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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/brokendockSCruz2.jpg\" alt=\"tsunami\" title=\"santa cruz tsunami\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"alignleft size-full\">\u003cem>\u003csup>The tsunami of March 11 broke docks and damaged boats in Santa Cruz Harbor. Most earthquake-generated tsunamis in this part of California will cause similar levels of damage. Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/sempivirens/\">Sequoia Hughes\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week the Bay Area got a tiny taste of Japan’s seismic disaster when tsunami waves stirred our waters, a giant agitating the San Francisco Bay and coast with a flick of its pinky. The waves we saw overwhelming the east coast of Honshu were attenuated to small surges here at the opposite side of the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In central California, we will always have good warning of these big seismic tsunamis because they are not created nearby. Our tectonic setting is not conducive to Japan or Sumatra-style tsunamis. But I said \u003ci>seismic\u003c/i> tsunamis, the ones that earthquakes cause. There are two other kinds that mean you should always practice tsunami awareness when you’re at the beach. And \u003ca href=\"http://nthmp.tsunami.gov/tsunamiweek.html\">National Tsunami Awareness Week\u003c/a>, scheduled by purest coincidence for next week, is a good occasion to train yourself and your family.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Standard tsunami awareness is pretty simple, simple enough to put on a sign that says, “In case of earthquake, go to high ground or inland.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/thai-tsunami-sign2.jpg\" alt=\"thai tsunami sign\">\u003cbr>\n\u003ci>\u003csub>Photo courtesy Bruce Manchon, all rights reserved\u003c/sub>\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That refers to an earthquake that you feel, not one you hear about on the radio. I can be a little more specific. Don’t worry about small earthquakes, namely the short, sharp shocks we feel often around here. Worry about a long-lasting earthquake, one with slow rhythms. If one of those happens while you’re at the beach, look—you want to leave anyway, because a large earthquake like that may mean trouble at home. If the sea starts acting strange, do what the sign says, period. Otherwise, follow your usual earthquake protocol: Get away without dawdling, drive warily with your radio on, remember your family plan, use your phone no more than absolutely necessary. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tsunamis that arrive from distant quakes, or teletsunamis, come with several hours of warning. The nearest earthquake faults that could send a damaging tsunami our way—subduction zones—are off northernmost California, part of the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/quake_preparedness/a/aa_cascadiaEQ.htm\">Cascadia seismic zone\u003c/a> that stretches up the Oregon and Washington coast into Canada. A tsunami arising from a magnitude-8 or larger event up there would arrive here at least a couple hours later. Tsunamis from major earthquakes in Alaska, far eastern Russia, Japan and the Philippines will give us much longer warning times. There are enough people on a typical beach, with phones and text devices and radios, that you should be able to count on sufficient warning even for a Cascadia event. In addition, local emergency responders will be out in person to warn beachgoers. (If you’re on the beach alone, be more alert.) \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you hear about an approaching tsunami, I must advise you: don’t be irresponsible and rush to the beach. We’re all intrigued by geological phenomena, and every red-blooded geologist has “witness a tsunami” on his or her geological bucket list. But remember the person taking pictures at Crescent City (\u003ca href=\"http://nisquallyquake.wordpress.com/2011/03/11/the-1964-alaska-earthquake-and-tsunami-that-hit-the-west-coast/\">a town also ravaged by a tsunami from the 1964 Alaska earthquake\u003c/a>) who was washed out to sea. Think about the surfers who wandered around Santa Cruz Harbor, risking themselves and worrying others, as the waters rushed in and out. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, if you choose to ignore my advice, then you should do as I wish I could have done, and proceed in a responsible manner to a safe place high above the water, obeying authorities, not congesting emergency escape routes, prepared for the worst. UC Santa Cruz geologist Christie Rowe did that and \u003ca href=\"http://www.facebook.com/aboutgeology#!/album.php?id=1092875994&aid=2099749\">recorded the tsunami’s arrival\u003c/a>. She adds, “I would advise people not to panic, to check the \u003ca href=\"http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/\">West Coast Tsunami Warning Center website\u003c/a> and select a vantage point well above the predicted wave height.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not every tsunami is a seismic tsunami. Two other kinds of tsunamis, not monitored by dedicated networks, have a chance of happening somewhere in the world during the average lifetime: landslide and impact tsunamis. A \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/tsunamis/a/Landslide-Tsunamis.htm\">landslide tsunami\u003c/a>, caused by large mass movements into or beneath the sea, is quite plausible along our steep coasts and rugged offshore seafloors. Be wary of one even after a relatively small local quake. An impact tsunami, caused by an \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/impacts/a/impacts.htm\">object from space crashing into the ocean\u003c/a>, has no upper size limit and no preferred location. The odds are small but every beach in the world, ours included, faces the risk. So be like a sailor and always keep your weather eye out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn more:\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/geologic_hazards/Tsunami/Inundation_Maps/Pages/Index.aspx\">California tsunami information\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://nthmp.tsunami.gov/tsunamiweek.html\">National Tsunami Awareness Week\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://tsunami.gov/\">tsunami.gov\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/\">West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 36.9590 -122.0226\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/brokendockSCruz2.jpg\" alt=\"tsunami\" title=\"santa cruz tsunami\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"alignleft size-full\">\u003cem>\u003csup>The tsunami of March 11 broke docks and damaged boats in Santa Cruz Harbor. Most earthquake-generated tsunamis in this part of California will cause similar levels of damage. Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/sempivirens/\">Sequoia Hughes\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week the Bay Area got a tiny taste of Japan’s seismic disaster when tsunami waves stirred our waters, a giant agitating the San Francisco Bay and coast with a flick of its pinky. The waves we saw overwhelming the east coast of Honshu were attenuated to small surges here at the opposite side of the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In central California, we will always have good warning of these big seismic tsunamis because they are not created nearby. Our tectonic setting is not conducive to Japan or Sumatra-style tsunamis. But I said \u003ci>seismic\u003c/i> tsunamis, the ones that earthquakes cause. There are two other kinds that mean you should always practice tsunami awareness when you’re at the beach. And \u003ca href=\"http://nthmp.tsunami.gov/tsunamiweek.html\">National Tsunami Awareness Week\u003c/a>, scheduled by purest coincidence for next week, is a good occasion to train yourself and your family.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Standard tsunami awareness is pretty simple, simple enough to put on a sign that says, “In case of earthquake, go to high ground or inland.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/thai-tsunami-sign2.jpg\" alt=\"thai tsunami sign\">\u003cbr>\n\u003ci>\u003csub>Photo courtesy Bruce Manchon, all rights reserved\u003c/sub>\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That refers to an earthquake that you feel, not one you hear about on the radio. I can be a little more specific. Don’t worry about small earthquakes, namely the short, sharp shocks we feel often around here. Worry about a long-lasting earthquake, one with slow rhythms. If one of those happens while you’re at the beach, look—you want to leave anyway, because a large earthquake like that may mean trouble at home. If the sea starts acting strange, do what the sign says, period. Otherwise, follow your usual earthquake protocol: Get away without dawdling, drive warily with your radio on, remember your family plan, use your phone no more than absolutely necessary. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tsunamis that arrive from distant quakes, or teletsunamis, come with several hours of warning. The nearest earthquake faults that could send a damaging tsunami our way—subduction zones—are off northernmost California, part of the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/quake_preparedness/a/aa_cascadiaEQ.htm\">Cascadia seismic zone\u003c/a> that stretches up the Oregon and Washington coast into Canada. A tsunami arising from a magnitude-8 or larger event up there would arrive here at least a couple hours later. Tsunamis from major earthquakes in Alaska, far eastern Russia, Japan and the Philippines will give us much longer warning times. There are enough people on a typical beach, with phones and text devices and radios, that you should be able to count on sufficient warning even for a Cascadia event. In addition, local emergency responders will be out in person to warn beachgoers. (If you’re on the beach alone, be more alert.) \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you hear about an approaching tsunami, I must advise you: don’t be irresponsible and rush to the beach. We’re all intrigued by geological phenomena, and every red-blooded geologist has “witness a tsunami” on his or her geological bucket list. But remember the person taking pictures at Crescent City (\u003ca href=\"http://nisquallyquake.wordpress.com/2011/03/11/the-1964-alaska-earthquake-and-tsunami-that-hit-the-west-coast/\">a town also ravaged by a tsunami from the 1964 Alaska earthquake\u003c/a>) who was washed out to sea. Think about the surfers who wandered around Santa Cruz Harbor, risking themselves and worrying others, as the waters rushed in and out. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, if you choose to ignore my advice, then you should do as I wish I could have done, and proceed in a responsible manner to a safe place high above the water, obeying authorities, not congesting emergency escape routes, prepared for the worst. UC Santa Cruz geologist Christie Rowe did that and \u003ca href=\"http://www.facebook.com/aboutgeology#!/album.php?id=1092875994&aid=2099749\">recorded the tsunami’s arrival\u003c/a>. She adds, “I would advise people not to panic, to check the \u003ca href=\"http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/\">West Coast Tsunami Warning Center website\u003c/a> and select a vantage point well above the predicted wave height.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not every tsunami is a seismic tsunami. Two other kinds of tsunamis, not monitored by dedicated networks, have a chance of happening somewhere in the world during the average lifetime: landslide and impact tsunamis. A \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/tsunamis/a/Landslide-Tsunamis.htm\">landslide tsunami\u003c/a>, caused by large mass movements into or beneath the sea, is quite plausible along our steep coasts and rugged offshore seafloors. Be wary of one even after a relatively small local quake. An impact tsunami, caused by an \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/impacts/a/impacts.htm\">object from space crashing into the ocean\u003c/a>, has no upper size limit and no preferred location. The odds are small but every beach in the world, ours included, faces the risk. So be like a sailor and always keep your weather eye out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn more:\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/geologic_hazards/Tsunami/Inundation_Maps/Pages/Index.aspx\">California tsunami information\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://nthmp.tsunami.gov/tsunamiweek.html\">National Tsunami Awareness Week\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://tsunami.gov/\">tsunami.gov\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/\">West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 36.9590 -122.0226\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Earthquake Warning Signs in Tiny Marine Fossils",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/holmanel.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cbr>\n\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cem>Tiny shelled marine organisms called foraminifera can provide clues about earthquake occurrence in the past—and the future. Photo: \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/foram/holmanel.html\">UCMP\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It feels like the world is still shaking from the earthquake and ensuing tsunami that hit northern Japan on Friday. The 8.9 magnitude quake created enormous waves of water, which moved quickly through the ocean and hit the coast of Japan with waves that in some areas were over 10 feet high. This \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/11/world/asia/maps-of-earthquake-and-tsunami-damage-in-japan.html?ref=asia\">animation\u003c/a> shows how earthquakes give rise to tsunamis. \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/13/world/asia/satellite-photos-japan-before-and-after-tsunami.html\">When tsunamis hit shore\u003c/a>, they can carry with them sediment that they’ve picked up from the bottom of the ocean. This sediment differs from the sediment close to shore, leaving a long-term record of the tsunami’s occurrence. \u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Paleontologists can look at the layers of sediment along the coast and see records of past tsunamis. They can also see that before tsunamis occur, the land along the coast often starts to subside, as one tectonic plate slips underneath another. The clue that tells paleontologists that the coastline tilts before an earthquake is a group of tiny marine organisms, called \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/foram/foramintro.html\">foraminifera\u003c/a>. By studying these organisms in the sediment along the shore of the West Coast, scientists can learn how frequently tsunamis occurred here in the past, and whether we can predict a big quake in the future. