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"disqusTitle": "Millipede Mystery: A New Fluorescent Subspecies on Alcatraz?",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_BL-e1331595656998.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignnone size-large wp-image-32850\" title=\"Alcatraz_millipede_BL\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_BL-e1331595647469-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A periodic nighttime census for rats on Alcatraz Island took an unexpected twist in February when surveyors from the National Park Service and UC Davis discovered glowing millipedes on the island. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nTo identify rats, National Park Service staff routinely place bait in feeding stations. The bait is laced with a \u003ca href=\"http://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/ask/index.html?quid=302\" title=\"non-toxis fluorescent dye\">non-toxic fluorescent dye\u003c/a> that ends up in urine stains and feces. Surveyors later scan the grounds at nighttime with \u003ca href=\"http://bohart.ucdavis.edu/\" title=\"Bohart Museum of Entomology\" target=\"_blank\">black light\u003c/a>. The more glowing they observe, the larger they extrapolate the rat population to be.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nA recent February search turned up no evidence of rats. Instead, surveyors were surprised to discover millipedes glowing intensely white. To ensure that the millipedes hadn’t munched on the fluorescent rat bait, a researcher at UC Davis cast a black light over a collection case at the university’s \u003ca href=\"http://bohart.ucdavis.edu/\" title=\"Bohart Museum of Entomology\" target=\"_blank\">Bohart Museum of Entomology\u003c/a>. Preserved millipedes from the same scientific family fluoresced in the case as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nSome millipedes species are known to \u003ca href=\"http://www.baycitizen.org/videos/xystocheir-dissecta-millipede-el-1/\" target=\"_blank\">fluoresce under black light [VIDEO]\u003c/a>, but National Park Service officials say it is the first recorded evidence of such millipedes on Alcatraz. UC Davis entomologists are hard at work determining whether the millipede is a known subspecies of \u003cem>Xystocheir dissecta (Wood)\u003c/em> the species commonly found around San Francisco Bay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32849\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 254px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_DL.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-32849\" title=\"Alcatraz_millipede_DL\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_DL-254x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"254\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The millipedes found on Alcatraz Island as they appear in regular daylight.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Alcatraz Island is far enough from the mainland for a new species to evolve, though it would take millennia for that to happen.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nNew subspecies or not, California is known for being the only place in the world with bioluminescent millipedes. Seven species of the species \u003cem>Mytoxia Chamberlain 1940\u003c/em> — found in Tulare, Kern and Los Angeles counties — emit light from their bodies like a firefly or glowworm, though \u003cem>Mytoxia\u003c/em> as their name implies, do so specifically \u003ca href=\"http://www.livescience.com/16221-glowing-millipedes-toxic-warning.html\" target=\"_blank\">to warn predators of their toxicity\u003c/a>. Their entire bodies, antennas, legs and all light up with a seemingly inexhaustible neon-white glow that is \"fantastic to watch\" say officials from \u003ca href=\"http://www.nps.gov/seki/index.htm\" title=\"Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park\" target=\"_blank\">Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nBut the fluorescence of the millipedes on Alcatraz is of a completely different sort most commonly observed in scorpions, which glow bright teal under black light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nUC Davis researchers expect to identify the subspecies of the Alcatraz millipede within the next few months.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_BL-e1331595656998.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignnone size-large wp-image-32850\" title=\"Alcatraz_millipede_BL\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_BL-e1331595647469-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A periodic nighttime census for rats on Alcatraz Island took an unexpected twist in February when surveyors from the National Park Service and UC Davis discovered glowing millipedes on the island. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nTo identify rats, National Park Service staff routinely place bait in feeding stations. The bait is laced with a \u003ca href=\"http://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/ask/index.html?quid=302\" title=\"non-toxis fluorescent dye\">non-toxic fluorescent dye\u003c/a> that ends up in urine stains and feces. Surveyors later scan the grounds at nighttime with \u003ca href=\"http://bohart.ucdavis.edu/\" title=\"Bohart Museum of Entomology\" target=\"_blank\">black light\u003c/a>. The more glowing they observe, the larger they extrapolate the rat population to be.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nA recent February search turned up no evidence of rats. Instead, surveyors were surprised to discover millipedes glowing intensely white. To ensure that the millipedes hadn’t munched on the fluorescent rat bait, a researcher at UC Davis cast a black light over a collection case at the university’s \u003ca href=\"http://bohart.ucdavis.edu/\" title=\"Bohart Museum of Entomology\" target=\"_blank\">Bohart Museum of Entomology\u003c/a>. Preserved millipedes from the same scientific family fluoresced in the case as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nSome millipedes species are known to \u003ca href=\"http://www.baycitizen.org/videos/xystocheir-dissecta-millipede-el-1/\" target=\"_blank\">fluoresce under black light [VIDEO]\u003c/a>, but National Park Service officials say it is the first recorded evidence of such millipedes on Alcatraz. UC Davis entomologists are hard at work determining whether the millipede is a known subspecies of \u003cem>Xystocheir dissecta (Wood)\u003c/em> the species commonly found around San Francisco Bay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32849\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 254px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_DL.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-32849\" title=\"Alcatraz_millipede_DL\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Alcatraz_millipede_DL-254x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"254\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The millipedes found on Alcatraz Island as they appear in regular daylight.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Alcatraz Island is far enough from the mainland for a new species to evolve, though it would take millennia for that to happen.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nNew subspecies or not, California is known for being the only place in the world with bioluminescent millipedes. Seven species of the species \u003cem>Mytoxia Chamberlain 1940\u003c/em> — found in Tulare, Kern and Los Angeles counties — emit light from their bodies like a firefly or glowworm, though \u003cem>Mytoxia\u003c/em> as their name implies, do so specifically \u003ca href=\"http://www.livescience.com/16221-glowing-millipedes-toxic-warning.html\" target=\"_blank\">to warn predators of their toxicity\u003c/a>. Their entire bodies, antennas, legs and all light up with a seemingly inexhaustible neon-white glow that is \"fantastic to watch\" say officials from \u003ca href=\"http://www.nps.gov/seki/index.htm\" title=\"Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park\" target=\"_blank\">Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nBut the fluorescence of the millipedes on Alcatraz is of a completely different sort most commonly observed in scorpions, which glow bright teal under black light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\nUC Davis researchers expect to identify the subspecies of the Alcatraz millipede within the next few months.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Grazing a New Trail",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32894\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/13/grazing-a-new-trail/cow_bekker/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32894\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-32894\" title=\"cow_Bekker\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/cow_Bekker.jpg\" alt=\"Cow grazing\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/cow_Bekker.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/cow_Bekker-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cattle ranching has a bad rap in the conservation community, but a new study suggests they can also be part of a solution. Image credit: Albert P. Bekker.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What's an ecologist to do when non-native plants have displaced native species and are disrupting an ecosystem? It has never been an easy question and won't become one any time soon. But as scientists monitor these situations over time, they learn more about what works and what doesn't. Galen Rathbun, a research associate at the California Academy of Sciences, and his colleagues at Cal State Bakersfield and the U.S. Bureau of Land Management have just published a paper in the Journal of Wildlife Management recommending a \u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.316/abstract\">novel approach to managing arid lands in the San Joaquin Valley\u003c/a> to benefit the remarkable diversity of endangered lizards, kangaroo rats, and squirrels who call it home. Their proposed solution has four legs and moos: cattle. Livestock grazing has a bad rap in the conservation community as a practice which has caused great damage to large swaths of western North America, which is often true. However, these scientists suggest that well-managed livestock grazing can actually benefit small vertebrates by keeping non-native grasses under control.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The San Joaquin Valley, which stretches from Kern County in southern California up to the southern end of the Sacramento Valley, has traditionally been managed as grassland, but species distribution data and historical evidence (like the writings of Spanish explorers and missionaries) suggests that before the introduction of farming, ranching and non-native grasses, the bulk of the region would have been \u003ca href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.3375/043.031.0206\">more accurately classified as a desert\u003c/a>. If they're right, this has major impacts on conservation strategies for the threatened and endemic animals that live there. Since European settlers arrived, the valley's landscape has shifted from a desert dotted with saltbush to dense grassland and shrubland, dominated by non-native plants, cattle ranching and agricultural crops. Populations of native small vertebrates in the area are declining and one theory is that the altered vegetation plays a big role. Blunt-nosed leopard lizards, giant kangaroo rats, and other animals adapted to desert life are thought to have trouble moving through exotic dense grasses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32903\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/13/grazing-a-new-trail/giant_kangaroo_rat/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32903\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-32903\" title=\"giant_kangaroo_rat\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/giant_kangaroo_rat-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Giant kangaroo rat in San Joaquin Valley\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Giant kangaroo rats (Dipodomys ingens) are among the threatened and endangered species which stand to benefit from new and improved exotic grass management techniques in California's San Joaquin Valley. Photo credit: Galen Rathbun.