/program/morning-edition"
},
"onourwatch": {
"id": "onourwatch",
"title": "On Our Watch",
"tagline": "Deeply-reported investigative journalism",
"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/On-Our-Watch-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "On Our Watch from NPR and KQED",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/onourwatch",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "kqed",
"order": 11
},
"link": "/podcasts/onourwatch",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/id1567098962",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5ucHIub3JnLzUxMDM2MC9wb2RjYXN0LnhtbD9zYz1nb29nbGVwb2RjYXN0cw",
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"stitcher": "https://www.stitcher.com/show/on-our-watch",
"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510360/podcast.xml"
}
},
"on-the-media": {
"id": "on-the-media",
"title": "On The Media",
"info": "Our weekly podcast explores how the media 'sausage' is made, casts an incisive eye on fluctuations in the marketplace of ideas, and examines threats to the freedom of information and expression in America and abroad. For one hour a week, the show tries to lift the veil from the process of \"making media,\" especially news media, because it's through that lens that we see the world and the world sees us",
"airtime": "SUN 2pm-3pm, MON 12am-1am",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/onTheMedia.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.wnycstudios.org/shows/otm",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "wnyc"
},
"link": "/radio/program/on-the-media",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/on-the-media/id73330715?mt=2",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/radio/On-the-Media-p69/",
"rss": "http://feeds.wnyc.org/onthemedia"
}
},
"pbs-newshour": {
"id": "pbs-newshour",
"title": "PBS NewsHour",
"info": "Analysis, background reports and updates from the PBS NewsHour putting today's news in context.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 3pm-4pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/PBS-News-Hour-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.pbs.org/newshour/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "pbs"
},
"link": "/radio/program/pbs-newshour",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/pbs-newshour-full-show/id394432287?mt=2",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/radio/PBS-NewsHour---Full-Show-p425698/",
"rss": "https://www.pbs.org/newshour/feeds/rss/podcasts/show"
}
},
"perspectives": {
"id": "perspectives",
"title": "Perspectives",
"tagline": "KQED's series of daily listener commentaries since 1991",
"info": "KQED's series of daily listener commentaries since 1991.",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Perspectives_Tile_Final.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Perspectives",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/perspectives/",
"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 14
},
"link": "/perspectives",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/id73801135",
"npr": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/432309616/perspectives",
"rss": "https://ww2.kqed.org/perspectives/category/perspectives/feed/",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93dzIua3FlZC5vcmcvcGVyc3BlY3RpdmVzL2NhdGVnb3J5L3BlcnNwZWN0aXZlcy9mZWVkLw"
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},
"planet-money": {
"id": "planet-money",
"title": "Planet Money",
"info": "The economy explained. Imagine you could call up a friend and say, Meet me at the bar and tell me what's going on with the economy. Now imagine that's actually a fun evening.",
"airtime": "SUN 3pm-4pm",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/planetmoney.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/sections/money/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/planet-money",
"subscribe": {
"npr": "https://rpb3r.app.goo.gl/M4f5",
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/planet-money/id290783428?mt=2",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/Business--Economics-Podcasts/Planet-Money-p164680/",
"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510289/podcast.xml"
}
},
"politicalbreakdown": {
"id": "politicalbreakdown",
"title": "Political Breakdown",
"tagline": "Politics from a personal perspective",
"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
"airtime": "THU 6:30pm-7pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Political-Breakdown-2024-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Political Breakdown",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/politicalbreakdown",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "kqed",
"order": 5
},
"link": "/podcasts/politicalbreakdown",
"subscribe": {
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"amazon": "https://music.amazon.com/podcasts/e0c2d153-ad36-4c8d-901d-f1da6a724824/political-breakdown",
"npr": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/572155894/political-breakdown",
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