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tiny marine organisms in the sediment are called foraminifera, or forams for short. They are protists—neither animals nor plants, protists are a grab bag of simple organisms that includes amoebas, seaweeds, and single-celled algae. Forams are unicellular, and they build a shell, called a test, out of calcium carbonate. The test has little opening from which pseudopods—thin strands of the cell’s cytoplasm—protrude. The pseudopods help the forams move around. However, it is the calcium carbonate tests that make forams so useful as records of geological events. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tests of foraminifera are often well preserved in marine sediment, as fossils. Forams evolve relatively quickly, so micropaleontologists (folks who study tiny fossils) can determine the age of the sediment by identifying the species of foram that is preserved. Also, each species of foram can survive only in a narrow range of environmental conditions. If the water is too salty, a given species can’t survive; if the water is too fresh, that species won’t survive either. The salinity of the water has to be just right. This means that micropaleontologists can use foram fossils to estimate the salinity of the water in the past. (For similar reasons, forams are also good indicators of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/foram/foramfr.html\">the proximity of oil deposits\u003c/a>, and a good \u003ca href=\"http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/proxies/paleoclimate.html\">proxy for past climates\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few years ago, UC Berkeley Professor Emeritus Jere Lipps and a few colleagues, including Dalhousie University professor David Scott, travelled along the coast from Alaska to Baja, taking cores of coastal sediment along the way. They found that several years before a big earthquake and tsunami, the foram composition in the sediment changed slightly. The forams shifted from species that live in very slightly salty water to species that live in water that is even saltier. This is a sign that the land had begun to tilt downward towards the ocean. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Pacific plate is slowly sliding underneath the North American plate. But the plates stick together, and the edge of the North American plate gets pulled down slightly along with the Pacific plate. Suddenly, the plates will un-stick; the North American plate will release and move upwards again, and the Pacific plate will slide underneath. This kind if quake is called a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake\">megathrust earthquake\u003c/a>. Dr. Lipps and his colleagues found that there have been three megathrust earthquakes, preceded by a tilt in the coastline, over the past 3000 years. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Forams are good measurements of past coastline tilt. But to measure coastlines in real time today, scientists can deploy \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismometer\">seismometers\u003c/a>. By placing seismometers in areas that have undergone a pre-earthquake tilt in the past, we may be able to detect early warning signs of potentially destructive megathrust earthquakes and resultant tsunamis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/holmanel.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cbr>\n\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cem>Tiny shelled marine organisms called foraminifera can provide clues about earthquake occurrence in the past—and the future. Photo: \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/foram/holmanel.html\">UCMP\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It feels like the world is still shaking from the earthquake and ensuing tsunami that hit northern Japan on Friday. The 8.9 magnitude quake created enormous waves of water, which moved quickly through the ocean and hit the coast of Japan with waves that in some areas were over 10 feet high. This \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/11/world/asia/maps-of-earthquake-and-tsunami-damage-in-japan.html?ref=asia\">animation\u003c/a> shows how earthquakes give rise to tsunamis. \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/13/world/asia/satellite-photos-japan-before-and-after-tsunami.html\">When tsunamis hit shore\u003c/a>, they can carry with them sediment that they’ve picked up from the bottom of the ocean. This sediment differs from the sediment close to shore, leaving a long-term record of the tsunami’s occurrence. \u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Paleontologists can look at the layers of sediment along the coast and see records of past tsunamis. They can also see that before tsunamis occur, the land along the coast often starts to subside, as one tectonic plate slips underneath another. The clue that tells paleontologists that the coastline tilts before an earthquake is a group of tiny marine organisms, called \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/foram/foramintro.html\">foraminifera\u003c/a>. By studying these organisms in the sediment along the shore of the West Coast, scientists can learn how frequently tsunamis occurred here in the past, and whether we can predict a big quake in the future. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tiny marine organisms in the sediment are called foraminifera, or forams for short. They are protists—neither animals nor plants, protists are a grab bag of simple organisms that includes amoebas, seaweeds, and single-celled algae. Forams are unicellular, and they build a shell, called a test, out of calcium carbonate. The test has little opening from which pseudopods—thin strands of the cell’s cytoplasm—protrude. The pseudopods help the forams move around. However, it is the calcium carbonate tests that make forams so useful as records of geological events. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tests of foraminifera are often well preserved in marine sediment, as fossils. Forams evolve relatively quickly, so micropaleontologists (folks who study tiny fossils) can determine the age of the sediment by identifying the species of foram that is preserved. Also, each species of foram can survive only in a narrow range of environmental conditions. If the water is too salty, a given species can’t survive; if the water is too fresh, that species won’t survive either. The salinity of the water has to be just right. This means that micropaleontologists can use foram fossils to estimate the salinity of the water in the past. (For similar reasons, forams are also good indicators of \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/foram/foramfr.html\">the proximity of oil deposits\u003c/a>, and a good \u003ca href=\"http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/proxies/paleoclimate.html\">proxy for past climates\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few years ago, UC Berkeley Professor Emeritus Jere Lipps and a few colleagues, including Dalhousie University professor David Scott, travelled along the coast from Alaska to Baja, taking cores of coastal sediment along the way. They found that several years before a big earthquake and tsunami, the foram composition in the sediment changed slightly. The forams shifted from species that live in very slightly salty water to species that live in water that is even saltier. This is a sign that the land had begun to tilt downward towards the ocean. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Pacific plate is slowly sliding underneath the North American plate. But the plates stick together, and the edge of the North American plate gets pulled down slightly along with the Pacific plate. Suddenly, the plates will un-stick; the North American plate will release and move upwards again, and the Pacific plate will slide underneath. This kind if quake is called a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megathrust_earthquake\">megathrust earthquake\u003c/a>. Dr. Lipps and his colleagues found that there have been three megathrust earthquakes, preceded by a tilt in the coastline, over the past 3000 years. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Forams are good measurements of past coastline tilt. But to measure coastlines in real time today, scientists can deploy \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismometer\">seismometers\u003c/a>. By placing seismometers in areas that have undergone a pre-earthquake tilt in the past, we may be able to detect early warning signs of potentially destructive megathrust earthquakes and resultant tsunamis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12806\" title=\"water filters\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/chabotfilters2.jpg\" alt=\"groundwater\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003cem>\u003csup>Reservoirs of surface water are rarely as clean as groundwater. To reproduce the natural cleansing of aquifers, reservoir operators must use treatment devices like these antique sand filters at Chabot Reservoir.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wherever settlers arrived in America, their first concern was water. The ideal source of good water was not a babbling brook, although that was good enough for irrigating crops and brewing beer. Surface water varies with the seasons, is readily muddied, and we all know what fish do in it. Best was a steady, cool flow from a protected spring—that is, groundwater. Before wellsprings were a metaphor, they were the very basis of America's first settlements. (March 6–12, 2011 is \u003ca href=\"http://www.ngwa.org/public/awarenessweek/\">National Groundwater Awareness Week\u003c/a> to help remind us of these historic truths.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As settlements grew into towns that in turn became cities, larger water sources could be engineered. Ancient Rome owed its prominence to its abundant water supply, brought by aqueduct from Apennine Mountain springs. Mighty New York captured the clean Catskill rains in a network of reservoirs that fed their water by gravity to Manhattan. San Francisco raided a national park in the Sierra Nevada, a hundred miles away, for its water supply. Now every Bay Area river has been harnessed for civic purposes. But groundwater is still a major player here, if a largely invisible one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Groundwater wells were part of every household in the early days, but the typical shallow aquifer, or water-bearing zone, is not suited for hard use. It's too closely connected to the surface; indeed every permanent stream can be thought of as living groundwater, where erosion cuts into the top of the aquifer. Once too many wells tap the surface aquifer, the level of water underground—the water table—is depressed. Eventually the streams are affected, and the costs of digging ever deeper bring an end to the household well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A growing city has to be more organized about its water. Most Bay Area cities rely on agencies that deliver surface water from a reservoir. The big advantages of a reservoir are energy and size: it's easy to deliver water downhill from the dam, and centralized treatment plants can do an efficient job filtering and disinfecting the water. The big advantages of groundwater are its quality, its closeness and its resistance to drought. Both types of water source must be carefully managed for the long term by well-trained technicians.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today the South Bay still relies on groundwater. San Jose pumps about 40 percent of its water from aquifers beneath it. Nearby Sunnyvale, Campbell and Santa Clara also produce significant amounts. Farther south, Morgan Hill and Gilroy rely exclusively on groundwater. And Fremont has a big stake in it too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>San Jose used to pump more aggressively than today, but problems arose when the land began to sink. Parts of Alviso, on the city's northern edge, recorded \u003ca href=\"http://museumca.org/creeks/z-subsidence.html\">as much as 13 feet of subsidence\u003c/a>. Seawater began to intrude into the aquifers as well. Today water managers have arrested the subsidence by ensuring that the aquifer is properly recharged using streamflow and special infiltration basins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of Fremont's water comes from its bountiful aquifer in the Niles Cone, a large fan of gravel spreading out from the mouth of Alameda Canyon. Today the city \u003ca href=\"http://www.acwd.org/sources_of_supply.php5#ncgb\">sends Alameda Creek's water into the Cone\u003c/a> through the Quarry Lakes, while pumping groundwater out of it in a strategy that helps push back invading Bay water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>San Francisco, of course, gets pristine Sierra water from O'Shaunnessy Dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Only one-third of Hetch Hetchy's water gets to the city, though, as more than a dozen other Bay Area cities use it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/hetchymarker2.jpg\" alt=\"Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct marker\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003cem>Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct crosses the Great Valley near route 132, marked by monuments like this.\u003c/em>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The city still uses its own groundwater to irrigate Golden Gate Park and the zoo. Recently San Francisco has moved to \u003ca href=\"http://sfwater.org/msc_main.cfm/MC_ID/13/MSC_ID/424\">reopen the aquifers as an emergency supply\u003c/a>. It's also making plans to \u003ca href=\"http://sfwater.org/msc_main.cfm/MC_ID/13/MSC_ID/427\">store Hetch Hetchy water in Peninsula aquifers\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although large-scale water projects serve the masses, there is still a place for the custom well. Outlying residents, farms and landscape-intensive businesses can often save money using water from their own property. Today these uses of groundwater provide our region with much-needed resilience in the face of drought and earthquake. Wherever we live, the role of groundwater continues—just below the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Major water districts of the Bay Area:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.acwd.org/\">Alameda County Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.ccwater.com/\">Contra Costa Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.ebmud.com/\">East Bay Municipal Utilities District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.marinwater.org/\">Marin Municipal Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://sfwater.org/\">San Francisco Public Utilities Commission\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.sjwater.com/\">San Jose Water\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.scvwd.dst.ca.us/\">Santa Clara Valley Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.scwa2.com/\">Solano County Water Agency\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.scwa.ca.gov/\">Sonoma County Water Agency\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And don't forget \u003ca href=\"http://www.water-ed.org/\">water-ed.org\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.728 -122.128\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12806\" title=\"water filters\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/chabotfilters2.jpg\" alt=\"groundwater\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003cem>\u003csup>Reservoirs of surface water are rarely as clean as groundwater. To reproduce the natural cleansing of aquifers, reservoir operators must use treatment devices like these antique sand filters at Chabot Reservoir.