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>During the ten-year study, the group monitored populations of key small vertebrate species on plots of land with and without managed grazing. They found grazing to have a neutral or positive effect on population size (not the negative effect expected by some), whereas the untouched control pastures saw little to no change. The idea that cattle grazing could be beneficial to the area's endemic and threatened species could really shake up future conservation strategies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fire has been used as a management tool in the past to keep exotic grasses under control in the valley, but many desert plants are not fire-adapted, so the practice just perpetuates a grassland landscape, killing native perennial saltbushes. Grazing, on the other hand, would manage the grasses' growth, while allowing saltbush to reestablish itself, a presence that has been shown to favor western whiptail lizards and threatened \u003ca href=\"http://esrp.csustan.edu/publications/pubhtml.php?doc=sjvrp&file=chapter02M02.html\">San Joaquin antelope squirrels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32918\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/13/grazing-a-new-trail/whiptail03/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32918\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-32918\" title=\"Western_whiptail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Whiptail03-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Western whiptail lizard in San Joaquin Valley\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists also monitored populations of non-threatened species like the western whiptail lizards (Aspidoscelis tigris). Photo credit: Galen Rathbun.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another approach used by government and land conservation organizations trying to protect a threatened native species is to buy a piece of land, and promptly remove the cattle in an effort to return it to its \"natural\" state. However, without cows to keep the dense exotic grasses at bay, the native species meant to be protected lack suitable habitat, and can disappear anyway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Natural\" is one of those tricky concepts that's becoming harder and harder to define. Whether native or not, the species in any ecosystem are intertwined in complex ways. Removing one \"unnatural\" element is seldom enough. But is it realistic for the whole of California to go back to the landscapes of 200 years ago? Highly unlikely! Even if it were, the domino effect works in both ways, and there's no telling what unintended side effects such a shift would cause. As scientists, officials and citizens work to prioritize needs, the debates will rage on. I hope they'll remember that sometimes solutions come in unlikely packages. Just ask a cow in the San Joaquin Valley.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32894\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/13/grazing-a-new-trail/cow_bekker/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32894\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-32894\" title=\"cow_Bekker\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/cow_Bekker.jpg\" alt=\"Cow grazing\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/cow_Bekker.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/cow_Bekker-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cattle ranching has a bad rap in the conservation community, but a new study suggests they can also be part of a solution. Image credit: Albert P. Bekker.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What's an ecologist to do when non-native plants have displaced native species and are disrupting an ecosystem? It has never been an easy question and won't become one any time soon. But as scientists monitor these situations over time, they learn more about what works and what doesn't. Galen Rathbun, a research associate at the California Academy of Sciences, and his colleagues at Cal State Bakersfield and the U.S. Bureau of Land Management have just published a paper in the Journal of Wildlife Management recommending a \u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.316/abstract\">novel approach to managing arid lands in the San Joaquin Valley\u003c/a> to benefit the remarkable diversity of endangered lizards, kangaroo rats, and squirrels who call it home. Their proposed solution has four legs and moos: cattle. Livestock grazing has a bad rap in the conservation community as a practice which has caused great damage to large swaths of western North America, which is often true. However, these scientists suggest that well-managed livestock grazing can actually benefit small vertebrates by keeping non-native grasses under control.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The San Joaquin Valley, which stretches from Kern County in southern California up to the southern end of the Sacramento Valley, has traditionally been managed as grassland, but species distribution data and historical evidence (like the writings of Spanish explorers and missionaries) suggests that before the introduction of farming, ranching and non-native grasses, the bulk of the region would have been \u003ca href=\"http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.3375/043.031.0206\">more accurately classified as a desert\u003c/a>. If they're right, this has major impacts on conservation strategies for the threatened and endemic animals that live there. Since European settlers arrived, the valley's landscape has shifted from a desert dotted with saltbush to dense grassland and shrubland, dominated by non-native plants, cattle ranching and agricultural crops. Populations of native small vertebrates in the area are declining and one theory is that the altered vegetation plays a big role. Blunt-nosed leopard lizards, giant kangaroo rats, and other animals adapted to desert life are thought to have trouble moving through exotic dense grasses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32903\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/13/grazing-a-new-trail/giant_kangaroo_rat/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32903\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-32903\" title=\"giant_kangaroo_rat\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/giant_kangaroo_rat-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Giant kangaroo rat in San Joaquin Valley\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Giant kangaroo rats (Dipodomys ingens) are among the threatened and endangered species which stand to benefit from new and improved exotic grass management techniques in California's San Joaquin Valley. Photo credit: Galen Rathbun.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>During the ten-year study, the group monitored populations of key small vertebrate species on plots of land with and without managed grazing. They found grazing to have a neutral or positive effect on population size (not the negative effect expected by some), whereas the untouched control pastures saw little to no change. The idea that cattle grazing could be beneficial to the area's endemic and threatened species could really shake up future conservation strategies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fire has been used as a management tool in the past to keep exotic grasses under control in the valley, but many desert plants are not fire-adapted, so the practice just perpetuates a grassland landscape, killing native perennial saltbushes. Grazing, on the other hand, would manage the grasses' growth, while allowing saltbush to reestablish itself, a presence that has been shown to favor western whiptail lizards and threatened \u003ca href=\"http://esrp.csustan.edu/publications/pubhtml.php?doc=sjvrp&file=chapter02M02.html\">San Joaquin antelope squirrels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32918\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/13/grazing-a-new-trail/whiptail03/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32918\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-32918\" title=\"Western_whiptail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Whiptail03-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Western whiptail lizard in San Joaquin Valley\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists also monitored populations of non-threatened species like the western whiptail lizards (Aspidoscelis tigris). Photo credit: Galen Rathbun.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another approach used by government and land conservation organizations trying to protect a threatened native species is to buy a piece of land, and promptly remove the cattle in an effort to return it to its \"natural\" state. However, without cows to keep the dense exotic grasses at bay, the native species meant to be protected lack suitable habitat, and can disappear anyway.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Natural\" is one of those tricky concepts that's becoming harder and harder to define. Whether native or not, the species in any ecosystem are intertwined in complex ways. Removing one \"unnatural\" element is seldom enough. But is it realistic for the whole of California to go back to the landscapes of 200 years ago? Highly unlikely! Even if it were, the domino effect works in both ways, and there's no telling what unintended side effects such a shift would cause. As scientists, officials and citizens work to prioritize needs, the debates will rage on. I hope they'll remember that sometimes solutions come in unlikely packages. Just ask a cow in the San Joaquin Valley.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Fact and Fiction of Fantastic Hybrids",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32223\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/07/fictional-natural-history/olympus-digital-camera-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32223\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crabfish.jpg\" alt=\"Crabfish - Sandra Yagi\" title=\"Crabfish - Sandra Yagi\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32223\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crabfish.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crabfish-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crabfish - Sandra Yagi\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Have you heard of the Poisonous Fiddlerfrog, whose tadpoles grow up into crabs? Or the Hummingshrew, who eats flies as well as nectar?