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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29087\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/09/the-benefits-of-radioactive-fallout/wolves/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29087\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Wolves.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Wolves\" width=\"640\" height=\"362\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29087\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Wolves.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Wolves-400x226.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Animals are doing surprisingly well in the radioactive areas around Chernobyl.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Imagine people’s worst fears are realized and the nuclear power plant at \u003ca href=\"http://www.pge.com/myhome/edusafety/systemworks/dcpp/\">Diablo Canyon\u003c/a> here in California has a Chernobyl-style meltdown. The effects on people are obvious: high rates of thyroid and other cancers, permanent resettlement elsewhere, increased rates of birth defects and so on. But as the area around Chernobyl is showing, the effects on the environment may be more subtle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the break I watched a Nature special called, \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/radioactive-wolves/introduction/7108/\">Radioactive Wolves\u003c/a>\". This is a documentary about wildlife in a radioactive exclusion zone around Chernobyl.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though the area around Chernobyl is still so contaminated that humans can only go in for limited amounts of time, the wildlife appears to be doing surprisingly well. Birth defects are higher than in surrounding areas but life is thriving. Wolves are doing great, beavers have returned and everything looks hunky dory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This seemed strange to me. I would think that so much radiation should be having pretty severe effects on these animals. And as noted in this \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20002049\">in this NIH study\u003c/a>, for certain individuals it definitely is.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The difference is in perspective. For the individual, the area around Chernobyl is terrible. Your kids have a higher rate of being stillborn or having birth defects, you have a much higher rate of developing various cancers, and so on. But for the species as a whole, things aren’t so bad. The higher background radiation appears to hardly be affecting their numbers at all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now this isn’t to say that the initial fallout wasn’t catastrophic to wildlife. It was. Untold numbers of animals died a terrible death in Chernobyl’s aftermath.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the lucky survivors and new immigrants, though, Chernobyl is a different story. It is a chance to live a life without human interference. At least for now it looks like the high background radiation is preferable to man for these animals. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is important that scientists keep studying this ecosystem though. The DNA of the animals in this area are under constant attack from the radiation. There may come a tipping point where the genetic burden becomes too high and populations start to crash. We’ll have to wait and see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Additional Reading: \u003ca href=\"http://tv.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/arts/television/radioactive-wolves-on-pbs-review.html\">NY Times Review of Radioactive Wolves\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/ScionExchange2009.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/ScionExchange2009-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"ScionExchange2009\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-29034\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is your new year’s resolution to eat more fruits and veggies? Or eat more local produce? You can do both at once by growing your own fruit—you can’t get more local than fruit you harvest in your own backyard. Start by going to a \u003ca href=\"http://crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/scionex.htm\">scion exchange\u003c/a>, where local rare fruit enthusiasts take cuttings from their fruit trees and swap them for other varietals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://crfg.org/index.html\">California Rare Fruit Growers\u003c/a> (CRFG) hold these exchanges in the winter, when fruit trees are dormant. It’s a good time to clip the pencil-thin branches that have grown in the past year—called the \u003ca href=\"http://www.crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/what_is_a_scion_exchange.htm\">scion\u003c/a>—and graft these branches onto other plants. The \u003ca href=\"http://www.crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/index.htm\">Golden Gate Chapter\u003c/a> of the CRFG is holding its annual scion exchange on Saturday, January 21 at Laney College in Oakland. Check \u003ca href=\"http://crfg.org/local.html\">this list\u003c/a> to find your local chapter and its upcoming scion exchange. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before you go to the exchange, make a wish list of the types of fruit trees you want to acquire. (The cuttings are free—donated by individuals—but the organization usually requests a small donation. The Golden Gate Chapter requests $4, but they note that no one is turned away for lack of funds.) Base your list on the types of fruit you like to eat, and the climate where you live. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An important measure of climate is the number of chill hours an area receives: the cumulative number of hours throughout the winter when the temperature is between 32 and 45 degrees Fahrenheit. Find out \u003ca href=\"http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/chillcalc/index1.htm\">the number of chill hours for your area\u003c/a>, so you know what kinds of fruit trees to choose. For example, the Oakland Hills, where I live, get about 400 chill hours. According to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/MakingtheBestFINAL4.pdf\">Making the Best of the Scion Exchange guide \u003c/a>from the Golden Gate Chapter of the CRFG, the best trees for my cool summers and mild winters are lemons and something called feijoa (a.k.a. the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acca_sellowiana\">guavasteen\u003c/a>). It isn’t cold enough for apples, nor is it warm enough for grapes. Also think about your yard’s aspect: if you are on a north-facing slope, you’ll probably get more chill hours than if you’re on a south-facing hillside, which tends to get more sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once you’ve made your list and acquired the scions you want at a scion exchange, the next step is to graft these on to existing plants. You can use rootstock, which are young plants that are grown for grafting. Or you can graft onto an established tree that is already growing in your backyard, a practice known as top working. Some plants can be grafted only onto the same kind of tree—like apples to apples, quince to quince. Others can be grafted onto other types of trees—for example, pears can be grafted onto quince trees (if you happen to have one of those in your backyard). You can get rootstocks at the scion exchange, and (more importantly) advice on how to graft; there are several grafting workshops at the Golden Gate event on January 21.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One more thing to think about as you make your wish list: if you’re planning to grow multiple trees, you want to stagger your harvest throughout the year, so you aren’t inundated with fruit all at once. Or, if you’re planning to make jam or to dry your fruit to save it for later, maybe a bountiful harvest is okay. Here’s to a fruit-filled 2012!\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/ScionExchange2009.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/ScionExchange2009-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"ScionExchange2009\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-29034\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is your new year’s resolution to eat more fruits and veggies? Or eat more local produce? You can do both at once by growing your own fruit—you can’t get more local than fruit you harvest in your own backyard. Start by going to a \u003ca href=\"http://crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/scionex.htm\">scion exchange\u003c/a>, where local rare fruit enthusiasts take cuttings from their fruit trees and swap them for other varietals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://crfg.org/index.html\">California Rare Fruit Growers\u003c/a> (CRFG) hold these exchanges in the winter, when fruit trees are dormant. It’s a good time to clip the pencil-thin branches that have grown in the past year—called the \u003ca href=\"http://www.crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/what_is_a_scion_exchange.htm\">scion\u003c/a>—and graft these branches onto other plants. The \u003ca href=\"http://www.crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/index.htm\">Golden Gate Chapter\u003c/a> of the CRFG is holding its annual scion exchange on Saturday, January 21 at Laney College in Oakland. Check \u003ca href=\"http://crfg.org/local.html\">this list\u003c/a> to find your local chapter and its upcoming scion exchange. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before you go to the exchange, make a wish list of the types of fruit trees you want to acquire. (The cuttings are free—donated by individuals—but the organization usually requests a small donation. The Golden Gate Chapter requests $4, but they note that no one is turned away for lack of funds.) Base your list on the types of fruit you like to eat, and the climate where you live. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An important measure of climate is the number of chill hours an area receives: the cumulative number of hours throughout the winter when the temperature is between 32 and 45 degrees Fahrenheit. Find out \u003ca href=\"http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/chillcalc/index1.htm\">the number of chill hours for your area\u003c/a>, so you know what kinds of fruit trees to choose. For example, the Oakland Hills, where I live, get about 400 chill hours. According to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.crfg.org/chapters/golden_gate/MakingtheBestFINAL4.pdf\">Making the Best of the Scion Exchange guide \u003c/a>from the Golden Gate Chapter of the CRFG, the best trees for my cool summers and mild winters are lemons and something called feijoa (a.k.a. the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acca_sellowiana\">guavasteen\u003c/a>). It isn’t cold enough for apples, nor is it warm enough for grapes. Also think about your yard’s aspect: if you are on a north-facing slope, you’ll probably get more chill hours than if you’re on a south-facing hillside, which tends to get more sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once you’ve made your list and acquired the scions you want at a scion exchange, the next step is to graft these on to existing plants. You can use rootstock, which are young plants that are grown for grafting. Or you can graft onto an established tree that is already growing in your backyard, a practice known as top working. Some plants can be grafted only onto the same kind of tree—like apples to apples, quince to quince. Others can be grafted onto other types of trees—for example, pears can be grafted onto quince trees (if you happen to have one of those in your backyard). You can get rootstocks at the scion exchange, and (more importantly) advice on how to graft; there are several grafting workshops at the Golden Gate event on January 21.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One more thing to think about as you make your wish list: if you’re planning to grow multiple trees, you want to stagger your harvest throughout the year, so you aren’t inundated with fruit all at once. Or, if you’re planning to make jam or to dry your fruit to save it for later, maybe a bountiful harvest is okay. Here’s to a fruit-filled 2012!\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "We Don’t Want the Funk (in our Wine)",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28442\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/12/26/we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine/redwine/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-28442\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"RedWine\" width=\"640\" height=\"376\" class=\"size-full wp-image-28442\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine-400x235.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">For now, sulfites are able to kill the yeast that might spoil this wine.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Wine sometimes tastes a bit funky because it was contaminated during fermentation with a yeast called \u003cem>Brettanomyces bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can give wine a \u003ca href=\"http://ajevonline.org/content/57/2/139.full\">variety of interesting flavors\u003c/a> like “…horse sweat, Band Aids, barnyard, and burnt plastic…” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Winemakers usually keep this from happening by killing off the yeast with those dreaded sulfites. But for awhile now, people in the know have been worrying about the emergence of a sulfite-resistant form of this yeast. And this is a well-founded fear.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yeast, like bacteria, are fast growing microorganisms with lots of variation in their DNA. If you hit a population like this with something that kills them (like sulfites for \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> or antibiotics for bacteria), some small percentage are probably going to be resistant. These resistant strains can then grow and replace the sensitive ones. The end result is sulfite-resistant yeast ruining our wines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To try to head off this problem, a group of scientists in Australia has \u003ca href=\"http://www.winebiz.com.au/wvj/\">figured out this yeast’s DNA\u003c/a>. The hope is that scientists will be able to use this data to determine how \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> might evolve into a more resistant form.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Note that despite much trumpeting online, they haven’t really solved any problems with this knowledge yet. They have merely created the tool that might let them solve a potential future problem. And given how cheap and easy DNA sequencing is these days, it isn’t necessarily even an impressive feat of technological prowess.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, it may one day prove useful in allowing winemakers to more quickly defeat a sulfite-resistant strain. Which can only be a good thing for wine making.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don’t want to end this before saying a nice word or two about \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can spoil wines but it isn’t all bad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, it gives Belgian beers their special taste. And some winemakers actively seek it to give their wine a bit of a “\u003ca href=\"http://www.aromadictionary.com/articles/brettanomyces_article.html\">brett\u003c/a>” taste. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, a sulfite-resistant form would definitely be a bad thing for most winemakers. So scientists should definitely stay vigilant and be ready to come up with quick solutions using this new tool (and whatever other ones they can find) when sulfite-resistant \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> begin to appear. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28442\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/12/26/we-don%e2%80%99t-want-the-funk-in-our-wine/redwine/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-28442\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"RedWine\" width=\"640\" height=\"376\" class=\"size-full wp-image-28442\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/RedWine-400x235.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">For now, sulfites are able to kill the yeast that might spoil this wine.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Wine sometimes tastes a bit funky because it was contaminated during fermentation with a yeast called \u003cem>Brettanomyces bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can give wine a \u003ca href=\"http://ajevonline.org/content/57/2/139.full\">variety of interesting flavors\u003c/a> like “…horse sweat, Band Aids, barnyard, and burnt plastic…” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Winemakers usually keep this from happening by killing off the yeast with those dreaded sulfites. But for awhile now, people in the know have been worrying about the emergence of a sulfite-resistant form of this yeast. And this is a well-founded fear.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yeast, like bacteria, are fast growing microorganisms with lots of variation in their DNA. If you hit a population like this with something that kills them (like sulfites for \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> or antibiotics for bacteria), some small percentage are probably going to be resistant. These resistant strains can then grow and replace the sensitive ones. The end result is sulfite-resistant yeast ruining our wines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To try to head off this problem, a group of scientists in Australia has \u003ca href=\"http://www.winebiz.com.au/wvj/\">figured out this yeast’s DNA\u003c/a>. The hope is that scientists will be able to use this data to determine how \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> might evolve into a more resistant form.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Note that despite much trumpeting online, they haven’t really solved any problems with this knowledge yet. They have merely created the tool that might let them solve a potential future problem. And given how cheap and easy DNA sequencing is these days, it isn’t necessarily even an impressive feat of technological prowess.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, it may one day prove useful in allowing winemakers to more quickly defeat a sulfite-resistant strain. Which can only be a good thing for wine making.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don’t want to end this before saying a nice word or two about \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em>. This yeast can spoil wines but it isn’t all bad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For example, it gives Belgian beers their special taste. And some winemakers actively seek it to give their wine a bit of a “\u003ca href=\"http://www.aromadictionary.com/articles/brettanomyces_article.html\">brett\u003c/a>” taste. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, a sulfite-resistant form would definitely be a bad thing for most winemakers. So scientists should definitely stay vigilant and be ready to come up with quick solutions using this new tool (and whatever other ones they can find) when sulfite-resistant \u003cem>B. bruxellensis\u003c/em> begin to appear. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Got Mercury? The New EPA Ruling And The San Francisco Bay",
"title": "Got Mercury? The New EPA Ruling And The San Francisco Bay",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/got-mercury.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-28694\" title=\"got mercury\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/got-mercury-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"got mercury\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>This week, after decades of legal delays and foot dragging by the coal and power industry, the \u003ca href=\"http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/1e5ab1124055f3b28525781f0042ed40/bd8b3f37edf5716d8525796d005dd086!OpenDocument\" target=\"_blank\">EPA unveiled a new rule\u003c/a> protecting public health from mercury and other toxins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new \u003ca href=\"http://www.epa.gov/mats/\" target=\"_blank\">Mercury and Air Toxic Standards\u003c/a> announced by \u003ca href=\"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lisa-p-jackson/mercury-emissions-standards_b_1162892.html?ref=green\" target=\"_blank\">EPA administrator Lisa Jackson\u003c/a> on December 21st require the electrical industry to limit stack emissions of mercury, arsenic and other toxic pollutants that originate from coal and oil-fired power plants and end up in America's air, water and food. Power plants are the largest source of mercury emissions at around 50 tons of mercury pollution annually. Because the particles are heavier than air, the mercury eventually falls back down and is deposited in rivers, lakes and oceans where it is converted into a more toxic form called methylmercury. This builds up in the food chain, meaning that fish at the top, such as striped bass, blue fin tuna and shark, carry the highest levels of the toxin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The EPA estimates that 11,000 premature deaths and 130,000 cases of aggravated asthma among children annually by 2016 will be prevented, as well as other health benefits. Women, children and the developing fetus are most at risk for serious health problems resulting from mercury exposure. Between 300,000 and 600,000 of the 4 million babies born in the U.S. each year are exposed to significant amounts of the neurotoxin while in the womb.