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wherever settlers arrived in America, their first concern was water. The ideal source of good water was not a babbling brook, although that was good enough for irrigating crops and brewing beer. Surface water varies with the seasons, is readily muddied, and we all know what fish do in it. Best was a steady, cool flow from a protected spring—that is, groundwater. Before wellsprings were a metaphor, they were the very basis of America's first settlements. (March 6–12, 2011 is \u003ca href=\"http://www.ngwa.org/public/awarenessweek/\">National Groundwater Awareness Week\u003c/a> to help remind us of these historic truths.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As settlements grew into towns that in turn became cities, larger water sources could be engineered. Ancient Rome owed its prominence to its abundant water supply, brought by aqueduct from Apennine Mountain springs. Mighty New York captured the clean Catskill rains in a network of reservoirs that fed their water by gravity to Manhattan. San Francisco raided a national park in the Sierra Nevada, a hundred miles away, for its water supply. Now every Bay Area river has been harnessed for civic purposes. But groundwater is still a major player here, if a largely invisible one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Groundwater wells were part of every household in the early days, but the typical shallow aquifer, or water-bearing zone, is not suited for hard use. It's too closely connected to the surface; indeed every permanent stream can be thought of as living groundwater, where erosion cuts into the top of the aquifer. Once too many wells tap the surface aquifer, the level of water underground—the water table—is depressed. Eventually the streams are affected, and the costs of digging ever deeper bring an end to the household well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A growing city has to be more organized about its water. Most Bay Area cities rely on agencies that deliver surface water from a reservoir. The big advantages of a reservoir are energy and size: it's easy to deliver water downhill from the dam, and centralized treatment plants can do an efficient job filtering and disinfecting the water. The big advantages of groundwater are its quality, its closeness and its resistance to drought. Both types of water source must be carefully managed for the long term by well-trained technicians.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today the South Bay still relies on groundwater. San Jose pumps about 40 percent of its water from aquifers beneath it. Nearby Sunnyvale, Campbell and Santa Clara also produce significant amounts. Farther south, Morgan Hill and Gilroy rely exclusively on groundwater. And Fremont has a big stake in it too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>San Jose used to pump more aggressively than today, but problems arose when the land began to sink. Parts of Alviso, on the city's northern edge, recorded \u003ca href=\"http://museumca.org/creeks/z-subsidence.html\">as much as 13 feet of subsidence\u003c/a>. Seawater began to intrude into the aquifers as well. Today water managers have arrested the subsidence by ensuring that the aquifer is properly recharged using streamflow and special infiltration basins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of Fremont's water comes from its bountiful aquifer in the Niles Cone, a large fan of gravel spreading out from the mouth of Alameda Canyon. Today the city \u003ca href=\"http://www.acwd.org/sources_of_supply.php5#ncgb\">sends Alameda Creek's water into the Cone\u003c/a> through the Quarry Lakes, while pumping groundwater out of it in a strategy that helps push back invading Bay water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>San Francisco, of course, gets pristine Sierra water from O'Shaunnessy Dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley. Only one-third of Hetch Hetchy's water gets to the city, though, as more than a dozen other Bay Area cities use it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/hetchymarker2.jpg\" alt=\"Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct marker\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003cem>Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct crosses the Great Valley near route 132, marked by monuments like this.\u003c/em>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The city still uses its own groundwater to irrigate Golden Gate Park and the zoo. Recently San Francisco has moved to \u003ca href=\"http://sfwater.org/msc_main.cfm/MC_ID/13/MSC_ID/424\">reopen the aquifers as an emergency supply\u003c/a>. It's also making plans to \u003ca href=\"http://sfwater.org/msc_main.cfm/MC_ID/13/MSC_ID/427\">store Hetch Hetchy water in Peninsula aquifers\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although large-scale water projects serve the masses, there is still a place for the custom well. Outlying residents, farms and landscape-intensive businesses can often save money using water from their own property. Today these uses of groundwater provide our region with much-needed resilience in the face of drought and earthquake. Wherever we live, the role of groundwater continues—just below the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Major water districts of the Bay Area:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.acwd.org/\">Alameda County Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.ccwater.com/\">Contra Costa Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.ebmud.com/\">East Bay Municipal Utilities District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.marinwater.org/\">Marin Municipal Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://sfwater.org/\">San Francisco Public Utilities Commission\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.sjwater.com/\">San Jose Water\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.scvwd.dst.ca.us/\">Santa Clara Valley Water District\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.scwa2.com/\">Solano County Water Agency\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.scwa.ca.gov/\">Sonoma County Water Agency\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And don't forget \u003ca href=\"http://www.water-ed.org/\">water-ed.org\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.728 -122.128\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Pebble Beach",
"title": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Pebble Beach",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebbeachintro.jpg\" title=\"pebbeachintro\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12592\">\u003cem>\u003csup>Pebble Beach is on the coast just north of Bean Hollow State Beach. Come for the pebbles, stay for the rocks.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was a weekday the last time I visited Pebble Beach, on the San Mateo coast just south of Pescadero, and several busloads of children came and went. They flocked to the pebbles, flung them high, and were off in their buses 15 minutes later leaving the beach to me. I did the same here when I was a kid, and you can too—the pebbles are wonderful—but I can show you a better time today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pebble Beach (also called Bean Hollow Beach North) is a great place to look at the deep sea floor without getting your feet wet. The rocks exposed there are scrubbed clean by surf and nicely tipped up on edge for easy viewing, and they present many instructive mysteries that students actually pay professors and buy textbooks to learn.\u003cbr>\n\u003c!--more-->\u003cbr>\nBut first, about the pebbles. You get to the beach on Route 1 going south from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/10/28/greater-bay-area-geo-attractions-san-gregorio-beach/\">San Gregorio Beach\u003c/a>, which skirts the coast on flat land that is largely planted to artichokes and ranchettes. This tableland is a marine terrace or wave-cut platform. See the setting in the photo below, from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.californiacoastline.org/cgi-bin/image.cgi?image=200400965&mode=sequential\">California Coastal Records Project\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebeachairview.jpg\" alt=\"aerial view of Pebble Beach\">\u003cbr>\nThe San Mateo coast is famous for these terraces, especially down around Santa Cruz. They are land that was cut flat by the sea during the Pleistocene epoch, then lifted by tectonic activity. The terraces consist of beach sand and offshore sediment from tens of thousands of years ago, and most of the pebbles of Pebble Beach are recycled from that Pleistocene gravel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now let's look at the geologic map of the area (from \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1998/of98-137/\">USGS Open-File Report 98-137\u003c/a>):\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebeachmap.png\" width=\"500\" alt=\"geologic map\">\u003cbr>\nPebble Beach is right where the symbol that says \"63\" is. The areas marked \"Qmt\" are the marine terraces. If you examine the red contours, which show elevation at 50-meter intervals, you'll see that the terraces occupy at least three different levels. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rocks on the beach, revealed as the terrace is eroded away, are mapped in green and belong to the Pigeon Point Formation, a thick pile of former deep-sea sediments dating from the Late Cretaceous epoch, some time between 100 and 65 million years ago. That \"63\" symbol means that the beds of rock, originally horizontal, are tilted to an angle of 63 degrees. And here they are, exposed again just as the sea left them in the Pleistocene.\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/unconform.jpg\" alt=\"unconformity\">\u003cbr>\nThe surface between the steeply dipping rocks and the horizontally bedded terrace deposits is called an angular unconformity. In this case it represents a gap in time of at least 65 million years. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next five photos are cross-section views, shot looking directly down that 63-degree angle at the rocks.\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebcgl.jpg\" alt=\"conglomerate\">\u003cbr>\nHere's where fine-grained siltstone, light-colored sandstone and cobblestone conglomerate are stacked. There's another angular unconformity between the siltstone and sandstone. And look at the wavy top surface of the sandstone—the conglomerate clearly arrived in a rush, pushing into the sandstone while it was still loose sand. This was a very active environment, an offshore basin where large amounts of coarse sediment washed down periodically in underwater landslides. In fact, it was rather like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/09/16/a-submarine-grand-canyon-offshore-central-california/\">offshore California today\u003c/a>. The many small stones embedded in these rocks were eroded free to become the gravel in the marine terrace. So the pebbles of Pebble Beach have been recycled two times, and maybe more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here are some more signs of vigorous activity, including load marks from heavy gravel landing on soft silt:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/loadstrucs.jpg\" alt=\"load structures\">\u003cbr>\nRip-up clasts are chunks of fine-grained seafloor that were swept up by strong sand flows:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/ripups.jpg\" alt=\"rip-up clasts\">\u003cbr>\nDrag-folded laminations show how overriding sand flows deformed the soft silt beneath them:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/draglam.jpg\" alt=\"laminations\">\u003cbr>\nAnd here are some tiny thin veins of bitumen, ancient organic matter that may once have been a mat of vegetation:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/bitumen.jpg\" alt=\"bitumen\">\u003cbr>\nThe final attraction of Pebble Beach is the honeycomb weathering, often called tafoni, that forms when salt air attacks clean sandstone:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/honeycomb.jpg\" alt=\"honeycomb weathering\">\u003cbr>\nToo bad the schoolkids can't stay all afternoon! But you can.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.2273608 -122.41097730\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebbeachintro.jpg\" title=\"pebbeachintro\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12592\">\u003cem>\u003csup>Pebble Beach is on the coast just north of Bean Hollow State Beach. Come for the pebbles, stay for the rocks.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was a weekday the last time I visited Pebble Beach, on the San Mateo coast just south of Pescadero, and several busloads of children came and went. They flocked to the pebbles, flung them high, and were off in their buses 15 minutes later leaving the beach to me. I did the same here when I was a kid, and you can too—the pebbles are wonderful—but I can show you a better time today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pebble Beach (also called Bean Hollow Beach North) is a great place to look at the deep sea floor without getting your feet wet. The rocks exposed there are scrubbed clean by surf and nicely tipped up on edge for easy viewing, and they present many instructive mysteries that students actually pay professors and buy textbooks to learn.\u003cbr>\n\u003c!