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These animals aren't real, so you'd only know about them if you've seen \u003ca href=\"http://sandrayagi.com/page10/page15/page15.html\" title=\"Sandra Yagi - Voyage Through A Hidden World\">Voyage Through a Hidden World\u003c/a>. This collaboration between artist Sandra Yagi and writer Julie Benbow is currently on display at \u003ca href=\"http://www.boneroompresents.com/\" title=\"The Bone Room Presents\">The Bone Room Presents\u003c/a> in Berkeley. Yagi's hybrid creatures are paired with Benbow's journal entries, written from the perspective of fictional 18th century explorer Lady Lavinia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32224\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 192px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/07/fictional-natural-history/olympus-digital-camera-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32224\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rhinobeetle-192x253.jpg\" alt=\"Rhinobeetle - Sandra Yagi\" title=\"Rhinobeetle - Sandra Yagi\" width=\"192\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-32224\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rhinobeetle - Sandra Yagi\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Many members of the beautiful bestiary are puns incarnate. Real \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceros_beetle\" title=\"Wikipedia - Rhinoceros beetle\">rhino beetles\u003c/a> are large and oddly shaped, but Yagi's Rhinobeetle has the head of a literal rhinoceros. \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafy_seadragon\" title=\"Wikipedia - Leafy seadragon\">Leafy seadragons\u003c/a> in our world are marine fish; the ones on Yagi's canvas crawl on reptilian limbs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yagi has always been fascinated by science. \"I'd go to \u003ca href=\"http://www.bodyworlds.com/en.html\" title=\"Body Worlds\">Body Worlds\u003c/a> and take my sketchbook,\" she says. \"I collect anatomy books.\" The artist is also lucky to have a personal fact-checker: \"My partner works in medicine, so she'll tell me if I get anything wrong.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But aren't all hybrids \"getting it wrong\" in a spectacular way? In \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/Zonkeys-Are-Pretty-Much-My-Favorite-Animal.html?page=all\" title=\"Jon Cohen - Outside - Zonkeys\">Zonkeys are Pretty Much My Favorite Animal\u003c/a>\" (July 31, 2007 \u003cem>Outside\u003c/em>), Jon Cohen points out that hybrids \"strain credulity--even when they're staring you in the face.\" They flout the organized structure we've set up to understand nature. And yet real hybrids are more common, and possibly more important to evolution, than most of us realize. Have you ever heard of blynxes? Pizzlies? \u003cem>Humanzees\u003c/em>?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But real-world hybrids are always produced by crosses between similar species. Remember the classification scheme you probably had to memorize in high school biology, with humans as an example:\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32225\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 193px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/07/fictional-natural-history/olympus-digital-camera-4/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32225\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hummingshrew-193x253.jpg\" alt=\"Hummingshrew - Sandra Yagi\" title=\"Hummingshrew - Sandra Yagi\" width=\"193\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-32225\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hummingshrew - Sandra Yagi\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Kingdom\u003c/strong> (Animalia)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Phylum\u003c/strong> (Chordata)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Class\u003c/strong> (Mammalia)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Order\u003c/strong> (Primate)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Family\u003c/strong> (Hominidae)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Genus\u003c/strong> (\u003cem>Homo\u003c/em>)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Species\u003c/strong> (\u003cem>sapiens\u003c/em>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A bobcat (\u003cem>Lynx rufus\u003c/em>) and a lynx (\u003cem>Lynx lynx\u003c/em>) belong to the same \u003cstrong>genus\u003c/strong>, and they can make a baby blynx. Polar bears (\u003cem>Ursus maritimus\u003c/em>) and grizzlies (\u003cem>Ursus arctos\u003c/em>) are also congeners, and can join forces to create a pizzly. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hummingbirds and shrews, by contrast, belong to entirely separate \u003cstrong>classes\u003c/strong>, and frogs and crabs to separate \u003cstrong>phyla\u003c/strong>. Anatomical and chemical differences between these pairs are too extreme to allow hybridization.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So fiddlerfrogs and hummingshrews remain confined to our imaginations. Disappointment, or relief? Your choice!\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Have you heard of the Poisonous Fiddlerfrog, whose tadpoles grow up into crabs? Or the Hummingshrew, who eats flies as well as nectar? These animals aren't real, so you'd only know about them if you've seen Voyage Through a Hidden World.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32223\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/07/fictional-natural-history/olympus-digital-camera-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32223\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crabfish.jpg\" alt=\"Crabfish - Sandra Yagi\" title=\"Crabfish - Sandra Yagi\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32223\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crabfish.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crabfish-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crabfish - Sandra Yagi\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Have you heard of the Poisonous Fiddlerfrog, whose tadpoles grow up into crabs? Or the Hummingshrew, who eats flies as well as nectar?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These animals aren't real, so you'd only know about them if you've seen \u003ca href=\"http://sandrayagi.com/page10/page15/page15.html\" title=\"Sandra Yagi - Voyage Through A Hidden World\">Voyage Through a Hidden World\u003c/a>. This collaboration between artist Sandra Yagi and writer Julie Benbow is currently on display at \u003ca href=\"http://www.boneroompresents.com/\" title=\"The Bone Room Presents\">The Bone Room Presents\u003c/a> in Berkeley. Yagi's hybrid creatures are paired with Benbow's journal entries, written from the perspective of fictional 18th century explorer Lady Lavinia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32224\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 192px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/07/fictional-natural-history/olympus-digital-camera-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32224\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rhinobeetle-192x253.jpg\" alt=\"Rhinobeetle - Sandra Yagi\" title=\"Rhinobeetle - Sandra Yagi\" width=\"192\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-32224\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rhinobeetle - Sandra Yagi\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Many members of the beautiful bestiary are puns incarnate. Real \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceros_beetle\" title=\"Wikipedia - Rhinoceros beetle\">rhino beetles\u003c/a> are large and oddly shaped, but Yagi's Rhinobeetle has the head of a literal rhinoceros. \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leafy_seadragon\" title=\"Wikipedia - Leafy seadragon\">Leafy seadragons\u003c/a> in our world are marine fish; the ones on Yagi's canvas crawl on reptilian limbs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Yagi has always been fascinated by science. \"I'd go to \u003ca href=\"http://www.bodyworlds.com/en.html\" title=\"Body Worlds\">Body Worlds\u003c/a> and take my sketchbook,\" she says. \"I collect anatomy books.\" The artist is also lucky to have a personal fact-checker: \"My partner works in medicine, so she'll tell me if I get anything wrong.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But aren't all hybrids \"getting it wrong\" in a spectacular way? In \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/Zonkeys-Are-Pretty-Much-My-Favorite-Animal.html?page=all\" title=\"Jon Cohen - Outside - Zonkeys\">Zonkeys are Pretty Much My Favorite Animal\u003c/a>\" (July 31, 2007 \u003cem>Outside\u003c/em>), Jon Cohen points out that hybrids \"strain credulity--even when they're staring you in the face.\" They flout the organized structure we've set up to understand nature. And yet real hybrids are more common, and possibly more important to evolution, than most of us realize. Have you ever heard of blynxes? Pizzlies? \u003cem>Humanzees\u003c/em>?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But real-world hybrids are always produced by crosses between similar species. Remember the classification scheme you probably had to memorize in high school biology, with humans as an example:\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32225\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 193px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/07/fictional-natural-history/olympus-digital-camera-4/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32225\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hummingshrew-193x253.jpg\" alt=\"Hummingshrew - Sandra Yagi\" title=\"Hummingshrew - Sandra Yagi\" width=\"193\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-32225\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hummingshrew - Sandra Yagi\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Kingdom\u003c/strong> (Animalia)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Phylum\u003c/strong> (Chordata)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Class\u003c/strong> (Mammalia)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Order\u003c/strong> (Primate)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Family\u003c/strong> (Hominidae)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Genus\u003c/strong> (\u003cem>Homo\u003c/em>)\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Species\u003c/strong> (\u003cem>sapiens\u003c/em>)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A bobcat (\u003cem>Lynx rufus\u003c/em>) and a lynx (\u003cem>Lynx lynx\u003c/em>) belong to the same \u003cstrong>genus\u003c/strong>, and they can make a baby blynx. Polar bears (\u003cem>Ursus maritimus\u003c/em>) and grizzlies (\u003cem>Ursus arctos\u003c/em>) are also congeners, and can join forces to create a pizzly. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hummingbirds and shrews, by contrast, belong to entirely separate \u003cstrong>classes\u003c/strong>, and frogs and crabs to separate \u003cstrong>phyla\u003c/strong>. Anatomical and chemical differences between these pairs are too extreme to allow hybridization.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So fiddlerfrogs and hummingshrews remain confined to our imaginations. Disappointment, or relief? Your choice!\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Reproduction Unleashed",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/05/reproduction-unleashed/icsi/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31837\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/ICSI.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"ICSI\" width=\"640\" height=\"366\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31837\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/ICSI.