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Using scrubbers and other well-demonstrated technology, the rule requires power companies install equipment or shut down old plants by 2014 with the possibility of an extension into a fourth year. Seventeen states have already required the industry to apply the clean technology. These older US plants, operating mostly in the Midwest and East, can affect our Bay Area waterways and we will benefit from the new rule. However, most of the mercury in the San Francisco Bay enters from spills, the air, or water runoff from land from natural sources and historical mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mercury levels will remain high in many species of San Francisco Bay and some ocean fish as well as other toxins like PCBs. The California Office of Environmental Health and Hazard Assessment (\u003ca href=\"http://oehha.ca.gov/fish/general/sfbaydelta.html\" target=\"_blank\">OEHHA\u003c/a>) monitored contaminants in chemical contaminants in fish from the San Francisco Bay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While the EPA rule is good news for Americans, we must be cautious about what fish and how much fish we consume. Some fish from San Francisco Bay like rockfish and smelt are low in mercury and can be safely eaten. Others like wild king salmon are high in Omega-3s that have been demonstrated to be beneficial to human health. Others like sharks, striped bass and other top predators like swordfish and tuna bio-concentrate mercury and should be avoided, especially by women 18-45 and children under 7 years. The point is to ask where your fish is coming from, how was it caught and how much can you eat. A \u003ca href=\"http://www.gotmercury.org/article.php?list=type&type=75\" target=\"_blank\">mercury calculator\u003c/a> on the \"Got Mercury?\" website allows one to calculate how much mercury they are consuming and if it exceeds advisory guidelines produced by the EPA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \"Got Mercury\" Campaign, a project of the Turtle Island Restoration network based in Marin County, is building awareness about toxic mercury in commonly eaten seafood. To reduce risk from mercury exposure, \"Got Mercury\" is asking the government to increase health advisories and reduce action levels for mercury in fish. The program is also petitioning the FDA to lower the legal mercury action level from 1 part per million (ppm) to 0.5 ppm to be in line with the Environmental Protection Agency’s mercury standards for recreationally caught fish and to require seafood sellers to post mercury in fish warning signs.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28674\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/sf_sand640-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"The next time you go to the beach, whether at the ocean or beside a river, take a closer look at the sand and think about the stories those grains can tell! \" title=\"sf_sand640\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28674\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The next time you go to the beach, whether at the ocean or beside a river, take a closer look at the sand and think about the stories those grains can tell! \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Sand . . . we play in it, we stroll on it, we make castles out of it, but what do we really know about it? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most people use the term “sand” to refer to loose material on a beach, but sand is actually a grain size measurement used by geologists to describe sediments varying in size from about 1/16 mm to 2 mm in diameter. Sand can be found not only along ocean beaches, but along flowing rivers and beside land-locked lakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mineral and volcanic sands are terrigenous, meaning that they come from the land. Mineral sands start as mountains and boulders and are gradually broken into smaller and smaller particles by weathering and erosion. Being alternately heated and cooled through the seasons, rolling and tumbling around in mountain streams and rivers, rocks are broken apart by the water’s movement. The black sand beaches of some islands (e.g. Hawai’i) are volcanic in origin. Lava rocks, chunks of cooled molten lava, are broken down into sand over time by physical and chemical weathering. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some sand is biogenous, meaning that it comes from living things, such as mollusk shells and corals. The energy from water breaks shells down into tiny pieces that eventually are washed onto beaches. Parrotfish in the tropics use their teeth to scrape off and grind down bits of coral reefs; the undigested particles pass through the fishes’ digestive systems and end up as sand on tropical beaches!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you examine the beauty of beach sand with a magnifying glass, the shape, size, and color of the sand grains can tell many stories. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Shape indicates the age of sand grains. Different materials break down at different rates. For example, quartz is very sturdy and takes longer to become sand than the calcium carbonate material of mollusk shells. Younger sand has sharp and angled edges; it needs time and wave action to become rounded. Sand particles that are smooth and well-rounded are evidence that they have been rolled around for awhile. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wave action is the story told with grain size. The story is simple: small waves move small sand grains around; large waves move large grains. In addition, Aeolian transport, or sand movement driven by winds, shifts the sand around on the beach, shaping and reshaping, covering and uncovering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Color offers evidence for source materials – sand particles that are clear, tan, gray, or brown might be quartz or feldspar, black or gray particles could be ilmenite (titanium oxide) or magnetite (iron oxide); garnets are red, mica is silvery black or gray, and shells are purple, white, black, or brown.\u003cbr>\nThe chorus from the song “Mountain in my Hand” (on the Only One Ocean CD by the \u003ca href=\"http://bananaslugs.bandcamp.com/track/mountain-in-my-hand\">Banana Slug String Band\u003c/a>) explains it best:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’ve got a mountain in my hand from the rain-washed land; down by the sea now is where I stand, with this mountain in my hand trying to understand; Oh, oh, wonderful sand.” \u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Additional Links\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ncseagrant.org/\">Sea Grant North Carolina\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Shape indicates the age of sand grains. Different materials break down at different rates. For example, quartz is very sturdy and takes longer to become sand than the calcium carbonate material of mollusk shells. Younger sand has sharp and angled edges; it needs time and wave action to become rounded. Sand particles that are smooth and well-rounded are evidence that they have been rolled around for awhile. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wave action is the story told with grain size. The story is simple: small waves move small sand grains around; large waves move large grains. In addition, Aeolian transport, or sand movement driven by winds, shifts the sand around on the beach, shaping and reshaping, covering and uncovering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Color offers evidence for source materials – sand particles that are clear, tan, gray, or brown might be quartz or feldspar, black or gray particles could be ilmenite (titanium oxide) or magnetite (iron oxide); garnets are red, mica is silvery black or gray, and shells are purple, white, black, or brown.\u003cbr>\nThe chorus from the song “Mountain in my Hand” (on the Only One Ocean CD by the \u003ca href=\"http://bananaslugs.bandcamp.com/track/mountain-in-my-hand\">Banana Slug String Band\u003c/a>) explains it best:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’ve got a mountain in my hand from the rain-washed land; down by the sea now is where I stand, with this mountain in my hand trying to understand; Oh, oh, wonderful sand.” \u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Additional Links\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ncseagrant.org/\">Sea Grant North Carolina\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/nano.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/nano-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"nano\" title=\"nano\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-28041\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From hackerspaces to banana slugs, flying telescopes to cheese — it’s been a quite a diverse year of storytelling here at QUEST. Here’s a round-up of the top 10 video and audio stories and blog posts (based on page views) that you’ve enjoyed from the past year. Please let us know what other stories you’ve enjoyed in the comments section below, and if there’s anything you’d like to see in the coming season!