--more-->\u003cbr>\nBut first, about the pebbles. You get to the beach on Route 1 going south from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/10/28/greater-bay-area-geo-attractions-san-gregorio-beach/\">San Gregorio Beach\u003c/a>, which skirts the coast on flat land that is largely planted to artichokes and ranchettes. This tableland is a marine terrace or wave-cut platform. See the setting in the photo below, from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.californiacoastline.org/cgi-bin/image.cgi?image=200400965&mode=sequential\">California Coastal Records Project\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebeachairview.jpg\" alt=\"aerial view of Pebble Beach\">\u003cbr>\nThe San Mateo coast is famous for these terraces, especially down around Santa Cruz. They are land that was cut flat by the sea during the Pleistocene epoch, then lifted by tectonic activity. The terraces consist of beach sand and offshore sediment from tens of thousands of years ago, and most of the pebbles of Pebble Beach are recycled from that Pleistocene gravel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now let's look at the geologic map of the area (from \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1998/of98-137/\">USGS Open-File Report 98-137\u003c/a>):\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebeachmap.png\" width=\"500\" alt=\"geologic map\">\u003cbr>\nPebble Beach is right where the symbol that says \"63\" is. The areas marked \"Qmt\" are the marine terraces. If you examine the red contours, which show elevation at 50-meter intervals, you'll see that the terraces occupy at least three different levels. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rocks on the beach, revealed as the terrace is eroded away, are mapped in green and belong to the Pigeon Point Formation, a thick pile of former deep-sea sediments dating from the Late Cretaceous epoch, some time between 100 and 65 million years ago. That \"63\" symbol means that the beds of rock, originally horizontal, are tilted to an angle of 63 degrees. And here they are, exposed again just as the sea left them in the Pleistocene.\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/unconform.jpg\" alt=\"unconformity\">\u003cbr>\nThe surface between the steeply dipping rocks and the horizontally bedded terrace deposits is called an angular unconformity. In this case it represents a gap in time of at least 65 million years. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next five photos are cross-section views, shot looking directly down that 63-degree angle at the rocks.\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/pebcgl.jpg\" alt=\"conglomerate\">\u003cbr>\nHere's where fine-grained siltstone, light-colored sandstone and cobblestone conglomerate are stacked. There's another angular unconformity between the siltstone and sandstone. And look at the wavy top surface of the sandstone—the conglomerate clearly arrived in a rush, pushing into the sandstone while it was still loose sand. This was a very active environment, an offshore basin where large amounts of coarse sediment washed down periodically in underwater landslides. In fact, it was rather like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/09/16/a-submarine-grand-canyon-offshore-central-california/\">offshore California today\u003c/a>. The many small stones embedded in these rocks were eroded free to become the gravel in the marine terrace. So the pebbles of Pebble Beach have been recycled two times, and maybe more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here are some more signs of vigorous activity, including load marks from heavy gravel landing on soft silt:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/loadstrucs.jpg\" alt=\"load structures\">\u003cbr>\nRip-up clasts are chunks of fine-grained seafloor that were swept up by strong sand flows:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/ripups.jpg\" alt=\"rip-up clasts\">\u003cbr>\nDrag-folded laminations show how overriding sand flows deformed the soft silt beneath them:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/draglam.jpg\" alt=\"laminations\">\u003cbr>\nAnd here are some tiny thin veins of bitumen, ancient organic matter that may once have been a mat of vegetation:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/bitumen.jpg\" alt=\"bitumen\">\u003cbr>\nThe final attraction of Pebble Beach is the honeycomb weathering, often called tafoni, that forms when salt air attacks clean sandstone:\u003cbr>\n\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/03/honeycomb.jpg\" alt=\"honeycomb weathering\">\u003cbr>\nToo bad the schoolkids can't stay all afternoon! But you can.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.2273608 -122.41097730\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "EarthCaches: Learning Through Hide-and-Seek",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/roundtop2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/roundtop2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"roundtop\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12465\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003csub>Get out of town and learn about Round Top, Oakland's own volcano, with an EarthCache. All photos by Andrew Alden.\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>The 21st-century sport of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocaching\">geocaching\u003c/a> is providing a new way to teach and learn about geology. Geocaching prompts people sitting at a computer to do what our parents always urged—go out and play. And a new twist in the game replaces the traditional payoff of choosing a trinket from a hidden stash with a short personal lecture on the rocks at your feet or the landscape around you. This type of geocache is called an \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthcache.org/\">EarthCache\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By now you must have heard of geocaching, the self-guided sport that takes players into the great outdoors by combining GPS wayfinding technology with geographic clues on the web. In the basic game, you get the location of a hidden box on a geocaching website—just a latitude and longitude. Using your GPS unit, you make your way to that spot, find the container and score a point by recording the achievement.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is a good way to have fun in the outdoors with a minimum of rules and structure. Millions of people have played, and more than a million geocaches are registered around the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first time I was exposed to geocaching was in 2004: I was out to explore the southern Diablo Range, and my friend came along to find some caches there. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/geocache2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/geocache2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"geocache\" width=\"600\" height=\"238\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12463\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003cem>A geocache in an ammo box lurks in a boulder pile; a logbook and assorted trinkets are inside.\u003c/em>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He found his first cache of the day in a boulder pile, a place with a superb view of the inner Coast Range. He opened the box, traded one of his trinkets for another, and left his name in the logbook. Then we sat and talked about what we were seeing in front of us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/cachetrip2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/cachetrip2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"cachetrip\" width=\"600\" height=\"199\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12464\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_sedrocks/ig/concretionpics/\">Concretions\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geoprocesses/ig/mechweathering/cavweather.htm\">tafoni\u003c/a> in the southern Diablo Range.\u003c/em>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I showed him concretions sticking out of sandstone beds; we poked our heads through the large erosional holes called tafoni. We photographed old smelting works, collected a few stones, visited a mineral dealer at home, lunched on the porch of an abandoned house.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's the way to learn about geology. A ramble along a path or roadside in the company of a teacher is the best way to learn, but such a thing can be hard to arrange. I've done that kind of teaching to groups—it's fun and rewarding and a lot of work. An EarthCache is the next best thing: instead of finding a hidden box, you just show up. And instead of trading trinkets, you read a lesson about what's in front of you.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are more than 10,000 EarthCaches listed on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthcache.org/\">EarthCache website\u003c/a>. Each one has a geology lesson associated with it approved by the Geological Society of America, plus a task you must perform to prove that you visited. You email your proof to the EarthCache site, and that's what it's all about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few EarthCaches in the Bay area:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GC10EC0\">Round Top, Oakland\u003c/a> (shown here)\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCZEYZ\">South of Fort Funston, San Francisco\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCZD9E\">View from Windy Hill, San Mateo Peninsula\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCPRKV\">Volcanic rocks of the Pinnacles\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCPGXB\">Marine terraces in Santa Cruz\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCNFRT\">Point Reyes earthquake trail\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8500605 -122.1949017\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/roundtop2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/roundtop2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"roundtop\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12465\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003csub>Get out of town and learn about Round Top, Oakland's own volcano, with an EarthCache. All photos by Andrew Alden.\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>The 21st-century sport of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocaching\">geocaching\u003c/a> is providing a new way to teach and learn about geology. Geocaching prompts people sitting at a computer to do what our parents always urged—go out and play. And a new twist in the game replaces the traditional payoff of choosing a trinket from a hidden stash with a short personal lecture on the rocks at your feet or the landscape around you. This type of geocache is called an \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthcache.org/\">EarthCache\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By now you must have heard of geocaching, the self-guided sport that takes players into the great outdoors by combining GPS wayfinding technology with geographic clues on the web. In the basic game, you get the location of a hidden box on a geocaching website—just a latitude and longitude. Using your GPS unit, you make your way to that spot, find the container and score a point by recording the achievement.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is a good way to have fun in the outdoors with a minimum of rules and structure. Millions of people have played, and more than a million geocaches are registered around the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first time I was exposed to geocaching was in 2004: I was out to explore the southern Diablo Range, and my friend came along to find some caches there. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/geocache2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/geocache2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"geocache\" width=\"600\" height=\"238\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12463\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003cem>A geocache in an ammo box lurks in a boulder pile; a logbook and assorted trinkets are inside.\u003c/em>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He found his first cache of the day in a boulder pile, a place with a superb view of the inner Coast Range. He opened the box, traded one of his trinkets for another, and left his name in the logbook. Then we sat and talked about what we were seeing in front of us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/cachetrip2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/cachetrip2.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"cachetrip\" width=\"600\" height=\"199\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-12464\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_sedrocks/ig/concretionpics/\">Concretions\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geoprocesses/ig/mechweathering/cavweather.htm\">tafoni\u003c/a> in the southern Diablo Range.\u003c/em>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I showed him concretions sticking out of sandstone beds; we poked our heads through the large erosional holes called tafoni. We photographed old smelting works, collected a few stones, visited a mineral dealer at home, lunched on the porch of an abandoned house.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's the way to learn about geology. A ramble along a path or roadside in the company of a teacher is the best way to learn, but such a thing can be hard to arrange. I've done that kind of teaching to groups—it's fun and rewarding and a lot of work. An EarthCache is the next best thing: instead of finding a hidden box, you just show up. And instead of trading trinkets, you read a lesson about what's in front of you.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are more than 10,000 EarthCaches listed on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthcache.org/\">EarthCache website\u003c/a>. Each one has a geology lesson associated with it approved by the Geological Society of America, plus a task you must perform to prove that you visited. You email your proof to the EarthCache site, and that's what it's all about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few EarthCaches in the Bay area:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GC10EC0\">Round Top, Oakland\u003c/a> (shown here)\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCZEYZ\">South of Fort Funston, San Francisco\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCZD9E\">View from Windy Hill, San Mateo Peninsula\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCPRKV\">Volcanic rocks of the Pinnacles\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCPGXB\">Marine terraces in Santa Cruz\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCNFRT\">Point Reyes earthquake trail\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8500605 -122.1949017\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Friend Your Local Fault",