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/ICSI-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists are getting pretty good at turning regular cells into those magical embryonic stem (ES) cells that can become any other kind of cell. They haven’t perfected their technique yet but when they do, all sorts of possibilities open up for prospective parents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There may come a time when infertile men can have their cells coaxed into ES cells and then coaxed back into sperm cells. Or when the same thing can happen with women (except her cells will be persuaded to become eggs). Now these folks may be able to have kids when they couldn’t before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This technology brings up an even more interesting possibility. Imagine a man’s cells are transformed into ES cells and then turned into egg cells. Or a woman’s cells undergo something similar except that the end result is a sperm cell. Now same sex couples could conceivably have children that share both partners’ DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before we get too far ahead of ourselves, I do want to emphasize that we aren’t there yet. No one has done anything like this with artificially created ES cells. (Scientists call these artificially created ES cells \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=109\">induced pluripotent stem cells\u003c/a> or iPS cells to distinguish them from true ES cells.) \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But scientists have at least managed to \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2011/08/sperm-made-mostly-in-a-dish-produce.html\">turn natural mouse ES cells into a sperm\u003c/a> cell that can fertilize an egg which then results in a living pup. And they have done similar things in mice to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16903421\">create precursor egg cells\u003c/a> from natural ES cells. So it should only be a matter of time before they get these working with human ES cells too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next step would be to try to get these to work with iPS cells. Scientists have managed to \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090127090732.htm\">make sperm and egg precursors\u003c/a> from mouse iPS cells. But to my knowledge, no one has yet created a fertilized egg from a sperm and an egg derived from these cells. \u003c/p>\n\u003ctable align=\"right\">\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003cimg src=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/images/ask/mouse.jpg\">\u003cbr>\u003cfont size=\"-1\" color=\"#999999\">This mouse named\u003cbr>Kaguya had two moms.\u003c/font>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>While iPS cells appear to be very similar to natural ES cells, the proof will be in the cells that come from them. Someone needs to do the experiment where a mouse iPS cell is turned into a sperm or an egg that is then used to create a viable mouse pup. Then, as long as we can solve the problem that these cells sometimes turn cancerous, we’ll be in business for helping infertile couples this way. (As opposed to the approach suggested by a \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/02/human-egg-stem-cells-isolated.html?ref=hp\">recent report\u003c/a> where scientists found egg stem cells in adult women’s ovaries.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So far this all seems doable. There aren’t any paradigm shifts or anything like that…mostly just technical hurdles to be overcome. The same may not be true for turning a man’s cells into eggs or a woman’s into sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is much harder for lots of different reasons. A big potential problem is that a man’s DNA is fundamentally different from a woman’s DNA. This is why, for example, we can’t just fuse two eggs and get a baby. Scientists \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=16\">pulled this off in mice\u003c/a> but only by changing one egg’s DNA to make it more like a man’s. No way we could do something similar in people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The hope would be that the iPS process would wipe the DNA clean of any gender. We don’t yet know if it does though. And if a bit of maleness remains in a man’s iPS cells or a bit of femaleness in a woman’s iPS cells, then we may not be able to get a working egg or sperm. We’ll just have to wait and see!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One thing we don’t have to worry about is some narcissist making an egg and a sperm from his cells to make a baby entirely out of his genes. Because of how DNA is distributed into eggs and sperm, you wouldn’t get a clone. Instead you’d get the most inbred individual you’ve ever seen. Odds are that the child would suffer from some devastating genetic disease that lay hidden in the parent’s DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fGNchPdlaGU]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Nice primer on making iPS cells.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Stem cell technology may one day help infertile couples conceive. And it might even allow same sex couples to conceive as well.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/05/reproduction-unleashed/icsi/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31837\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/ICSI.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"ICSI\" width=\"640\" height=\"366\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31837\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/ICSI.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/ICSI-400x229.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists are getting pretty good at turning regular cells into those magical embryonic stem (ES) cells that can become any other kind of cell. They haven’t perfected their technique yet but when they do, all sorts of possibilities open up for prospective parents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There may come a time when infertile men can have their cells coaxed into ES cells and then coaxed back into sperm cells. Or when the same thing can happen with women (except her cells will be persuaded to become eggs). Now these folks may be able to have kids when they couldn’t before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This technology brings up an even more interesting possibility. Imagine a man’s cells are transformed into ES cells and then turned into egg cells. Or a woman’s cells undergo something similar except that the end result is a sperm cell. Now same sex couples could conceivably have children that share both partners’ DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before we get too far ahead of ourselves, I do want to emphasize that we aren’t there yet. No one has done anything like this with artificially created ES cells. (Scientists call these artificially created ES cells \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=109\">induced pluripotent stem cells\u003c/a> or iPS cells to distinguish them from true ES cells.) \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But scientists have at least managed to \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2011/08/sperm-made-mostly-in-a-dish-produce.html\">turn natural mouse ES cells into a sperm\u003c/a> cell that can fertilize an egg which then results in a living pup. And they have done similar things in mice to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16903421\">create precursor egg cells\u003c/a> from natural ES cells. So it should only be a matter of time before they get these working with human ES cells too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next step would be to try to get these to work with iPS cells. Scientists have managed to \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090127090732.htm\">make sperm and egg precursors\u003c/a> from mouse iPS cells. But to my knowledge, no one has yet created a fertilized egg from a sperm and an egg derived from these cells. \u003c/p>\n\u003ctable align=\"right\">\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003cimg src=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/images/ask/mouse.jpg\">\u003cbr>\u003cfont size=\"-1\" color=\"#999999\">This mouse named\u003cbr>Kaguya had two moms.\u003c/font>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>While iPS cells appear to be very similar to natural ES cells, the proof will be in the cells that come from them. Someone needs to do the experiment where a mouse iPS cell is turned into a sperm or an egg that is then used to create a viable mouse pup. Then, as long as we can solve the problem that these cells sometimes turn cancerous, we’ll be in business for helping infertile couples this way. (As opposed to the approach suggested by a \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/02/human-egg-stem-cells-isolated.html?ref=hp\">recent report\u003c/a> where scientists found egg stem cells in adult women’s ovaries.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So far this all seems doable. There aren’t any paradigm shifts or anything like that…mostly just technical hurdles to be overcome. The same may not be true for turning a man’s cells into eggs or a woman’s into sperm.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is much harder for lots of different reasons. A big potential problem is that a man’s DNA is fundamentally different from a woman’s DNA. This is why, for example, we can’t just fuse two eggs and get a baby. Scientists \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=16\">pulled this off in mice\u003c/a> but only by changing one egg’s DNA to make it more like a man’s. No way we could do something similar in people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The hope would be that the iPS process would wipe the DNA clean of any gender. We don’t yet know if it does though. And if a bit of maleness remains in a man’s iPS cells or a bit of femaleness in a woman’s iPS cells, then we may not be able to get a working egg or sperm. We’ll just have to wait and see!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One thing we don’t have to worry about is some narcissist making an egg and a sperm from his cells to make a baby entirely out of his genes. Because of how DNA is distributed into eggs and sperm, you wouldn’t get a clone. Instead you’d get the most inbred individual you’ve ever seen. Odds are that the child would suffer from some devastating genetic disease that lay hidden in the parent’s DNA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/fGNchPdlaGU'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/fGNchPdlaGU'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Nice primer on making iPS cells.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Lone Wolf’s Historic Trek Provokes Questions and Concerns ",