\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/stem-cell-gold-rush/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stem Cell Gold Rush \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/science-on-the-spot-banana-slugs-unpeeled/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Science on the SPOT: Banana Slugs Unpeeled \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Berkeley Lab Physicist Shares Nobel\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/science-on-the-spot-open-source-creativity-hackerspaces/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Science on the SPOT: Open Source Creativity – Hackerspaces\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/super-laser-at-the-national-ignition-facility/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Super Laser at the National Ignition Facility\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-worlds-most-powerful-microscope/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The World’s Most Powerful Microscope \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-science-art-of-cheese/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Science & Art of Cheese \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/mt-umunhum-return-to-the-summit/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Mt. Umunhum: Return to the Summit\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-fierce-humboldt-squid/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Fierce Humboldt Squid \u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>AUDIO:\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/up-all-night-on-nasas-flying-telescope/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003cstrong>Up All Night on NASA’s Flying Telescope/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-lost-lagoon/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Lost Lagoon\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"/quest/audio/energy-saving-windows-get-smarter/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Energy-Saving Windows Get Smarter \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-amazing-transformation-of-san-franciscos-sludge-puddle/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Amazing Transformation of San Francisco’s “Sludge Puddle” \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/24/supercomputing-draft/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supercomputers Hit an Energy Wall \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/from-tunnel-to-tap-quake-proofing-our-water-supply/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">From Tunnel to Tap: Quake-Proofing Our Water Supply \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/a-big-captivating-idea-the-bay-area-ridge-trail/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">“A Big, Captivating Idea”: The Bay Area Ridge Trail \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/architecture-for-the-birds/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Architecture for the Birds \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/gulls-threaten-south-bay-salt-pond-restoration-work/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Gulls Threaten South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Work \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/in-a-sea-of-energy-data-utilities-try-to-inspire-conservation/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In a Sea of Energy Data, Utilities Try to Inspire Conservation \u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>BLOG:\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/03/17/explosive-hypothesis-about-humans-lack-of-genetic-diversity/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Explosive hypothesis about humans’ lack of genetic diversity \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/01/diet-sodas-may-not-be-as-harmless-as-you-think/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Diet Sodas May Not Be As Harmless As You Think\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/10/13/health-officials-to-consider-tightening-vaccine-exemptions/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Health Officials to Consider Tightening Vaccine Exemptions\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/02/18/scientists-understand-heart-disease-better-still-give-bad-advice/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Scientists Understand Heart Disease Better, Still Give Bad Advice\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/06/24/the-megalodons-descendents/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Megalodon’s Descendants \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/20/famous-african-american-scientists-innovators-part-ii/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Famous African American Scientists & Innovators: Part II\u003cbr>\n\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/04/30/swine-flu-a-virus-or-a-bacteria/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Swine Flu – A Virus or a Bacteria? \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/11/16/dont-get-hacked-by-firesheep-over-open-wi-fi/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cyber Wolves in (Fire)Sheep Clothing\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/07/05/why-mosquitoes-buzz-in-peoples-ears/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Why Do Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears?\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/01/19/15-months-later-rediscovered-san-francisco-plant-thrives/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">15 Months Later, Rediscovered San Francisco Plant Thrives\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/nano.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/nano-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"nano\" title=\"nano\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-28041\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From hackerspaces to banana slugs, flying telescopes to cheese — it’s been a quite a diverse year of storytelling here at QUEST. Here’s a round-up of the top 10 video and audio stories and blog posts (based on page views) that you’ve enjoyed from the past year. Please let us know what other stories you’ve enjoyed in the comments section below, and if there’s anything you’d like to see in the coming season!\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/stem-cell-gold-rush/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Stem Cell Gold Rush \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/science-on-the-spot-banana-slugs-unpeeled/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Science on the SPOT: Banana Slugs Unpeeled \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Berkeley Lab Physicist Shares Nobel\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/science-on-the-spot-open-source-creativity-hackerspaces/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Science on the SPOT: Open Source Creativity – Hackerspaces\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/super-laser-at-the-national-ignition-facility/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Super Laser at the National Ignition Facility\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-worlds-most-powerful-microscope/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The World’s Most Powerful Microscope \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-science-art-of-cheese/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Science & Art of Cheese \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/mt-umunhum-return-to-the-summit/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Mt. Umunhum: Return to the Summit\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/the-fierce-humboldt-squid/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Fierce Humboldt Squid \u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>AUDIO:\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/up-all-night-on-nasas-flying-telescope/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003cstrong>Up All Night on NASA’s Flying Telescope/a>\u003c/strong>\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-lost-lagoon/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Lost Lagoon\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"/quest/audio/energy-saving-windows-get-smarter/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Energy-Saving Windows Get Smarter \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-amazing-transformation-of-san-franciscos-sludge-puddle/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Amazing Transformation of San Francisco’s “Sludge Puddle” \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/06/24/supercomputing-draft/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supercomputers Hit an Energy Wall \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/from-tunnel-to-tap-quake-proofing-our-water-supply/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">From Tunnel to Tap: Quake-Proofing Our Water Supply \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/a-big-captivating-idea-the-bay-area-ridge-trail/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">“A Big, Captivating Idea”: The Bay Area Ridge Trail \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/architecture-for-the-birds/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Architecture for the Birds \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/gulls-threaten-south-bay-salt-pond-restoration-work/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Gulls Threaten South Bay Salt Pond Restoration Work \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/in-a-sea-of-energy-data-utilities-try-to-inspire-conservation/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In a Sea of Energy Data, Utilities Try to Inspire Conservation \u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>BLOG:\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/03/17/explosive-hypothesis-about-humans-lack-of-genetic-diversity/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Explosive hypothesis about humans’ lack of genetic diversity \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/01/diet-sodas-may-not-be-as-harmless-as-you-think/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Diet Sodas May Not Be As Harmless As You Think\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/10/13/health-officials-to-consider-tightening-vaccine-exemptions/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Health Officials to Consider Tightening Vaccine Exemptions\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/02/18/scientists-understand-heart-disease-better-still-give-bad-advice/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Scientists Understand Heart Disease Better, Still Give Bad Advice\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/06/24/the-megalodons-descendents/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Megalodon’s Descendants \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/20/famous-african-american-scientists-innovators-part-ii/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Famous African American Scientists & Innovators: Part II\u003cbr>\n\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2009/04/30/swine-flu-a-virus-or-a-bacteria/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Swine Flu – A Virus or a Bacteria? \u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/11/16/dont-get-hacked-by-firesheep-over-open-wi-fi/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cyber Wolves in (Fire)Sheep Clothing\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/07/05/why-mosquitoes-buzz-in-peoples-ears/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Why Do Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears?\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/01/19/15-months-later-rediscovered-san-francisco-plant-thrives/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">15 Months Later, Rediscovered San Francisco Plant Thrives\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "O Perfect Christmas Tree ",