"title": "Friend Your Local Fault",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/riedelsoakland2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/riedelsoakland2.jpg\" align=\"left\" hspace=\"5\" width=\"300\" alt=\"Hayward fault\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003csub>The Hayward fault crosses Oakland's Temescal Regional Park. Photo courtesy Andrew Alden\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>When they hear the word \"geology,\" many people's first response is \"earthquakes.\" Various earthquake faults lurk around us, out of mind until the day they make history as they did in \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1868/\">1868\u003c/a>, in \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1906/\">1906\u003c/a>, in \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1989/\">1989\u003c/a> and on many lesser occasions. Geologists fear faults as much as anyone else, but they also appreciate that the tectonic movements of earthquakes, repeated thousands of times, have built and continue to maintain our distinctive landscape. And the land in turn has shaped the microclimates and soils that support our great variety of habitats. Without earthquakes, this wouldn't be California. Faults are part of our geologic infrastructure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/earthquakes-breaking-new-ground\">Earthquakes will never be as predictable\u003c/a> as the weather, I think it's safe to say, but if you get to know your nearest faults then earthquakes will be less of a surprise. When our local faults rupture, you will be less likely to panic and more likely to get through the event unscathed. So when I urge you to friend a fault, it's not to infect you with a scientific hobby but to bring you a lasting practical benefit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A fault is a crack that has had movement along it. Geologists find them everywhere, and geologic maps are festooned with them. Almost all of them are inactive, though, and they're generally obscure even to practiced eyes. You can see what I mean on the U.S. Geological Survey's \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/sfgeo/geologic/details.html\">zoomable geologic map of the Bay Area\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontgeomap2.gif\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-12266\" title=\"fremontgeomap\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontgeomap2.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"498\" height=\"308\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\u003cem>\u003csub>US Geological Survey image\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's a part of it showing the area around Fremont. We can't be expected to worry about every heavy line, can we? Thankfully, no; and not the colors and symbols either. That's geology stuff: bedrock and contacts between stratigraphic units. But the two heaviest lines are important. On the left is the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-hayward-fault-predictable-peril\">Hayward Fault\u003c/a> and on the right is the Calaveras fault, both capable of major shocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-12265\" title=\"fremontQfaultmap\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"498\" height=\"308\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2.jpg 498w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2-400x247.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\u003cem>\u003csub>US Geological Survey image\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another USGS map called the \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/sfgeo/quaternary/details.html\">Quaternary map\u003c/a> focuses on just the active faults—well, the sort-of active ones that have moved during the Quaternary Period. You need to know only two things about the Quaternary: it's pronounced \"qua-TERN-ary\" and for our purposes it includes the last 1.8 million years of geologic time. Now a fault that hasn't moved in a million years, like a volcano that hasn't erupted in a million years, is not much of a threat. The color codes on the faults match the time of the latest fault movement, angry red being historic time (namely, 1868).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are two good ways to visit our local faults. One is visiting them in parks (see the list below), and the other is the freelance approach of tracking them through the neighborhood. For that, the best tool is the State of California's Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Zone Maps, which have just been \u003ca href=\"http://www.quake.ca.gov/gmaps/ap/ap_maps.htm\">placed online\u003c/a> by the California Geological Survey. Mandated by the Alquist-Priolo Act of 1972, these maps display the locations of faults that have ruptured during Holocene time, which is geologese for the last 11,000 years. Unlike Quaternary faults, activity on these Holocene faults is a pretty sure thing. And the maps display the detailed fault traces as mapped by geologists, superimposed on a high-quality topographic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With these, you can drive or stroll an area and assess the land for yourself. In places like downtown Hayward, the signs are plain and plentiful. In many others, you'll wonder what the heck those geologists were seeing. (The answer is that they were looking at historical aerial photos and data, finding subtle clues on the ground, and doing a lot of connecting dots.) You'll have a head-scratching good time, and you won't see your landscape the same way again.\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nVisit the San Andreas fault:\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/safnorth/saf06ftrossrd.htm\">Fort Ross\u003c/a>—Take Fort Ross Road east about 0.5 mile and spot the painted line across the road; an interpretive trail is nearby.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.nps.gov/pore/naturescience/geologicactivity.htm\">Olema\u003c/a>—Take the Earthquake Trail near the Bear Valley Visitor Center in Point Reyes National Seashore.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.openspace.org/preserves/pr_los_trancos.asp\">Los Trancos Ridge\u003c/a>—This ridgetop park above Palo Alto has an earthquake trail along the fault.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanborn_Park\">Sanborn County Park\u003c/a>—South of Cupertino in the Santa Cruz Mountains is this park with the 2.5-mile San Andreas trail along the fault trace.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/safnorth/saf06sjbautscarp.htm\">San Juan Bautista\u003c/a>—The fault runs just yards east of the mission here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Visit the Hayward fault:\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/geotour/tourmap.html#navmap/\">Berkeley\u003c/a>—Tour the fault in \"Bear territory\" including the infamous football stadium built across the fault in 1923.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/temescal\">Oakland\u003c/a>—Lake Temescal park displays the fault in several places.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/hywrdflthayward/\">Hayward\u003c/a>—The historic downtown and old City Hall straddle the fault, and signs of steady (aseismic) creep are abundant here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.5482697 -121.9885719\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Earthquakes will never be as predictable as the weather, but if you get to know your nearest faults then earthquakes will be less of a surprise.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/riedelsoakland2.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/riedelsoakland2.jpg\" align=\"left\" hspace=\"5\" width=\"300\" alt=\"Hayward fault\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003csub>The Hayward fault crosses Oakland's Temescal Regional Park. Photo courtesy Andrew Alden\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>When they hear the word \"geology,\" many people's first response is \"earthquakes.\" Various earthquake faults lurk around us, out of mind until the day they make history as they did in \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1868/\">1868\u003c/a>, in \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1906/\">1906\u003c/a>, in \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/1989/\">1989\u003c/a> and on many lesser occasions. Geologists fear faults as much as anyone else, but they also appreciate that the tectonic movements of earthquakes, repeated thousands of times, have built and continue to maintain our distinctive landscape. And the land in turn has shaped the microclimates and soils that support our great variety of habitats. Without earthquakes, this wouldn't be California. Faults are part of our geologic infrastructure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/earthquakes-breaking-new-ground\">Earthquakes will never be as predictable\u003c/a> as the weather, I think it's safe to say, but if you get to know your nearest faults then earthquakes will be less of a surprise. When our local faults rupture, you will be less likely to panic and more likely to get through the event unscathed. So when I urge you to friend a fault, it's not to infect you with a scientific hobby but to bring you a lasting practical benefit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A fault is a crack that has had movement along it. Geologists find them everywhere, and geologic maps are festooned with them. Almost all of them are inactive, though, and they're generally obscure even to practiced eyes. You can see what I mean on the U.S. Geological Survey's \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/sfgeo/geologic/details.html\">zoomable geologic map of the Bay Area\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontgeomap2.gif\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-12266\" title=\"fremontgeomap\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontgeomap2.gif\" alt=\"\" width=\"498\" height=\"308\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\u003cem>\u003csub>US Geological Survey image\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here's a part of it showing the area around Fremont. We can't be expected to worry about every heavy line, can we? Thankfully, no; and not the colors and symbols either. That's geology stuff: bedrock and contacts between stratigraphic units. But the two heaviest lines are important. On the left is the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-hayward-fault-predictable-peril\">Hayward Fault\u003c/a> and on the right is the Calaveras fault, both capable of major shocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-12265\" title=\"fremontQfaultmap\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"498\" height=\"308\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2.jpg 498w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/02/fremontQfaultmap2-400x247.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 498px) 100vw, 498px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\u003cem>\u003csub>US Geological Survey image\u003c/sub>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another USGS map called the \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/sfgeo/quaternary/details.html\">Quaternary map\u003c/a> focuses on just the active faults—well, the sort-of active ones that have moved during the Quaternary Period. You need to know only two things about the Quaternary: it's pronounced \"qua-TERN-ary\" and for our purposes it includes the last 1.8 million years of geologic time. Now a fault that hasn't moved in a million years, like a volcano that hasn't erupted in a million years, is not much of a threat. The color codes on the faults match the time of the latest fault movement, angry red being historic time (namely, 1868).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are two good ways to visit our local faults. One is visiting them in parks (see the list below), and the other is the freelance approach of tracking them through the neighborhood. For that, the best tool is the State of California's Alquist-Priolo Earthquake Zone Maps, which have just been \u003ca href=\"http://www.quake.ca.gov/gmaps/ap/ap_maps.htm\">placed online\u003c/a> by the California Geological Survey. Mandated by the Alquist-Priolo Act of 1972, these maps display the locations of faults that have ruptured during Holocene time, which is geologese for the last 11,000 years. Unlike Quaternary faults, activity on these Holocene faults is a pretty sure thing. And the maps display the detailed fault traces as mapped by geologists, superimposed on a high-quality topographic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With these, you can drive or stroll an area and assess the land for yourself. In places like downtown Hayward, the signs are plain and plentiful. In many others, you'll wonder what the heck those geologists were seeing. (The answer is that they were looking at historical aerial photos and data, finding subtle clues on the ground, and doing a lot of connecting dots.) You'll have a head-scratching good time, and you won't see your landscape the same way again.\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nVisit the San Andreas fault:\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/safnorth/saf06ftrossrd.htm\">Fort Ross\u003c/a>—Take Fort Ross Road east about 0.5 mile and spot the painted line across the road; an interpretive trail is nearby.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.nps.gov/pore/naturescience/geologicactivity.htm\">Olema\u003c/a>—Take the Earthquake Trail near the Bear Valley Visitor Center in Point Reyes National Seashore.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.openspace.org/preserves/pr_los_trancos.asp\">Los Trancos Ridge\u003c/a>—This ridgetop park above Palo Alto has an earthquake trail along the fault.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanborn_Park\">Sanborn County Park\u003c/a>—South of Cupertino in the Santa Cruz Mountains is this park with the 2.5-mile San Andreas trail along the fault trace.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/safnorth/saf06sjbautscarp.htm\">San Juan Bautista\u003c/a>—The fault runs just yards east of the mission here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Visit the Hayward fault:\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/geotour/tourmap.html#navmap/\">Berkeley\u003c/a>—Tour the fault in \"Bear territory\" including the infamous football stadium built across the fault in 1923.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/temescal\">Oakland\u003c/a>—Lake Temescal park displays the fault in several places.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/hywrdflthayward/\">Hayward\u003c/a>—The historic downtown and old City Hall straddle the fault, and signs of steady (aseismic) creep are abundant here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.5482697 -121.9885719\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Rivers in the Sky Can Lead to Flooding on the Ground",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/quest1.jpg\">\u003cem>Severe flooding in Sacramento during 1861-1862 storms.