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"content": "\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/03/2012-03-05-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31938\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/WolfOFG.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31938\" title=\"WolfOFG\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/WolfOFG-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A wolf from OR7's pack in Oregon. (Image: Oregon Department of Fish and Game)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>OR7, the lone gray wolf from a pack in Oregon, crossed back into his home state yesterday after two months of wandering in Northern California. OR7’s trek made him the first wolf in California in almost 90 years. Officials say it’s possible the wolf will continue to use both states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With OR7’s arrival, California has been thrown into a national debate about how to manage wolves. Environmentalists want to see a wolf population restored in the state. For others, OR7 is not a welcome visitor. In Lassen County, where OR7 has spent the bulk of his time, wolf opposition is heating up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\"If it's killing my cattle, I'm gonna kill it.\"\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At a recent county board of supervisors meeting in Susanville, a town in the state’s rural northeast corner, Fish and Game biologist Karen Kovacs takes the podium. “What we’re here today to do is just to share what we know about wolves in California,” she says to the crowd.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kovacs’ agency gets daily downloads about the two-year-old male wolf’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/wolf/\">location \u003c/a>through its radio collar. “Are there other wolves in California? That’s a $64 million dollar question,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If there's one thing Kovacs has learned since OR7 arrived, it’s that wolves make people emotional. For several weeks, Kovacs and other wildlife officials have attended a number of public meetings about California’s wolf. In the state’s northern counties, the reaction has been vocal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The protection afforded something that doesn’t belong here in the first place doesn’t make any sense,” says Susanville resident Len Grizwold. “Be cautious, folks. They’re here to tell you there’s nothing to worry about,” says another resident. The reception from county supervisor and rancher Bob Pyle isn’t any warmer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I really don’t care what it is. If it’s killing my cattle, I’m gonna kill it,\" he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Any wolf in California is considered endangered,” responds Susan Moore of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. “And if you should take it, kill it, it is a $100,000 fine or a year in jail, or both.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That sentiment has followed wolves from the moment they were reintroduced in the West almost 20 years ago. In states like Idaho and Montana, where wolf populations have rebounded, there’s been an all-out war. Ranchers and hunters say wolves kill too many livestock and elk. Environmentalists see the wolf as a key part of a healthy ecosystem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With OR7’s arrival, that debate has come to California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>On the Wolf’s Trail\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a quiet pine forest outside of Susanville, Kovacs and Fish and Game biologist Richard Callas walk through a light layer of snow. OR7 crossed a major highway nearby a few weeks ago, not far from where California’s last wolf was trapped and killed in 1924.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31958\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentID=42104&inline=true\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31958\" title=\"Map\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Map.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"226\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Click to see a larger map of where OR7 has traveled.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“The way we find his tracks is because they’re pretty darn big,” says Kovacs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>OR7’s exact location is secret to protect the wolf, but once he leaves an area, Kovacs and Callas go in to see what he’s been eating. “We know that OR7 has fed on two deer. We don’t know if he killed them or scavenged them,” Callas says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Life isn’t easy for a wolf on his own. But there’s a reason OR7 has traveled 2,000 miles since he left his pack in Oregon last September. “His love life hasn’t been much to brag about lately,” Callas says. “But he’s certainly looking for a mate.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other states, it’s taken about 10 years for a pack to be established after the first wolf showed up. But biologists aren’t sure how successful wolves will be here. “Our elk population is smaller than some state like Montana, Colorado and Wyoming. Our deer numbers were lower than they were,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since Oregon’s wolf packs live hundreds of miles from the border, it could be some time before another wolf wanders this way. But for the Department of Fish and Game, that may not matter. Groups on both sides are calling for some kind of plan to manage wolves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There are entities out there who are ready to litigate at the drop of a hat,” says Kovacs. “Can we get those stakeholders here in California to the table to collectively meet to move forward?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Local Ranchers Concerned\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31954\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/DSC00093.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31954\" title=\"Ranch\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/DSC00093.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"210\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">OR7 wandered close to Willow Creek Ranch outside of Susanville.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On a cold morning at Willow Creek Ranch outside of Susanville, Jack Hanson is getting ready to feed 300 hungry cattle. A few weeks ago, OR7 wasn’t far from here. “About 17 or 18 miles as the crow flies,” says Hanson.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson says it’s not OR7 that’s he’s worried about. It’s that wolf populations could grow. In other states, some ranchers are trying out tools to deter wolves, like special fencing and loud noises. Some even get text messages when wolves are close.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most ranchers see wolves as one more thing to deal with in an already tough industry, says Hanson. Still, he wants to be part of the discussion. “We’ll be able to have a dialogue with agencies. I don’t think it will ever come to exactly where we want it, which is not to have them back in the first place.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>State and Federal Protections\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wolves are currently protected in California under the federal Endangered Species Act, but several environmental groups \u003ca href=\"http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2012/wolves-02-27-2012.html\">are petitioning\u003c/a> the state to protect them under California law as well. That would require the Department of Fish and Game to figure out how many wolves belong in California and how they’ll recover.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The federal government is also considering whether to specially protect California wolves. Populations in Idaho, Montana and parts of Oregon and Washington have already been taken off the endangered species list but this week, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2012/wolves-03-01-2012.html\">agency recommended\u003c/a> removing protection for wolves in some of the remaining parts of the lower 48 states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California wolves may still be protected, however. Fish and Wildlife is considering whether to \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservationnw.org/wildlife-habitat/pacific-northwest-gray-wolf-protection-status-review\">specially protect wolves\u003c/a> in parts of Oregon, Washington and California. If so, the agency would consider writing a recovery plan for what would be known as the Pacific Northwest population. That decision is due by September 30th.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We don’t see California as being essential to the recovery of wolves. It’s not prime wolf habitat,” says Dan Ashe, director of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. “But certainly, wolves will move hopefully in the future and will find some hospitable territory in California. Some may establish themselves there, but hopefully they’ll be well-managed under state law.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Weathering the Debate\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question is: can California avoid the battles that other states have seen?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“No, I don’t think so,” says Ed Bangs, the recently retired Wolf Recovery Coordinator at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. He’s been in the middle of the Western wolf debate for two decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have to remember wolves and wolf management has nothing to do with reality. I mean we can give you facts, you know all this biology stuff. That isn’t what people talk about. They’re talking about what wolves mean to them symbolically.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But he thinks that debate isn’t necessarily a bad thing. “Imagine if it was the way it was before when no one cared at all about natural resources or wildlife. Apathy is a lot worse.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just 30 years ago, there were only a handful of gray wolves in the West. Today, there are more than 1,600.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/03/2012-03-05-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31938\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/WolfOFG.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31938\" title=\"WolfOFG\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/WolfOFG-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A wolf from OR7's pack in Oregon. (Image: Oregon Department of Fish and Game)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>OR7, the lone gray wolf from a pack in Oregon, crossed back into his home state yesterday after two months of wandering in Northern California. OR7’s trek made him the first wolf in California in almost 90 years. Officials say it’s possible the wolf will continue to use both states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With OR7’s arrival, California has been thrown into a national debate about how to manage wolves. Environmentalists want to see a wolf population restored in the state. For others, OR7 is not a welcome visitor. In Lassen County, where OR7 has spent the bulk of his time, wolf opposition is heating up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\"If it's killing my cattle, I'm gonna kill it.\"\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At a recent county board of supervisors meeting in Susanville, a town in the state’s rural northeast corner, Fish and Game biologist Karen Kovacs takes the podium. “What we’re here today to do is just to share what we know about wolves in California,” she says to the crowd.