"title": "O Perfect Christmas Tree ",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Christmas-Tree-Farm.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Christmas-Tree-Farm-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Christmas Tree Farm\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28617\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week, I went to buy a Christmas tree at the \u003ca href=\"http://cnr.berkeley.edu/forestryclub/\">Cal Forestry Club\u003c/a>’s annual tree sale fundraiser, and instead of full, lush conifers that tapered to a perfect pointy crown, I found only short little trees, with trunks that meandered left and right and branches that were sparse and uneven. These weren’t the picked-over remains—all the trees the club had sold that week resembled Charlie Brown’s tree. The Berkeley students from the Forestry Club described these trees as “free range,” in contrast to trees from Christmas tree farms, which are painstakingly grown to be perfect.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Members of the Cal Forestry Club had chopped these trees down themselves, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The trees would have been chopped down anyway, Berkeley student and Forestry Club member Jamie Richards explained. They were growing in clumps that had to be thinned out to reduce competition between trees. Sierra Pacific Industries owned the land and donated the trees for the fundraiser. A handful of students packed 463 trees into a 24-foot U-Haul and steered it down an icy Highway 50 towards Berkeley. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trees they were selling were red firs, white firs, and incense cedars. I figured they didn’t look like typical Christmas trees because they were the wrong species. Jamie said that most Christmas trees are indeed different species—noble firs, grand firs, Douglas firs, and spruce are popular choices—but their perfect structure has more to do with the way they’re grown than their genetic makeup. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a Christmas tree farm, it takes a lot of work to get the trees to grow. The trees are “hedged” or pruned so they grow full and bushy, and their trunks are trained to grow straight. Most conifer species grow at high elevations, but most Christmas tree farms are at lower elevations; the trees need to be nurtured with fertilizer so they’ll grow in soil and weather conditions that are not the same as the conditions where they evolved. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jamie pointed out that farmed trees are not as hearty as they would be in their native environment, and they’re more susceptible to diseases and damage from pests. Tree farms must apply pesticides and fungicides to prevent damage that could turn the needles yellow and make the trees un-sellable. Depending on the species and the environmental conditions, it takes 6-10 years for a Christmas tree to grow; some of the diseases that can afflict Christmas trees don’t develop until the tree is 4-5 years old, at which point the growers have already invested a lot of work. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Christmas trees came into fashion in the early 1900s. People usually chopped a wild-growing tree, until Christmas tree farms grew in numbers the 1930s and 1940s. Today, \u003ca href=\"http://urbanext.illinois.edu/trees/facts.cfm\">98 percent\u003c/a> of non-artificial Christmas trees sold worldwide come from Christmas tree farms. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trees sold by the Cal Forestry Club are the two percent. They grew wild, and they look it. Nevertheless, I bought one. The tree barely reached my shoulder and had only a few branches, so it was easy take it home in the trunk of my tiny car. Once I added a string of lights and a few ornaments, though it wasn’t a perfect Christmas tree shape, it looked perfectly festive.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Christmas-Tree-Farm.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Christmas-Tree-Farm-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Christmas Tree Farm\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28617\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last week, I went to buy a Christmas tree at the \u003ca href=\"http://cnr.berkeley.edu/forestryclub/\">Cal Forestry Club\u003c/a>’s annual tree sale fundraiser, and instead of full, lush conifers that tapered to a perfect pointy crown, I found only short little trees, with trunks that meandered left and right and branches that were sparse and uneven. These weren’t the picked-over remains—all the trees the club had sold that week resembled Charlie Brown’s tree. The Berkeley students from the Forestry Club described these trees as “free range,” in contrast to trees from Christmas tree farms, which are painstakingly grown to be perfect.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Members of the Cal Forestry Club had chopped these trees down themselves, in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The trees would have been chopped down anyway, Berkeley student and Forestry Club member Jamie Richards explained. They were growing in clumps that had to be thinned out to reduce competition between trees. Sierra Pacific Industries owned the land and donated the trees for the fundraiser. A handful of students packed 463 trees into a 24-foot U-Haul and steered it down an icy Highway 50 towards Berkeley. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trees they were selling were red firs, white firs, and incense cedars. I figured they didn’t look like typical Christmas trees because they were the wrong species. Jamie said that most Christmas trees are indeed different species—noble firs, grand firs, Douglas firs, and spruce are popular choices—but their perfect structure has more to do with the way they’re grown than their genetic makeup. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a Christmas tree farm, it takes a lot of work to get the trees to grow. The trees are “hedged” or pruned so they grow full and bushy, and their trunks are trained to grow straight. Most conifer species grow at high elevations, but most Christmas tree farms are at lower elevations; the trees need to be nurtured with fertilizer so they’ll grow in soil and weather conditions that are not the same as the conditions where they evolved. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jamie pointed out that farmed trees are not as hearty as they would be in their native environment, and they’re more susceptible to diseases and damage from pests. Tree farms must apply pesticides and fungicides to prevent damage that could turn the needles yellow and make the trees un-sellable. Depending on the species and the environmental conditions, it takes 6-10 years for a Christmas tree to grow; some of the diseases that can afflict Christmas trees don’t develop until the tree is 4-5 years old, at which point the growers have already invested a lot of work. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Christmas trees came into fashion in the early 1900s. People usually chopped a wild-growing tree, until Christmas tree farms grew in numbers the 1930s and 1940s. Today, \u003ca href=\"http://urbanext.illinois.edu/trees/facts.cfm\">98 percent\u003c/a> of non-artificial Christmas trees sold worldwide come from Christmas tree farms. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trees sold by the Cal Forestry Club are the two percent. They grew wild, and they look it. Nevertheless, I bought one. The tree barely reached my shoulder and had only a few branches, so it was easy take it home in the trunk of my tiny car. Once I added a string of lights and a few ornaments, though it wasn’t a perfect Christmas tree shape, it looked perfectly festive.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Algae…Soylent Green…and the Future of Biofuel",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28602\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Emma_Valdez_algae640marquee.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28602\" title=\"Emma_Valdez_algae640marquee\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Emma_Valdez_algae640marquee-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Emma Valdez, a Sapphire Energy technician, holds a petri dish with 1 million algae cells. Algae is grown and scaled up to 20-liter containers in about one week.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Emma Valdez, a Sapphire Energy technician, holds a petri dish with 1 million algae cells. Algae is grown and scaled up to 20-liter containers in about one week.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>With more and more cars on roadways worldwide – and fossil fuel supplies running low, can renewable fuels really replace crude oil?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Nebraska, the alternative of choice is ethanol because corn is the mainstay of our economy. But corn, along with many other crops, takes lots of land…and huge amounts of water. As important as it is to Nebraska, ethanol, at best, is a 10% additive, not a future fuel in its own right.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what’s a \u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">real\u003c/span> alternative? Research shows one promising alternative seems the least obvious – algae (see \u003ca href=\"http://quest.netnebraska.org/2011/07/algae-for-fuel.html\">QUEST Nebraska: Algae for Fuel\u003c/a>).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Algae is a microscopic plant-like marine organism. There are billions of them in our world, and they exist all around us. Algae are found in ponds, lakes, streams – all types of bodies of water…even in your bathtub if it’s not cleaned regularly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s green and a bit slimy to the touch. For the most part, we avoid contact with algae – but it just may be the key to our energy future. How’s that? Companies like \u003ca href=\"http://www.sapphireenergy.com/\">Sapphire Energy\u003c/a> in San Diego, CA are working with universities, including the University of Nebraska to make microscopic algae into the fuel for the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Algae conjures up thoughts about Soylent Green, the 1973 sci-fi movie thriller that depicts human survival dependent upon on a green food ration made of “high protein plankton.” Algae are a type of plankton.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>SPOILER ALERT: Do not read the next sentence if you’ve never \u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">seen\u003c/span> this movie. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there was more to the content of Soylent Green. Charlton Heston solves the riddle with a horrific warning: \u003cem>Soylent Green is PEOPLE!\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember when I said algae are slimy? There’s a reason for that. If Charlton Heston was warning us, he’d exclaim: \u003cem>Algae is OIL!