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">Earth's 4.5 billion year history is riddled with the evidence of landscape-altering events that would be considered rare and catastrophic from a human perspective. Some of the 'normal' events that shape the Earth's surface occur at intervals longer than the lifespan of a human. For example, let's say that an abrupt event (an earthquake, flood, or tsunami) occurs, on average, once every 500 years. Such an event would have occurred more than \u003cem>5,000 times\u003c/em> since our species has walked the Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have our grandparents and great-grandparents (and written/photographed history for that matter) to remind of us events that did happen. But there's nothing quite like direct experience. The stories of natural disasters that occurred many generations ago seem far away and detached from our current world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How do we deal with this? One tool to remind ourselves of what is possible when it comes to 'rare' natural events is science. Under the right circumstances and analyzed with the proper tools the geologic record holds clues to how often such events might occur (frequency) and how significant there effects might have been (magnitude). Combining this type of work with sophisticated modeling of the processes at work can provide insight into what to expect.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Following on the very successful \u003ca href=\"http://www.shakeout.org/scenario/\">ShakeOut Scenario\u003c/a> of 2008, the U.S. Geological Survey's Multi-Hazards Demonstration Project (MHDP) is working on another large-scale disaster awareness project. But instead of an earthquake, this one is about large storms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The project is nicknamed \u003cstrong>ARkStorm\u003c/strong>, which refers to storms related to atmospheric rivers (the 'AR') that occur on average once every 500 to 1,000 years ('k' refers to 1,000). The image below is from a USGS publication released last week about the ARkStorm scenario (\u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1312/\">Open File Report 2010-1312\u003c/a>) and shows an example of an atmospheric river in the Pacific in 2004. In this example, this relatively narrow arm of high water vapor content extends across the ocean basin to the town of Cazedero, California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-11596 aligncenter\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"605\" height=\"423\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1.jpg 901w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1-400x280.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1-800x559.jpg 800w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 605px) 100vw, 605px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A storm scenario similar to what is described in the ARkStorm report happened in California in the winter of 1861-1862. A series of powerful storms lasting a month flooded much of the Central Valley -- people described it as an inland sea. The ARkStorm scenario has happened before and is scientifically realistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Similar to earthquakes, it's not so much a matter of \u003cem>if\u003c/em> a storm scenario like this will occur but \u003cem>when\u003c/em>. The point of an initiative like ARkStorm is about raising the collective awareness of what is possible. I think Californians are, for the most part, aware of the seismic hazards we face. Adding a super-storm to the list is not meant to be sensational or scary -- it's meant to communicate the inevitable so we are prepared.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To learn more about how different agencies and authorities will be participating in \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1312/\">ARkStorm\u003c/a>, check out this short video put together by the USGS:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/UQHeidsBhyI?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/UQHeidsBhyI?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\u003cspan style=\"color: #333333\">Thanks to Bay Area geologist and About.com 'guide' Andrew Alden for mentioning this story \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2011/01/14/arkstorm-rivers-in-the-atmosphere.htm\">last week\u003c/a> on his blog.\u003c/span>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.762611 -122.409719\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/quest1.jpg\">\u003cem>Severe flooding in Sacramento during 1861-1862 storms.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">Earth's 4.5 billion year history is riddled with the evidence of landscape-altering events that would be considered rare and catastrophic from a human perspective. Some of the 'normal' events that shape the Earth's surface occur at intervals longer than the lifespan of a human. For example, let's say that an abrupt event (an earthquake, flood, or tsunami) occurs, on average, once every 500 years. Such an event would have occurred more than \u003cem>5,000 times\u003c/em> since our species has walked the Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have our grandparents and great-grandparents (and written/photographed history for that matter) to remind of us events that did happen. But there's nothing quite like direct experience. The stories of natural disasters that occurred many generations ago seem far away and detached from our current world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How do we deal with this? One tool to remind ourselves of what is possible when it comes to 'rare' natural events is science. Under the right circumstances and analyzed with the proper tools the geologic record holds clues to how often such events might occur (frequency) and how significant there effects might have been (magnitude). Combining this type of work with sophisticated modeling of the processes at work can provide insight into what to expect.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Following on the very successful \u003ca href=\"http://www.shakeout.org/scenario/\">ShakeOut Scenario\u003c/a> of 2008, the U.S. Geological Survey's Multi-Hazards Demonstration Project (MHDP) is working on another large-scale disaster awareness project. But instead of an earthquake, this one is about large storms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The project is nicknamed \u003cstrong>ARkStorm\u003c/strong>, which refers to storms related to atmospheric rivers (the 'AR') that occur on average once every 500 to 1,000 years ('k' refers to 1,000). The image below is from a USGS publication released last week about the ARkStorm scenario (\u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1312/\">Open File Report 2010-1312\u003c/a>) and shows an example of an atmospheric river in the Pacific in 2004. In this example, this relatively narrow arm of high water vapor content extends across the ocean basin to the town of Cazedero, California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-11596 aligncenter\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"605\" height=\"423\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1.jpg 901w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1-400x280.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/AR1-800x559.jpg 800w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 605px) 100vw, 605px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A storm scenario similar to what is described in the ARkStorm report happened in California in the winter of 1861-1862. A series of powerful storms lasting a month flooded much of the Central Valley -- people described it as an inland sea. The ARkStorm scenario has happened before and is scientifically realistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Similar to earthquakes, it's not so much a matter of \u003cem>if\u003c/em> a storm scenario like this will occur but \u003cem>when\u003c/em>. The point of an initiative like ARkStorm is about raising the collective awareness of what is possible. I think Californians are, for the most part, aware of the seismic hazards we face. Adding a super-storm to the list is not meant to be sensational or scary -- it's meant to communicate the inevitable so we are prepared.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To learn more about how different agencies and authorities will be participating in \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1312/\">ARkStorm\u003c/a>, check out this short video put together by the USGS:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/UQHeidsBhyI?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/UQHeidsBhyI?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\u003cspan style=\"color: #333333\">Thanks to Bay Area geologist and About.com 'guide' Andrew Alden for mentioning this story \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2011/01/14/arkstorm-rivers-in-the-atmosphere.htm\">last week\u003c/a> on his blog.\u003c/span>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.762611 -122.409719\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/kirkwood11.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Kirkwood Mountain Resort.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's that time of year when people head up to the Sierra Nevada Mountains for some great skiing and snowboarding. This season is looking to be a good one with a handful of big storms dumping \u003ca href=\"http://www.onthesnow.com/sierra-nevada/skireport.html\">huge amounts of snow\u003c/a> on resorts and in back-country terrain. Although deep snow cover obscures the view of some of the geology, the views from chair lifts and other vistas while skiing is a fantastic opportunity to think about the geologic evolution of these mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My favorite ski area in the Sierra is \u003ca href=\"http://www.kirkwood.com/site/\">Kirkwood Mountain Resort\u003c/a>, which is along State Route 88 approximately three to three and a half hour drive from San Francisco and 20-30 minutes from the town of South Lake Tahoe. In addition to great terrain, Kirkwood has some fantastic geology, some of which you can ski right up to and check out in detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rocks exposed at the surface on the mountains of Kirkwood are various volcanic rocks ranging from about \u003ca href=\"http://bulletin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/120/3-4/274\">6 million to 15 million years old\u003c/a> (depending on exactly where you are). The volcanic deposits at Kirkwood are nothing like the smooth lava flows you might see on the Big Island of Hawai'i. They are more similar to the recent volcanic deposits seen on the flanks of and in areas adjacent to the Cascades volcanoes in northern California, Oregon, and Washington.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\u003ca title=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good by Dean_In_SF, on Flickr\" href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http://farm1.static.flickr.com/27/58344556_9e83e23eeb.jpg\" alt=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good\" width=\"500\" height=\"341\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the cliffs exposed at Kirkwood during the winter are beautiful volcanic debris flow deposits that have up to boulder-sized chunks of igneous rock within a fine-grained rock. These rocks are interpreted to be the deposits of mixtures of mud, sand, and volcanic rock debris that flowed down the flanks of the now-extinct volcanoes. I forgot the name of the specific trail -- please comment if you know -- but there is a great run where you can take a short break to catch your breath and walk up to some outcrops of these debris flow deposits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, next time you're sitting on the chair lift waiting to take that next run, look around at these beautiful mountains and picture the ancient volcanic landscape that created the terrain you're skiing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images: (1) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/malparkington/288452552/\">Kirkwood\u003c/a> from Mal Parkington / Flickr; (2) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">Glove Rock\u003c/a> from Dean_In_SF / Flickr\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.69783641265611 -120.04325863905251\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/kirkwood11.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Kirkwood Mountain Resort.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's that time of year when people head up to the Sierra Nevada Mountains for some great skiing and snowboarding. This season is looking to be a good one with a handful of big storms dumping \u003ca href=\"http://www.onthesnow.com/sierra-nevada/skireport.html\">huge amounts of snow\u003c/a> on resorts and in back-country terrain. Although deep snow cover obscures the view of some of the geology, the views from chair lifts and other vistas while skiing is a fantastic opportunity to think about the geologic evolution of these mountains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>My favorite ski area in the Sierra is \u003ca href=\"http://www.kirkwood.com/site/\">Kirkwood Mountain Resort\u003c/a>, which is along State Route 88 approximately three to three and a half hour drive from San Francisco and 20-30 minutes from the town of South Lake Tahoe. In addition to great terrain, Kirkwood has some fantastic geology, some of which you can ski right up to and check out in detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rocks exposed at the surface on the mountains of Kirkwood are various volcanic rocks ranging from about \u003ca href=\"http://bulletin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/120/3-4/274\">6 million to 15 million years old\u003c/a> (depending on exactly where you are). The volcanic deposits at Kirkwood are nothing like the smooth lava flows you might see on the Big Island of Hawai'i. They are more similar to the recent volcanic deposits seen on the flanks of and in areas adjacent to the Cascades volcanoes in northern California, Oregon, and Washington.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center\">\u003ca title=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good by Dean_In_SF, on Flickr\" href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"http://farm1.static.flickr.com/27/58344556_9e83e23eeb.jpg\" alt=\"glove rock looking good from afar under snow that is far from good\" width=\"500\" height=\"341\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of the cliffs exposed at Kirkwood during the winter are beautiful volcanic debris flow deposits that have up to boulder-sized chunks of igneous rock within a fine-grained rock. These rocks are interpreted to be the deposits of mixtures of mud, sand, and volcanic rock debris that flowed down the flanks of the now-extinct volcanoes. I forgot the name of the specific trail -- please comment if you know -- but there is a great run where you can take a short break to catch your breath and walk up to some outcrops of these debris flow deposits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, next time you're sitting on the chair lift waiting to take that next run, look around at these beautiful mountains and picture the ancient volcanic landscape that created the terrain you're skiing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images: (1) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/malparkington/288452552/\">Kirkwood\u003c/a> from Mal Parkington / Flickr; (2) \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/deaninsf/58344556/\">Glove Rock\u003c/a> from Dean_In_SF / Flickr\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.69783641265611 -120.04325863905251\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Unique Geometry of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta",