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kovacs’ agency gets daily downloads about the two-year-old male wolf’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/wolf/\">location \u003c/a>through its radio collar. “Are there other wolves in California? That’s a $64 million dollar question,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If there's one thing Kovacs has learned since OR7 arrived, it’s that wolves make people emotional. For several weeks, Kovacs and other wildlife officials have attended a number of public meetings about California’s wolf. In the state’s northern counties, the reaction has been vocal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The protection afforded something that doesn’t belong here in the first place doesn’t make any sense,” says Susanville resident Len Grizwold. “Be cautious, folks. They’re here to tell you there’s nothing to worry about,” says another resident. The reception from county supervisor and rancher Bob Pyle isn’t any warmer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I really don’t care what it is. If it’s killing my cattle, I’m gonna kill it,\" he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Any wolf in California is considered endangered,” responds Susan Moore of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. “And if you should take it, kill it, it is a $100,000 fine or a year in jail, or both.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That sentiment has followed wolves from the moment they were reintroduced in the West almost 20 years ago. In states like Idaho and Montana, where wolf populations have rebounded, there’s been an all-out war. Ranchers and hunters say wolves kill too many livestock and elk. Environmentalists see the wolf as a key part of a healthy ecosystem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With OR7’s arrival, that debate has come to California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>On the Wolf’s Trail\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a quiet pine forest outside of Susanville, Kovacs and Fish and Game biologist Richard Callas walk through a light layer of snow. OR7 crossed a major highway nearby a few weeks ago, not far from where California’s last wolf was trapped and killed in 1924.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31958\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentID=42104&inline=true\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31958\" title=\"Map\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Map.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"226\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Click to see a larger map of where OR7 has traveled.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“The way we find his tracks is because they’re pretty darn big,” says Kovacs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>OR7’s exact location is secret to protect the wolf, but once he leaves an area, Kovacs and Callas go in to see what he’s been eating. “We know that OR7 has fed on two deer. We don’t know if he killed them or scavenged them,” Callas says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Life isn’t easy for a wolf on his own. But there’s a reason OR7 has traveled 2,000 miles since he left his pack in Oregon last September. “His love life hasn’t been much to brag about lately,” Callas says. “But he’s certainly looking for a mate.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other states, it’s taken about 10 years for a pack to be established after the first wolf showed up. But biologists aren’t sure how successful wolves will be here. “Our elk population is smaller than some state like Montana, Colorado and Wyoming. Our deer numbers were lower than they were,” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since Oregon’s wolf packs live hundreds of miles from the border, it could be some time before another wolf wanders this way. But for the Department of Fish and Game, that may not matter. Groups on both sides are calling for some kind of plan to manage wolves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There are entities out there who are ready to litigate at the drop of a hat,” says Kovacs. “Can we get those stakeholders here in California to the table to collectively meet to move forward?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Local Ranchers Concerned\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31954\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/DSC00093.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31954\" title=\"Ranch\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/DSC00093.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"210\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">OR7 wandered close to Willow Creek Ranch outside of Susanville.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On a cold morning at Willow Creek Ranch outside of Susanville, Jack Hanson is getting ready to feed 300 hungry cattle. A few weeks ago, OR7 wasn’t far from here. “About 17 or 18 miles as the crow flies,” says Hanson.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson says it’s not OR7 that’s he’s worried about. It’s that wolf populations could grow. In other states, some ranchers are trying out tools to deter wolves, like special fencing and loud noises. Some even get text messages when wolves are close.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most ranchers see wolves as one more thing to deal with in an already tough industry, says Hanson. Still, he wants to be part of the discussion. “We’ll be able to have a dialogue with agencies. I don’t think it will ever come to exactly where we want it, which is not to have them back in the first place.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>State and Federal Protections\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wolves are currently protected in California under the federal Endangered Species Act, but several environmental groups \u003ca href=\"http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2012/wolves-02-27-2012.html\">are petitioning\u003c/a> the state to protect them under California law as well. That would require the Department of Fish and Game to figure out how many wolves belong in California and how they’ll recover.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The federal government is also considering whether to specially protect California wolves. Populations in Idaho, Montana and parts of Oregon and Washington have already been taken off the endangered species list but this week, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2012/wolves-03-01-2012.html\">agency recommended\u003c/a> removing protection for wolves in some of the remaining parts of the lower 48 states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California wolves may still be protected, however. Fish and Wildlife is considering whether to \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservationnw.org/wildlife-habitat/pacific-northwest-gray-wolf-protection-status-review\">specially protect wolves\u003c/a> in parts of Oregon, Washington and California. If so, the agency would consider writing a recovery plan for what would be known as the Pacific Northwest population. That decision is due by September 30th.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We don’t see California as being essential to the recovery of wolves. It’s not prime wolf habitat,” says Dan Ashe, director of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. “But certainly, wolves will move hopefully in the future and will find some hospitable territory in California. Some may establish themselves there, but hopefully they’ll be well-managed under state law.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Weathering the Debate\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question is: can California avoid the battles that other states have seen?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“No, I don’t think so,” says Ed Bangs, the recently retired Wolf Recovery Coordinator at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. He’s been in the middle of the Western wolf debate for two decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have to remember wolves and wolf management has nothing to do with reality. I mean we can give you facts, you know all this biology stuff. That isn’t what people talk about. They’re talking about what wolves mean to them symbolically.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But he thinks that debate isn’t necessarily a bad thing. “Imagine if it was the way it was before when no one cared at all about natural resources or wildlife. Apathy is a lot worse.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just 30 years ago, there were only a handful of gray wolves in the West. Today, there are more than 1,600.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Fantastic Voyage: The Salmon's Uphill Struggle for Survival",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/29/fantastic-voyage-the-salmons-uphill-struggle-for-survival/640px-cohosmolts/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31595\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/640px-CohoSmolts-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Endangered coho salmon smolts\" title=\"640px-CohoSmolts\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-31595\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a dreary late January morning, I join a small group of guardedly optimistic souls to scan the creeks of West Marin’s San Geronimo Valley to glimpse one of the Bay Area’s rarest denizens, the critically endangered coho salmon. With luck, we’d see a few survivors of the batch born here three years ago, returning to their home stream to pass on their genes to the next generation and renew the salmonid cycle of life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a cycle that’s in imminent danger. We know the chances of witnessing a coho homecoming in Lagunitas Creek are slim, especially considering the provenance of this run. The fish, officially called the 2008-2009 cohort, emerged from a total of 26 redds (the spawning beds of salmonids). A shockingly low number. The lowest on record. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coho lay between 1,400 and 3,000 eggs (depending on the female’s size), and it’s a good thing, because the salmon lifestyle is fraught with peril. Adults bury eggs in gravel under rocks, but silt from homes built too close to streams can choke the flow of oxygenated water and suffocate eggs. Surviving eggs yield tiny “alevins” that subsist on yolk sacs, hidden among rocks to avoid predatory insects, until they venture into the current as fry. If fry evade kingfishers, herons, and otters, they grow through summer, fall, and winter, barely the size of a ballpoint pen. Finally, as saltwater-ready smolts, they travel downstream to the Tomales Bay estuary, where bigger fish, birds, and hungry sea lions await, then head out to sea. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coho can swim thousands of miles in the ocean, feeding on smaller fish or falling prey to sharks, sea lions, seals, orcas, and fishing boats. It’s a wonder any have come back at all. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But they have. And it’s what they come home to, what we do for them in their natal streams, that’s critical to the species’ survival, says our guide, Jonathan Appelbaum, conservation coordinator and restoration scientist with the \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/zCeJFT\">Salmon Protection and Watershed Network \u003c/a>(SPAWN). To illustrate his point, he takes us to the \u003ca href=\"http://marinwater.org/controller?action=menuclick&id=613\">Leo Cronin Viewing Area\u003c/a>, “where all the action is right now.