\u003c/em> Not exactly – but oil we use for our fuel today is actually made from ancient, ancient algae.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>“Each algae contains up to 50% oil,”\u003c/em> says University of Nebraska-Lincoln biologist George Oyler. Over millions of years, billions of algae die, collect, and over time are chemically altered through pressure and heat that converts algae oil into “crude oil” which we seek and drill for to energize our world. Finding a way to convert algae into oil faster than nature would create an almost endless supply of oil. \u003cem>“We want to accelerate that process into a single year.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2009, a QUEST video \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/algae-power/\">Algae Power\u003c/a>, surveyed algae biofuel as a grand experiment, “not ready for prime time.” The problem was scaling up to industrial production. Now, Sapphire Energy is leading the way towards industrial production. It’s no longer a survey experiment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process begins as Sapphire technician Emma Valdez swipes a metal loop over an algae filled petri plate (culture dish) and transfers cells to a new plate. \u003cem>“Algae is one of the fastest growing plant on the planet. This plate contains millions of algae cells. I can take this plate and make multiple copies.” \u003c/em> Pointing to a stack of petri dishes, she explains that these plates are added to water to make a dense culture, giving rise to 20-liter glass carboy containers. \u003cem>“I can grow this to scale in a little over a week.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The carboy containers are then added to long oval test pools in a greenhouse, creating larger concentrations of promising algae species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Growing algae outdoors is a huge challenge. But that’s exactly Sapphire’s goal – creating algae farms. But algae is a wild plant. \u003cem>“No one’s taken a wild plant and just grown it to scale,”\u003c/em> says Mike Mendez, Sapphire’s former VP of Technology (now a research professor at UC-San Diego). \u003cem>“Algae isn’t an industry. It’s a commodity, like corn. We have to think like a farmer and grow algae as a crop.” \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But plants like corn haven’t become crops overnight. Mendez says, \u003cem>“It took 7,000 years to get corn where it is today. I’m gonna have to do whatever it takes to speed up the process.”\u003c/em> Sapphire wants to plant, harvest and process algae oil in real time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28604\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/AlgaeBlog-NET-marqueeImageCropped2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28604\" title=\"AlgaeBlog-NET-marqueeImageCropped2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/AlgaeBlog-NET-marqueeImageCropped2-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Algae ponds at Sapphire Energy's test farm in Las Cruces, New Mexico.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Algae ponds at Sapphire Energy's test farm in Las Cruces, New Mexico.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So, Sapphire has created a 20-acre aquatic test farm in arid Las Cruces, New Mexico. Why here? New Mexico has an abundance of sunlight and a rich supply of salt water beneath the dry sands that can’t be used for farming or drinking, but is perfect for growing algae. Nonetheless, the algae has to survive stress, disease, summer heat and winter freeze. For two years, scientists and technicians have been successful in scaling up algae from the carboys to 40-foot, then 100-foot, and finally 300-foot oval ponds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once the algae mature in the ponds, it’s sent to an industrial centrifuge that separates the algae from the water, creating a thick algae paste. That paste is fed into a test pilot extractor that uses eco-friendly solvents to crack open the algae cells and release oil – green crude.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sapphire will soon open a 300-acre in 2012. It will be the largest algae biofuel test plant in the nation. They expect to produce 1 million gallons of algae biofuel per year – an industry record. Once Sapphire can create even larger quantities of green crude, they believe the cost of creating an algae fuel will begin approaching the cost of oil. Stay tuned to see if their plan creates a viable renewable fuel for our future.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28602\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Emma_Valdez_algae640marquee.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28602\" title=\"Emma_Valdez_algae640marquee\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/Emma_Valdez_algae640marquee-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Emma Valdez, a Sapphire Energy technician, holds a petri dish with 1 million algae cells. Algae is grown and scaled up to 20-liter containers in about one week.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Emma Valdez, a Sapphire Energy technician, holds a petri dish with 1 million algae cells. Algae is grown and scaled up to 20-liter containers in about one week.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>With more and more cars on roadways worldwide – and fossil fuel supplies running low, can renewable fuels really replace crude oil?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Nebraska, the alternative of choice is ethanol because corn is the mainstay of our economy. But corn, along with many other crops, takes lots of land…and huge amounts of water. As important as it is to Nebraska, ethanol, at best, is a 10% additive, not a future fuel in its own right.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what’s a \u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">real\u003c/span> alternative? Research shows one promising alternative seems the least obvious – algae (see \u003ca href=\"http://quest.netnebraska.org/2011/07/algae-for-fuel.html\">QUEST Nebraska: Algae for Fuel\u003c/a>).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Algae is a microscopic plant-like marine organism. There are billions of them in our world, and they exist all around us. Algae are found in ponds, lakes, streams – all types of bodies of water…even in your bathtub if it’s not cleaned regularly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s green and a bit slimy to the touch. For the most part, we avoid contact with algae – but it just may be the key to our energy future. How’s that? Companies like \u003ca href=\"http://www.sapphireenergy.com/\">Sapphire Energy\u003c/a> in San Diego, CA are working with universities, including the University of Nebraska to make microscopic algae into the fuel for the future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Algae conjures up thoughts about Soylent Green, the 1973 sci-fi movie thriller that depicts human survival dependent upon on a green food ration made of “high protein plankton.” Algae are a type of plankton.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>SPOILER ALERT: Do not read the next sentence if you’ve never \u003cspan style=\"text-decoration: underline\">seen\u003c/span> this movie. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there was more to the content of Soylent Green. Charlton Heston solves the riddle with a horrific warning: \u003cem>Soylent Green is PEOPLE!\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember when I said algae are slimy? There’s a reason for that. If Charlton Heston was warning us, he’d exclaim: \u003cem>Algae is OIL!\u003c/em> Not exactly – but oil we use for our fuel today is actually made from ancient, ancient algae.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>“Each algae contains up to 50% oil,”\u003c/em> says University of Nebraska-Lincoln biologist George Oyler. Over millions of years, billions of algae die, collect, and over time are chemically altered through pressure and heat that converts algae oil into “crude oil” which we seek and drill for to energize our world. Finding a way to convert algae into oil faster than nature would create an almost endless supply of oil. \u003cem>“We want to accelerate that process into a single year.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2009, a QUEST video \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/algae-power/\">Algae Power\u003c/a>, surveyed algae biofuel as a grand experiment, “not ready for prime time.” The problem was scaling up to industrial production. Now, Sapphire Energy is leading the way towards industrial production. It’s no longer a survey experiment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process begins as Sapphire technician Emma Valdez swipes a metal loop over an algae filled petri plate (culture dish) and transfers cells to a new plate. \u003cem>“Algae is one of the fastest growing plant on the planet. This plate contains millions of algae cells. I can take this plate and make multiple copies.” \u003c/em> Pointing to a stack of petri dishes, she explains that these plates are added to water to make a dense culture, giving rise to 20-liter glass carboy containers. \u003cem>“I can grow this to scale in a little over a week.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The carboy containers are then added to long oval test pools in a greenhouse, creating larger concentrations of promising algae species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Growing algae outdoors is a huge challenge. But that’s exactly Sapphire’s goal – creating algae farms. But algae is a wild plant. \u003cem>“No one’s taken a wild plant and just grown it to scale,”\u003c/em> says Mike Mendez, Sapphire’s former VP of Technology (now a research professor at UC-San Diego). \u003cem>“Algae isn’t an industry. It’s a commodity, like corn. We have to think like a farmer and grow algae as a crop.” \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But plants like corn haven’t become crops overnight. Mendez says, \u003cem>“It took 7,000 years to get corn where it is today. I’m gonna have to do whatever it takes to speed up the process.”\u003c/em> Sapphire wants to plant, harvest and process algae oil in real time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28604\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/AlgaeBlog-NET-marqueeImageCropped2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28604\" title=\"AlgaeBlog-NET-marqueeImageCropped2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/AlgaeBlog-NET-marqueeImageCropped2-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Algae ponds at Sapphire Energy's test farm in Las Cruces, New Mexico.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Algae ponds at Sapphire Energy's test farm in Las Cruces, New Mexico.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So, Sapphire has created a 20-acre aquatic test farm in arid Las Cruces, New Mexico. Why here? New Mexico has an abundance of sunlight and a rich supply of salt water beneath the dry sands that can’t be used for farming or drinking, but is perfect for growing algae. Nonetheless, the algae has to survive stress, disease, summer heat and winter freeze. For two years, scientists and technicians have been successful in scaling up algae from the carboys to 40-foot, then 100-foot, and finally 300-foot oval ponds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once the algae mature in the ponds, it’s sent to an industrial centrifuge that separates the algae from the water, creating a thick algae paste. That paste is fed into a test pilot extractor that uses eco-friendly solvents to crack open the algae cells and release oil – green crude.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sapphire will soon open a 300-acre in 2012. It will be the largest algae biofuel test plant in the nation. They expect to produce 1 million gallons of algae biofuel per year – an industry record. Once Sapphire can create even larger quantities of green crude, they believe the cost of creating an algae fuel will begin approaching the cost of oil. Stay tuned to see if their plan creates a viable renewable fuel for our future.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Biofuels Face a Reality Check",