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"content": "\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">The Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers meet in the area between the city of Lodi and the Carquinez Strait to form what we simply refer to as ‘The Delta’ in central and northern California. The term ‘delta’ is derived from the triangle-shaped Greek letter of the same name and was originally applied to where the Nile River meets the Mediterranean Sea. The triangular shape forms as the single Nile River channel splits into numerous smaller river channels, which then split again, and so on, spreading out over a vast low-lying area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/delta3001.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Click \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest411.jpg\">here\u003c/a> for a larger version of the Nile Delta.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta has this classic, triangular shape but with a major caveat — it’s inverted. That is, instead of the delta splitting into numerous channels in a downstream direction, it is characterized by numerous channels coming together in a downstream direction. The geologic history of the greater Bay Area helps explain this rather unique delta geometry. Unlike the Nile, Amazon, Mississippi, and other major river systems, the location where the Sacramento-San Joaquin rivers meet sea level is: (1) well inland of the coast and (2) strongly controlled by the topography of the region.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-11170\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"406\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51.jpg 962w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51-400x271.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51-800x541.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51-960x650.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\nThe Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta is known as a \u003ca href=\"http://www.answers.com/topic/bay-head-delta\">bay-head delta\u003c/a>, which is when a delta forms at the head of a large estuary like the San Francisco Bay. When \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/09/02/the-importance-of-studying-the-history-of-sea-level-change-in-san-francisco-bay/\">sea level was much lower during the last ice age\u003c/a> the river met the sea at the position of the Farallon Islands. As sea level rose and the valleys that are now the Bay flooded, the river mouth moved inland to its current position. The complex topography of the Bay Area — a result of active faulting associated with the San Andreas, Hayward, and other faults — has forced the channels in the delta to come together at Carquinez Strait.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Future \u003ca href=\"http://www.pacinst.org/reports/sea_level_rise/gmap.html\">sea-level rise will affect the delta region\u003c/a>, especially Suisun and Grizzly Bays, significantly. Even a relatively small rise will change the character of these wetland areas. Further east, near Antioch and Lodi, the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.com/usgs/california-delta-subsidence/\">delta is actively subsiding (sinking)\u003c/a>, which could exacerbate the negative effects of a rising sea level even more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">\u003cem>Images: (1) Nile River Delta; credit: \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nile_delta_landsat_false_color.jpg\">Wikipedia\u003c/a>, (2) Basemap from \u003ca href=\"http://www.flashearth.com/\">FlashEarth\u003c/a>, annotation by me.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.09771315431724 -121.56623837538064\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">The Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers meet in the area between the city of Lodi and the Carquinez Strait to form what we simply refer to as ‘The Delta’ in central and northern California. The term ‘delta’ is derived from the triangle-shaped Greek letter of the same name and was originally applied to where the Nile River meets the Mediterranean Sea. The triangular shape forms as the single Nile River channel splits into numerous smaller river channels, which then split again, and so on, spreading out over a vast low-lying area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/delta3001.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Click \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest411.jpg\">here\u003c/a> for a larger version of the Nile Delta.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta has this classic, triangular shape but with a major caveat — it’s inverted. That is, instead of the delta splitting into numerous channels in a downstream direction, it is characterized by numerous channels coming together in a downstream direction. The geologic history of the greater Bay Area helps explain this rather unique delta geometry. Unlike the Nile, Amazon, Mississippi, and other major river systems, the location where the Sacramento-San Joaquin rivers meet sea level is: (1) well inland of the coast and (2) strongly controlled by the topography of the region.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-11170\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"406\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51.jpg 962w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51-400x271.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51-800x541.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/12/quest51-960x650.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\nThe Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta is known as a \u003ca href=\"http://www.answers.com/topic/bay-head-delta\">bay-head delta\u003c/a>, which is when a delta forms at the head of a large estuary like the San Francisco Bay. When \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/09/02/the-importance-of-studying-the-history-of-sea-level-change-in-san-francisco-bay/\">sea level was much lower during the last ice age\u003c/a> the river met the sea at the position of the Farallon Islands. As sea level rose and the valleys that are now the Bay flooded, the river mouth moved inland to its current position. The complex topography of the Bay Area — a result of active faulting associated with the San Andreas, Hayward, and other faults — has forced the channels in the delta to come together at Carquinez Strait.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Future \u003ca href=\"http://www.pacinst.org/reports/sea_level_rise/gmap.html\">sea-level rise will affect the delta region\u003c/a>, especially Suisun and Grizzly Bays, significantly. Even a relatively small rise will change the character of these wetland areas. Further east, near Antioch and Lodi, the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.com/usgs/california-delta-subsidence/\">delta is actively subsiding (sinking)\u003c/a>, which could exacerbate the negative effects of a rising sea level even more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">\u003cem>Images: (1) Nile River Delta; credit: \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nile_delta_landsat_false_color.jpg\">Wikipedia\u003c/a>, (2) Basemap from \u003ca href=\"http://www.flashearth.com/\">FlashEarth\u003c/a>, annotation by me.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 38.09771315431724 -121.56623837538064\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Rhythms of the El Niño-La Niña Climate Pattern",
"title": "The Rhythms of the El Niño-La Niña Climate Pattern",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/elnino1.jpg\">\u003cem>El Nino temperature anomalies in the eastern Pacific Ocean.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennifer-skene/\">Jennifer Skene\u003c/a>'s post earlier this week here on the QUEST Community Science Blog about the potential \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/11/29/living-in-la-nina/\">effects of this winter's La Niña\u003c/a> is a great lead-in for discussing this climatic phenomenon in a bit more detail. As Jennifer noted, the La Niña weather pattern is the flip side of El Niño, which is when unusually warm waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean affect weather patterns for large swaths of North and South America. For California, El Niños typically result in increased precipitation in the winter months and La Niñas are characterized by drier conditions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>El Niño is the nickname of the climate pattern called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or ENSO. Although we don't hear much about the Southern Oscillation part, it is the atmospheric component of this linked ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. Although the physics of ENSO is still not fully understood and the subject of current research, the regularity of the pattern is well documented. The image below is a time series plot of ENSO events for the past 60 years. The positive values filled in with red are the warm ENSO phase (El Niño) and the negative values in blue are the cool ENSO phase (La Niña). The regularity isn't perfectly on beat -- it varies from 3-7 years between measurable events. But this is enough regularity to make ENSO one of the more predictable patterns climate scientists have studied.\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-11.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-10896\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-11.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"595\" height=\"232\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While the timing of ENSO cycles might have some predictability, the \u003cem>magnitude\u003c/em> of ENSO (the height/depth of the peaks) can vary significantly. Some are weak while others are quite strong. The 1997-1998 El Niño is considered to be \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/mcph2969/mcph2969.shtml\">one of the strongest of the past 100 years\u003c/a> and is still in the memory of many Californians because of the intense \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/98wx.html\">precipitation and subsequent flooding it unleashed\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What's really interesting is that this 3-7 year pattern of alternating ENSO phases is just the shortest timescale in a climate phenomenon with multiple rhythms superimposed. \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v420/n6912/abs/nature01194.html\">Paleoclimate research\u003c/a> has revealed that ENSO also beats at timescales of hundreds to thousands of years. The image below is very similar to the above diagram -- it has time in years on the horizontal axis and occurrence of ENSO events on the vertical axis. (Important difference to note are that the present is on the left side on this plot instead of the right side and time is in 'years ago' and not a date.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-10897\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"209\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21.jpg 1293w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-400x140.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-800x279.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-1180x412.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-960x335.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This plot goes back to 10,000 years ago and shows the variability in ENSO at a much longer timescale. Within those taller peaks in the plot are numerous individual El Niños that are grouped together in time. This doesn't mean that every single El Niño is very strong -- just that during a few hundred years there more of those strong El Niños. In addition to the peaks every several hundred years there is also an even longer-term trend of increasing ENSO events over 5,000 to 6,000 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like a complex musical composition with multiple interacting rhythms, the interacting timescales of this climate phenomenon might result in weather patterns that defy our ability to predict confidently. The authors of the study looking at ENSO patterns for the past 10,000 conclude that bigger-scale changes in global climate (due to changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun) are driving those longer-timescale changes. A big question right now is how modern global climate change will affect ENSO. A warming ocean suggests El Niños will get more intense, but perhaps there are some unanticipated effects from the multiple interacting factors that still needs to be studied. We are improving our understanding of the Earth's climate systems but, as always, much more work needs to be done.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Images: (1) El Nino anomalies in the eastern Pacific Ocean; image from \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/mcph2969/mcph2969.shtml\">McPhaeden et al. of NOAA\u003c/a> (2) ENSO Index from 1950-2010; image from \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/mcph2969/mcph2969.shtml\">McPhaeden et al. of NOAA\u003c/a>; (3) Figure from \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v420/n6912/abs/nature01194.html\">Moy et al. (2002)\u003c/a>; Nature 420\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/elnino1.jpg\">\u003cem>El Nino temperature anomalies in the eastern Pacific Ocean.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennifer-skene/\">Jennifer Skene\u003c/a>'s post earlier this week here on the QUEST Community Science Blog about the potential \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/11/29/living-in-la-nina/\">effects of this winter's La Niña\u003c/a> is a great lead-in for discussing this climatic phenomenon in a bit more detail. As Jennifer noted, the La Niña weather pattern is the flip side of El Niño, which is when unusually warm waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean affect weather patterns for large swaths of North and South America. For California, El Niños typically result in increased precipitation in the winter months and La Niñas are characterized by drier conditions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>El Niño is the nickname of the climate pattern called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or ENSO. Although we don't hear much about the Southern Oscillation part, it is the atmospheric component of this linked ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. Although the physics of ENSO is still not fully understood and the subject of current research, the regularity of the pattern is well documented. The image below is a time series plot of ENSO events for the past 60 years. The positive values filled in with red are the warm ENSO phase (El Niño) and the negative values in blue are the cool ENSO phase (La Niña). The regularity isn't perfectly on beat -- it varies from 3-7 years between measurable events. But this is enough regularity to make ENSO one of the more predictable patterns climate scientists have studied.\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-11.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-10896\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-11.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"595\" height=\"232\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While the timing of ENSO cycles might have some predictability, the \u003cem>magnitude\u003c/em> of ENSO (the height/depth of the peaks) can vary significantly. Some are weak while others are quite strong. The 1997-1998 El Niño is considered to be \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/mcph2969/mcph2969.shtml\">one of the strongest of the past 100 years\u003c/a> and is still in the memory of many Californians because of the intense \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/98wx.html\">precipitation and subsequent flooding it unleashed\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What's really interesting is that this 3-7 year pattern of alternating ENSO phases is just the shortest timescale in a climate phenomenon with multiple rhythms superimposed. \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v420/n6912/abs/nature01194.html\">Paleoclimate research\u003c/a> has revealed that ENSO also beats at timescales of hundreds to thousands of years. The image below is very similar to the above diagram -- it has time in years on the horizontal axis and occurrence of ENSO events on the vertical axis. (Important difference to note are that the present is on the left side on this plot instead of the right side and time is in 'years ago' and not a date.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-10897\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"209\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21.jpg 1293w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-400x140.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-800x279.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-1180x412.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ENSO-21-960x335.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This plot goes back to 10,000 years ago and shows the variability in ENSO at a much longer timescale. Within those taller peaks in the plot are numerous individual El Niños that are grouped together in time. This doesn't mean that every single El Niño is very strong -- just that during a few hundred years there more of those strong El Niños. In addition to the peaks every several hundred years there is also an even longer-term trend of increasing ENSO events over 5,000 to 6,000 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like a complex musical composition with multiple interacting rhythms, the interacting timescales of this climate phenomenon might result in weather patterns that defy our ability to predict confidently. The authors of the study looking at ENSO patterns for the past 10,000 conclude that bigger-scale changes in global climate (due to changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun) are driving those longer-timescale changes. A big question right now is how modern global climate change will affect ENSO. A warming ocean suggests El Niños will get more intense, but perhaps there are some unanticipated effects from the multiple interacting factors that still needs to be studied. We are improving our understanding of the Earth's climate systems but, as always, much more work needs to be done.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Images: (1) El Nino anomalies in the eastern Pacific Ocean; image from \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/mcph2969/mcph2969.shtml\">McPhaeden et al. of NOAA\u003c/a> (2) ENSO Index from 1950-2010; image from \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/pubs/outstand/mcph2969/mcph2969.shtml\">McPhaeden et al. of NOAA\u003c/a>; (3) Figure from \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v420/n6912/abs/nature01194.html\">Moy et al. (2002)\u003c/a>; Nature 420\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "San Francisco Bay Slowly Recovering From Gold Rush Miners' Devastating Legacy",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ruhl1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Suspended Sediment Concentration in the San Francisco Bay, USGS. Click \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ruhl1.jpg\">here\u003c/a> for a larger version of the image.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of the gold extracted from the Sierra foothills during the Gold Rush was in placer deposits. That is, it was mixed with the rest of the sediment naturally eroding from the mountainside. Flecks of gold have a greater density than almost all the other particles and, thus, can be concentrated through natural water movement. A similar process is seen when you go to the beach. When the mixture of minerals and waves are just right you might notice darker grains of sand creating streaks or patches in the wet sand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miners had to devise ways to extract the gold because it was still a minor component even in rich placer deposits. Methods like panning and simple equipment like sluice boxes were used with moving water to enhance the natural mineral separation process.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When all this relatively easy-to-get gold was extracted from the streams and rivers prospectors turned to \u003ca href=\"http://museumca.org/goldrush/fever19-hy.html\">hydraulic mining\u003c/a> to obtain the riches. Hydraulic mining was the process of using high-powered water canons to artificially erode gold-bearing hills made of sedimentary deposits. These sedimentary deposits were ancient stream beds that contained gold in placer deposits much like the modern streams did. Essentially, hydraulic mining eroded ancient river sediment from the hillside and diverted the material into the modern river where miners then extracted the gold.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-10430\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"550\" height=\"362\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1-400x264.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unsurprisingly, the activity of hydraulic mining devastated the local environment. The landscape was scarred and the mountain streams choked with gravel and sediment. And the effects weren't just local. These rivers and streams flowed into the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/12/geologic-context-and-history-of-the-san-joaquin-river/\">San Joaquin River\u003c/a> and Sacramento River and deposited some of this sediment in the Central Valley causing flooding and navigation problems. Some of the finer sediment was transported even further, to the San Francisco Bay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The effects of hydraulic mining practices are still measurable in the Bay today. Geologists from the USGS are studying the amount of sediment the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta delivers to the Bay and are finding that the Gold Rush-induced sediment levels \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128113664\">might be diminishing\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #800000\">\u003cem>\"[USGS geologist David Schoellhamer] says all the extra sediment has finally worked its way past the Golden Gate. The bay's water is about 30 percent clearer than it was 10 years ago.\"\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is taken many decades for this complex sediment delivery system to reach a new equilibrium. However, the readjustment of the estuary to these 'new' conditions might create new problems:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #800000\">\u003cem>\"Less sediment in the bay could spell trouble if scientists' predictions about rising sea levels come to pass. These delicate tidal marshes could be inundated over the next century.\"\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What I find fascinating, yet also extremely challenging, is how the choices we've made as a civilization over the decades and centuries combine and sum to create the issues we face right now. There are no simple answers. Regardless of how well-intentioned some environmental programs may be there will always be some uncertainty about how natural systems respond. Continuing scientific research of these systems will reduce that uncertainty and inform policy decisions of the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #333333\">\u003cem>Images: (1) \u003ca href=\"http://ca.water.usgs.gov/sfbay/sedtrans/\">California Water Science Center\u003c/a>; (2) \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor.jpg\">Wikipedia\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ruhl1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Suspended Sediment Concentration in the San Francisco Bay, USGS. Click \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/ruhl1.jpg\">here\u003c/a> for a larger version of the image.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of the gold extracted from the Sierra foothills during the Gold Rush was in placer deposits. That is, it was mixed with the rest of the sediment naturally eroding from the mountainside. Flecks of gold have a greater density than almost all the other particles and, thus, can be concentrated through natural water movement. A similar process is seen when you go to the beach. When the mixture of minerals and waves are just right you might notice darker grains of sand creating streaks or patches in the wet sand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miners had to devise ways to extract the gold because it was still a minor component even in rich placer deposits. Methods like panning and simple equipment like sluice boxes were used with moving water to enhance the natural mineral separation process.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When all this relatively easy-to-get gold was extracted from the streams and rivers prospectors turned to \u003ca href=\"http://museumca.org/goldrush/fever19-hy.html\">hydraulic mining\u003c/a> to obtain the riches. Hydraulic mining was the process of using high-powered water canons to artificially erode gold-bearing hills made of sedimentary deposits. These sedimentary deposits were ancient stream beds that contained gold in placer deposits much like the modern streams did. Essentially, hydraulic mining eroded ancient river sediment from the hillside and diverted the material into the modern river where miners then extracted the gold.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-10430\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"550\" height=\"362\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/11/800px-Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor1-400x264.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unsurprisingly, the activity of hydraulic mining devastated the local environment. The landscape was scarred and the mountain streams choked with gravel and sediment. And the effects weren't just local. These rivers and streams flowed into the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/12/geologic-context-and-history-of-the-san-joaquin-river/\">San Joaquin River\u003c/a> and Sacramento River and deposited some of this sediment in the Central Valley causing flooding and navigation problems. Some of the finer sediment was transported even further, to the San Francisco Bay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The effects of hydraulic mining practices are still measurable in the Bay today. Geologists from the USGS are studying the amount of sediment the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta delivers to the Bay and are finding that the Gold Rush-induced sediment levels \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128113664\">might be diminishing\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #800000\">\u003cem>\"[USGS geologist David Schoellhamer] says all the extra sediment has finally worked its way past the Golden Gate. The bay's water is about 30 percent clearer than it was 10 years ago.\"\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is taken many decades for this complex sediment delivery system to reach a new equilibrium. However, the readjustment of the estuary to these 'new' conditions might create new problems:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #800000\">\u003cem>\"Less sediment in the bay could spell trouble if scientists' predictions about rising sea levels come to pass. These delicate tidal marshes could be inundated over the next century.\"\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What I find fascinating, yet also extremely challenging, is how the choices we've made as a civilization over the decades and centuries combine and sum to create the issues we face right now. There are no simple answers. Regardless of how well-intentioned some environmental programs may be there will always be some uncertainty about how natural systems respond. Continuing scientific research of these systems will reduce that uncertainty and inform policy decisions of the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #333333\">\u003cem>Images: (1) \u003ca href=\"http://ca.water.usgs.gov/sfbay/sedtrans/\">California Water Science Center\u003c/a>; (2) \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Sandham_-_The_Monitor.jpg\">Wikipedia\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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