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"content": "\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/12/2011-12-19-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_28569\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/DSC00009.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-28569\" title=\"DSC00009\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/DSC00009-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A woody grass called Miscanthus is one of the biofuel feedstocks being examined.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Despite all the buzz around biofuels, commercial production has been slow to scale up. As a result, the EPA scaled back its goals for advanced biofuels earlier this year. Still, some Bay Area scientists recently made a breakthrough that could move us one step closer to a day when our cars run on fuels from plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The idea behind biofuels is pretty simple. Plants take sunlight and use that energy to make sugars. The biofuels industry wants to transform those sugars into fuel. That requires some molecular rearranging, so they’re looking to microbes to do the job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the \u003ca href=\"http://www.jbei.org/\">Joint BioEnergy Institute\u003c/a> (JBEI) in Emeryville, e.coli is the microbe of choice. Researcher Greg Bokinsky shows me racks of glass tubes that are home to e.coli cultures that have been biologically engineered. They’ve created e.coli that munch on a woody plant called \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panicum_virgatum\">switchgrass\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’ve heard anything about biofuels, you’ve probably heard about ethanol that’s made from corn, which you can buy at gas stations today. But ethanol can’t be transported long distances because it corrodes pipelines. And using corn for fuel has also raised some concerns.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Corn is used extensively to feed animals. Corn is also used for some food as well, human consumption. So we want to be very careful about using corn itself,” says Jay Keasling, CEO of JBEI.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Engineering Microbes\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>JBEI was founded 5 years ago with a $125 million grant from the Department of Energy. It’s a partnership between UC Berkeley, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab and other groups with the mission of creating biofuels from plants that aren’t used for food – also known as cellulosic biofuels.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Switchgrass is one that gets mentioned a lot,” says Keasling. “Switchgrass is a native to much of the Midwest. It grows without a lot of water and fertilizer.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But unlocking the energy inside switchgrass is no easy task. “Plants have evolved to be tough. There are beetles, there are fungi that want to attack them all the time and get access to those sugars. So they’ve evolved defense mechanisms,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/DSC00005-2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-28582\" title=\"DSC00005-2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/DSC00005-2.jpg\" alt=\"A jar of ground-up switchgrass at the Joint BioEnergy Institute.\" width=\"240\" height=\"194\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first line of defense is like a barbed wire fence. Plants protect their sugars with a tough material called lignin. Keasling’s team breaks through it using a liquid salt solution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once it’s gone, the sugars still have to be broken down further. Most companies use industrial enzymes to do that. But this is where Keasling’s \u003ca href=\"http://newscenter.lbl.gov/news-releases/2011/11/29/e-coli-make-three-fuels/\">engineered e.coli\u003c/a> comes in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we’ve done is we’ve gone to places like the rainforest in Puerto Rico and to compost piles. We’ve sequenced the organisms that are breaking down that biomass and then cloned those genes into e.coli,” Keasling says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The e.coli break down the sugars for themselves, saving an expensive step in the process. Using the sugars, they produce fuels. “Really they’re pooping out fuels,” says Keasling. “And these are fuels that can be put directly into gasoline engines, diesel engines or jet engines.” These microbes are an exciting breakthrough for Keasling, since they could help bring down the cost of production.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Federal Goals Scale Back\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The federal government was once excited about cellulosic biofuels, too. In 2006, former President George W Bush included them in his State of the Union address, saying “we'll also fund additional research in cutting-edge methods of producing ethanol, not just from corn but from wood chips and stalks or switchgrass. Our goal is to make this new kind of ethanol practical and competitive within 6 years.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Congress set up tax credits for cellulosic biofuels with a goal of seeing 500 million gallons produced in 2012. Since then, the industry has faced a harsh reality. The \u003ca href=\"http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/1e5ab1124055f3b28525781f0042ed40/477321f362225aac852578b60068bf16!OpenDocument\">goal for next year\u003c/a> has been cut back to just 12 million gallons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was oversold. There was a lot of hype around it. It’s a tough problem. We can’t expect this to happen overnight,” says Keasling.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keasling says if there’s anything that casts a shadow over biofuels, it’s the price of their biggest competitor. “If oil is under $100 a barrel, we’re not going to see many advanced biofuels on the market. They’re just not going to be able to compete. It’s virtually impossible,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Chris Somerville, director of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.energybiosciencesinstitute.org/\">Energy Biosciences Institute\u003c/a> (EBI), agrees. “The costs are still not where we need them to be.” EBI is also run by UC Berkeley and Berkeley Lab, among other collaborators. It was started with a $500 million grant from BP.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like JBEI, EBI’s mission is also engineering cellulosic biofuels. They’ve developed specially engineered yeast that eat feedstocks like miscanthus. “It’s going to be another 10 years before it really scales up. And it’s not because there’s a big problem. It’s just takes time to build and bring online big industrial facilities that are first of a kind.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Companies, including BP, are now building commercial-scale biofuel plants. But the science is evolving so quickly, Somerville says it’s hard for companies to commit. “If you’re a company that has to lay down some hundreds of millions of dollars for a new facility and you look around and everyday, there’s new advances, you think, well maybe I’ll wait until next week and build a better facility.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although some in Congress are impatient over the progress of advanced biofuels, Somerville is confident that it’s just a matter of time before the industry scales up. “What we’re really trying to do is change the world. And we have this huge entrenched energy sector. And so there’s lots of entrenched players that don’t welcome change.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And he says, if we care about addressing climate change, we won’t be able to do it without remaking the fuels that go in our cars.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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There are beetles, there are fungi that want to attack them all the time and get access to those sugars. So they’ve evolved defense mechanisms,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/DSC00005-2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-28582\" title=\"DSC00005-2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/12/DSC00005-2.jpg\" alt=\"A jar of ground-up switchgrass at the Joint BioEnergy Institute.\" width=\"240\" height=\"194\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first line of defense is like a barbed wire fence. Plants protect their sugars with a tough material called lignin. Keasling’s team breaks through it using a liquid salt solution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once it’s gone, the sugars still have to be broken down further. Most companies use industrial enzymes to do that. 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"id": "code-switch-life-kit",
"title": "Code Switch / Life Kit",
"info": "\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />",
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"id": "commonwealth-club",
"title": "Commonwealth Club of California Podcast",
"info": "The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.",
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"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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"meta": {
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"source": "Commonwealth Club of California"
},
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw",
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"id": "forum",
"title": "Forum",
"tagline": "The conversation starts here",
"info": "KQED’s live call-in program discussing local, state, national and international issues, as well as in-depth interviews.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 9am-11am, 10pm-11pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Forum-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Forum with Mina Kim and Alexis Madrigal",
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"order": 9
},
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"id": "freakonomics-radio",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "http://freakonomics.com/",
"airtime": "SUN 1am-2am, SAT 3pm-4pm",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WNYC"
},
"link": "/radio/program/freakonomics-radio",
"subscribe": {
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/freakonomics-radio/id354668519",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/WNYC-Podcasts/Freakonomics-Radio-p272293/",
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},
"fresh-air": {
"id": "fresh-air",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=214089682&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"info": "A live production of NPR and WBUR Boston, in collaboration with stations across the country, Here & Now reflects the fluid world of news as it's happening in the middle of the day, with timely, in-depth news, interviews and conversation. Hosted by Robin Young, Jeremy Hobson and Tonya Mosley.",
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"hidden-brain": {
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"info": "Shankar Vedantam uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, shape our choices and direct our relationships.",
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"airtime": "SUN 7pm-8pm",
"meta": {
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"source": "NPR"
},
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"how-i-built-this": {
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"title": "How I Built This with Guy Raz",
"info": "Guy Raz dives into the stories behind some of the world's best known companies. How I Built This weaves a narrative journey about innovators, entrepreneurs and idealists—and the movements they built.",
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"airtime": "SUN 7:30pm-8pm",
"meta": {
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"link": "/radio/program/how-i-built-this",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/how-i-built-this-with-guy-raz/id1150510297?mt=2",
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"hyphenacion": {
"id": "hyphenacion",
"title": "Hyphenación",
"tagline": "Where conversation and cultura meet",
"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hyphenacion_FinalAssets_PodcastTile.png",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/hyphenacion",
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"order": 15
},
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},
"jerrybrown": {
"id": "jerrybrown",
"title": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown",
"tagline": "Lessons from a lifetime in politics",
"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-Political-Mind-of-Jerry-Brown-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
"meta": {
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"order": 18
},
"link": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
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},
"latino-usa": {
"id": "latino-usa",
"title": "Latino USA",
"airtime": "MON 1am-2am, SUN 6pm-7pm",
"info": "Latino USA, the radio journal of news and culture, is the only national, English-language radio program produced from a Latino perspective.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/latinoUsa.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://latinousa.org/",
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},
"link": "/radio/program/latino-usa",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=79681317&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510016/podcast.xml"
}
},
"marketplace": {
"id": "marketplace",
"title": "Marketplace",
"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 4pm-4:30pm, MON-WED 6:30pm-7pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marketplace-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.marketplace.org/",
"meta": {
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"source": "American Public Media"
},
"link": "/radio/program/marketplace",
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},
"masters-of-scale": {
"id": "masters-of-scale",
"title": "Masters of Scale",
"info": "Masters of Scale is an original podcast in which LinkedIn co-founder and Greylock Partner Reid Hoffman sets out to describe and prove theories that explain how great entrepreneurs take their companies from zero to a gazillion in ingenious fashion.",
"airtime": "Every other Wednesday June 12 through October 16 at 8pm (repeats Thursdays at 2am)",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "https://mastersofscale.com/",
"meta": {
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"source": "WaitWhat"
},
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"rss": "https://rss.art19.com/masters-of-scale"
}
},
"mindshift": {
"id": "mindshift",
"title": "MindShift",
"tagline": "A podcast about the future of learning and how we raise our kids",
"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/mindshift/",
"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 12
},
"link": "/podcasts/mindshift",
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5",
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}
},
"morning-edition": {
"id": "morning-edition",
"title": "Morning Edition",
"info": "\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 3am-9am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Morning-Edition-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/programs/morning-edition/",
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"link": "/radio/program/morning-edition"
},
"onourwatch": {
"id": "onourwatch",
"title": "On Our Watch",
"tagline": "Deeply-reported investigative journalism",
"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/On-Our-Watch-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "On Our Watch from NPR and KQED",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/onourwatch",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "kqed",
"order": 11
},
"link": "/podcasts/onourwatch",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://podcasts.apple.com/podcast/id1567098962",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5ucHIub3JnLzUxMDM2MC9wb2RjYXN0LnhtbD9zYz1nb29nbGVwb2RjYXN0cw",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510360/podcast.xml"
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},
"on-the-media": {
"id": "on-the-media",
"title": "On The Media",
"info": "Our weekly podcast explores how the media 'sausage' is made, casts an incisive eye on fluctuations in the marketplace of ideas, and examines threats to the freedom of information and expression in America and abroad. For one hour a week, the show tries to lift the veil from the process of \"making media,\" especially news media, because it's through that lens that we see the world and the world sees us",
"airtime": "SUN 2pm-3pm, MON 12am-1am",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/onTheMedia.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.wnycstudios.org/shows/otm",
"meta": {
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"source": "wnyc"
},
"link": "/radio/program/on-the-media",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/on-the-media/id73330715?mt=2",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/radio/On-the-Media-p69/",
"rss": "http://feeds.wnyc.org/onthemedia"
}
},
"pbs-newshour": {
"id": "pbs-newshour",
"title": "PBS NewsHour",
"info": "Analysis, background reports and updates from the PBS NewsHour putting today's news in context.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 3pm-4pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/PBS-News-Hour-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.pbs.org/newshour/",
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"source": "pbs"
},
"link": "/radio/program/pbs-newshour",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/pbs-newshour-full-show/id394432287?mt=2",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/radio/PBS-NewsHour---Full-Show-p425698/",
"rss": "https://www.pbs.org/newshour/feeds/rss/podcasts/show"
}
},
"perspectives": {
"id": "perspectives",
"title": "Perspectives",
"tagline": "KQED's series of daily listener commentaries since 1991",
"info": "KQED's series of daily listener commentaries since 1991.",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Perspectives_Tile_Final.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Perspectives",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/perspectives/",
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 14
},
"link": "/perspectives",
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"npr": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/432309616/perspectives",
"rss": "https://ww2.kqed.org/perspectives/category/perspectives/feed/",
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},
"planet-money": {
"id": "planet-money",
"title": "Planet Money",
"info": "The economy explained. Imagine you could call up a friend and say, Meet me at the bar and tell me what's going on with the economy. Now imagine that's actually a fun evening.",
"airtime": "SUN 3pm-4pm",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/planetmoney.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/sections/money/",
"meta": {
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"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/planet-money",
"subscribe": {
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/planet-money/id290783428?mt=2",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510289/podcast.xml"
}
},
"politicalbreakdown": {
"id": "politicalbreakdown",
"title": "Political Breakdown",
"tagline": "Politics from a personal perspective",
"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
"airtime": "THU 6:30pm-7pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Political-Breakdown-2024-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/politicalbreakdown",
"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 5
},
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