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The steely overcast sky adds a nip to the damp air but makes it easier to spot the battered bodies of the silvery fish, barely moving in the dark waters of the stream, about 30 feet below the trail. They take a beating as they move from salt- to freshwater and carom off rocks, logs, and sundry debris on their way home. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They look like zombie fish,” says volunteer naturalist Shannon Savage. “Their bodies are just falling apart. They’ve stopped eating and are just here to breed.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31526\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/29/fantastic-voyage-the-salmons-uphill-struggle-for-survival/male-females-retouched-p1010312/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31526\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/male.females.retouched.P1010312-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"A male (left) and two female coho, easier to spot thanks to their denuded tailfins, return to their natal stream in Lagunitas Creek to spawn.\" title=\"male.females.retouched.P1010312\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-31526\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A male (left) and two female coho, easier to spot thanks to their denuded tailfins, return to their natal stream in Lagunitas Creek to spawn. (Photo: Liza Gross)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As we survey the creek, we spot ghoulish white streaks undulating near the creek bed, possibly fungus on a depleted fish, but more likely a female’s tailfin, or what’s left of it. Females gyrate with so much force to make redds that they shred scales, skin, and fins, Appelbaum says, “until they’re just stubs.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Binoculars confirm the blurry white flecks as a female, fighting the current to guard her eggs from predators and other females. With 50% of spawning habitat cut off by dams to sate human water needs, competition for \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IDQh4HcZhqE\">nesting sites\u003c/a> is fierce. My excitement turns to sorrow as it hits me: her mission complete, she will soon die. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The smell of home\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fish don’t start their improbable journey upstream until the first winter storms send plumes of freshwater, replete with the chemistry and scent of home, into Tomales Bay. The freshwater pulse leads coho by the nose back to their birthplace. But the arid winter, one of the driest on record, cut spawning season short. The vast majority of fish didn’t return until the end of January. We’re seeing the stragglers. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A week earlier, Appelbaum braved a hailstorm to scout fish at \u003ca href=\"http://www.wpn.org/wpn/roysdam.htm\">Roy’s Pools\u003c/a>, a few miles down the road. “Sure enough,” he says, “I looked over and saw a fish jump.” Fish can now pass what used to be Roy’s Dam thanks to a chance encounter with a few frustrated fish. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>SPAWN Executive Director Todd Steiner recalls driving his daughter to preschool when he noticed giant two-foot fish swimming in two inches of water, stuck in gaps of a broken concrete structure in the dam one December morning in 1997. He watched the determined fish jump up, slam into the dam, fall back, and repeat their ordeal over and over. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Steiner called an editor at CNN who’d asked him for help on a story about endangered species, and alerted the local media. Soon, hundreds of people turned up at Roy’s Dam to watch the hapless fish. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The community spent three years working with a small army of engineers to make the dam coho-friendly. There was just one problem. Even with the best engineers and knowledge at the time, Steiner says, “we solved an upstream migration problem for adults but created a downstream migration problem for juveniles.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Juvenile survival is the coho’s biggest problem, mostly, thanks to us. We dam their streams for our reservoirs and channel placid waters into raging, fry-shredding flows. We convert floodplain habitat into housing, farms, and ranches. And, worried about floods, we clear fallen trees that give fry refuge from predators. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until the population crashed in 2008, Steiner led emergency rescues, going into small tributaries to scoop up fry stranded in fragmented, evaporating pools and moving them downstream. Since the late '90s, Steiner and his group have relocated 23,000 juveniles. But in the past few years, fewer and fewer fish have spawned in these tributaries.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even so, coho advocates are buoyed by this year’s census: 130 redds and 340 live fish (though the live census likely includes double counts). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Sea-fed forests\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just 60 years ago, hundreds of thousands of coho delivered nutrients and energy to our coastal, stream, and ocean ecosystems. Historic salmon runs probably even shaped inland ecology. Peter Moyle, professor of fisheries biology at the University of California at Davis, \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservationmagazine.org/2008/07/a-good-fish-for-the-wine/\">traced the flow of marine nutrients\u003c/a> from chinook runs in the Central Valley’s Mokelumne River to adjacent vineyards. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You see the number of vultures increase as the salmon come in, bear and deer and other animals come down to the streamside to feed and then distribute the nutrients into the uplands,” Moyle says. “Trees grow bigger and faster, and when trees are bigger, you have more habitat for birds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When you lose the big salmon runs, he adds, “you’ll reduce the population of a lot of things that depend on them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Living at the southernmost distribution of the species, our coho may prove an invaluable genetic resource in the face of global warming. They’ve somehow learned to adapt to warmer water temperatures, Steiner explains, and may hold a genetic key to understanding how other populations will cope with a warming world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31684\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/29/fantastic-voyage-the-salmons-uphill-struggle-for-survival/p1010325/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31684\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/P1010325-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Salmon carcass \" title=\"P1010325\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-31684\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fish feed the forest: A salmon carcass on the banks of Lagunitas Creek sustains local animals, birds, and even trees. When salmon spawn in high densities, they deliver substantial quantities of marine-derived nutrients to the soil, plants, and trees along stream banks. Biologists are studying how the loss of these nutrients may affect riparian ecosystems. (Photo: Liza Gross) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Nearly 90% of coho habitat is on \u003ca href=\"http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/ESA-Salmon-Listings/Salmon-Populations/Maps/upload/Coho%20Cntrl%20CA%20Coast%20ESU%20map.pdf\">private land\u003c/a>. For Steiner, the key to coho survival rests in the hands of Marin County’s Board of Supervisors. We need regulations to move houses back from streams, he says, and keep trees standing so they can capture desperately needed moisture during dry spells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But we all play a part, starting with water conservation. Every drop we waste could offer a lifeline to a species struggling to survive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As I retrace my steps along Lagunitas Creek five days later, the warm sun casts a glare on the rippling water, now opaque. I search for signs of the sacrificial offerings of the week before. Finally, I notice a carcass on the creek’s edge, pulled up by a raccoon or maybe an osprey. I close my eyes and imagine the forest floor flush with salmon detritus, rowdy with feasting scavengers, as it surely was before dams disfigured the watershed. When I open them, I hear only the sound of rushing water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>****\u003cbr>\nI’ll write about SPAWN’s habitat restoration efforts, and how you can help, in a future post. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "California's critically endangered coho salmon are at a crossroads. Hundreds of thousands of fish once returned to our streams to spawn. But dams, water diversion, and habitat destruction have pushed the coho to the brink of extinction. Without heroic habitat restoration and water conservation efforts, we may lose our storied silver fish.",
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"description": "California's critically endangered coho salmon are at a crossroads. Hundreds of thousands of fish once returned to our streams to spawn. But dams, water diversion, and habitat destruction have pushed the coho to the brink of extinction. Without heroic habitat restoration and water conservation efforts, we may lose our storied silver fish.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/29/fantastic-voyage-the-salmons-uphill-struggle-for-survival/640px-cohosmolts/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31595\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/640px-CohoSmolts-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Endangered coho salmon smolts\" title=\"640px-CohoSmolts\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-31595\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a dreary late January morning, I join a small group of guardedly optimistic souls to scan the creeks of West Marin’s San Geronimo Valley to glimpse one of the Bay Area’s rarest denizens, the critically endangered coho salmon. With luck, we’d see a few survivors of the batch born here three years ago, returning to their home stream to pass on their genes to the next generation and renew the salmonid cycle of life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a cycle that’s in imminent danger. We know the chances of witnessing a coho homecoming in Lagunitas Creek are slim, especially considering the provenance of this run. The fish, officially called the 2008-2009 cohort, emerged from a total of 26 redds (the spawning beds of salmonids). A shockingly low number. The lowest on record. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coho lay between 1,400 and 3,000 eggs (depending on the female’s size), and it’s a good thing, because the salmon lifestyle is fraught with peril. Adults bury eggs in gravel under rocks, but silt from homes built too close to streams can choke the flow of oxygenated water and suffocate eggs. Surviving eggs yield tiny “alevins” that subsist on yolk sacs, hidden among rocks to avoid predatory insects, until they venture into the current as fry. If fry evade kingfishers, herons, and otters, they grow through summer, fall, and winter, barely the size of a ballpoint pen. Finally, as saltwater-ready smolts, they travel downstream to the Tomales Bay estuary, where bigger fish, birds, and hungry sea lions await, then head out to sea. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coho can swim thousands of miles in the ocean, feeding on smaller fish or falling prey to sharks, sea lions, seals, orcas, and fishing boats. It’s a wonder any have come back at all. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But they have. And it’s what they come home to, what we do for them in their natal streams, that’s critical to the species’ survival, says our guide, Jonathan Appelbaum, conservation coordinator and restoration scientist with the \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/zCeJFT\">Salmon Protection and Watershed Network \u003c/a>(SPAWN). To illustrate his point, he takes us to the \u003ca href=\"http://marinwater.org/controller?action=menuclick&id=613\">Leo Cronin Viewing Area\u003c/a>, “where all the action is right now.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The steely overcast sky adds a nip to the damp air but makes it easier to spot the battered bodies of the silvery fish, barely moving in the dark waters of the stream, about 30 feet below the trail. They take a beating as they move from salt- to freshwater and carom off rocks, logs, and sundry debris on their way home. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They look like zombie fish,” says volunteer naturalist Shannon Savage. “Their bodies are just falling apart. They’ve stopped eating and are just here to breed.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31526\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/29/fantastic-voyage-the-salmons-uphill-struggle-for-survival/male-females-retouched-p1010312/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31526\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/male.females.retouched.P1010312-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"A male (left) and two female coho, easier to spot thanks to their denuded tailfins, return to their natal stream in Lagunitas Creek to spawn.\" title=\"male.females.retouched.P1010312\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-31526\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A male (left) and two female coho, easier to spot thanks to their denuded tailfins, return to their natal stream in Lagunitas Creek to spawn. (Photo: Liza Gross)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As we survey the creek, we spot ghoulish white streaks undulating near the creek bed, possibly fungus on a depleted fish, but more likely a female’s tailfin, or what’s left of it. Females gyrate with so much force to make redds that they shred scales, skin, and fins, Appelbaum says, “until they’re just stubs.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Binoculars confirm the blurry white flecks as a female, fighting the current to guard her eggs from predators and other females. With 50% of spawning habitat cut off by dams to sate human water needs, competition for \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IDQh4HcZhqE\">nesting sites\u003c/a> is fierce. My excitement turns to sorrow as it hits me: her mission complete, she will soon die. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The smell of home\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fish don’t start their improbable journey upstream until the first winter storms send plumes of freshwater, replete with the chemistry and scent of home, into Tomales Bay. The freshwater pulse leads coho by the nose back to their birthplace. But the arid winter, one of the driest on record, cut spawning season short. The vast majority of fish didn’t return until the end of January. We’re seeing the stragglers. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A week earlier, Appelbaum braved a hailstorm to scout fish at \u003ca href=\"http://www.wpn.org/wpn/roysdam.htm\">Roy’s Pools\u003c/a>, a few miles down the road. “Sure enough,” he says, “I looked over and saw a fish jump.” Fish can now pass what used to be Roy’s Dam thanks to a chance encounter with a few frustrated fish. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>SPAWN Executive Director Todd Steiner recalls driving his daughter to preschool when he noticed giant two-foot fish swimming in two inches of water, stuck in gaps of a broken concrete structure in the dam one December morning in 1997. He watched the determined fish jump up, slam into the dam, fall back, and repeat their ordeal over and over. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Steiner called an editor at CNN who’d asked him for help on a story about endangered species, and alerted the local media. Soon, hundreds of people turned up at Roy’s Dam to watch the hapless fish. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The community spent three years working with a small army of engineers to make the dam coho-friendly. There was just one problem. Even with the best engineers and knowledge at the time, Steiner says, “we solved an upstream migration problem for adults but created a downstream migration problem for juveniles.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Juvenile survival is the coho’s biggest problem, mostly, thanks to us. We dam their streams for our reservoirs and channel placid waters into raging, fry-shredding flows. We convert floodplain habitat into housing, farms, and ranches. And, worried about floods, we clear fallen trees that give fry refuge from predators. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until the population crashed in 2008, Steiner led emergency rescues, going into small tributaries to scoop up fry stranded in fragmented, evaporating pools and moving them downstream. Since the late '90s, Steiner and his group have relocated 23,000 juveniles. But in the past few years, fewer and fewer fish have spawned in these tributaries.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even so, coho advocates are buoyed by this year’s census: 130 redds and 340 live fish (though the live census likely includes double counts). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Sea-fed forests\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Just 60 years ago, hundreds of thousands of coho delivered nutrients and energy to our coastal, stream, and ocean ecosystems. Historic salmon runs probably even shaped inland ecology. Peter Moyle, professor of fisheries biology at the University of California at Davis, \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservationmagazine.org/2008/07/a-good-fish-for-the-wine/\">traced the flow of marine nutrients\u003c/a> from chinook runs in the Central Valley’s Mokelumne River to adjacent vineyards. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You see the number of vultures increase as the salmon come in, bear and deer and other animals come down to the streamside to feed and then distribute the nutrients into the uplands,” Moyle says. “Trees grow bigger and faster, and when trees are bigger, you have more habitat for birds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When you lose the big salmon runs, he adds, “you’ll reduce the population of a lot of things that depend on them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Living at the southernmost distribution of the species, our coho may prove an invaluable genetic resource in the face of global warming. They’ve somehow learned to adapt to warmer water temperatures, Steiner explains, and may hold a genetic key to understanding how other populations will cope with a warming world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31684\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/29/fantastic-voyage-the-salmons-uphill-struggle-for-survival/p1010325/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31684\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/P1010325-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Salmon carcass \" title=\"P1010325\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-31684\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fish feed the forest: A salmon carcass on the banks of Lagunitas Creek sustains local animals, birds, and even trees. When salmon spawn in high densities, they deliver substantial quantities of marine-derived nutrients to the soil, plants, and trees along stream banks. Biologists are studying how the loss of these nutrients may affect riparian ecosystems. (Photo: Liza Gross) \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Nearly 90% of coho habitat is on \u003ca href=\"http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/ESA-Salmon-Listings/Salmon-Populations/Maps/upload/Coho%20Cntrl%20CA%20Coast%20ESU%20map.pdf\">private land\u003c/a>. For Steiner, the key to coho survival rests in the hands of Marin County’s Board of Supervisors. We need regulations to move houses back from streams, he says, and keep trees standing so they can capture desperately needed moisture during dry spells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But we all play a part, starting with water conservation. Every drop we waste could offer a lifeline to a species struggling to survive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As I retrace my steps along Lagunitas Creek five days later, the warm sun casts a glare on the rippling water, now opaque. I search for signs of the sacrificial offerings of the week before. Finally, I notice a carcass on the creek’s edge, pulled up by a raccoon or maybe an osprey. I close my eyes and imagine the forest floor flush with salmon detritus, rowdy with feasting scavengers, as it surely was before dams disfigured the watershed. When I open them, I hear only the sound of rushing water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>****\u003cbr>\nI’ll write about SPAWN’s habitat restoration efforts, and how you can help, in a future post. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/21/beautiful-slime/beauty/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31128\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/beauty-640x254.png\" alt=\"xkcd comic about slime molds\" title=\"beauty\" width=\"640\" height=\"254\" class=\"size-large wp-image-31128\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The peculiar sensibility this comic describes is not the sole province of scientists. Meet artist \u003ca href=\"http://philross.org/\" title=\"Phil Ross Artist Website\">Phil Ross\u003c/a> and his slime molds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ross's film \u003cem>Leviathans\u003c/em> is on display at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfartscommission.org/gallery/2011/vast-and-undetectable/\" title=\"Vast and Undetectable Exhibit\">Vast and Undetectable\u003c/a> exhibit in the San Francisco Arts Commission Gallery. The gallery isn't large--you can see it all in half an hour--but it's fun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While we sat on a wooden bench in front of \u003cem>Leviathans\u003c/em>, listening to ambient music and watching the gentle expansion of a veined yellow monster, my husband asked, \"What are slime molds exactly?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Fungi,\" I answered without thinking, because hey, they're mold, right? Wrong! Slime molds are \u003cem>not\u003c/em> true molds, and therefore not fungi, although scientists once thought they were. In fact, slime molds are close cousins to amoebas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Leviathans\u003c/em> features the slime mold \u003cem>Physarum polycephalum\u003c/em>, nicknamed the \"many-headed slime.\" \u003cem>P. polycephalum \u003c/em>is one of the most popular slime molds, in part because it’s extremely easy to grow, even for artists. Ross \u003ca href=\"http://philross.org/projects/leviathans/#projects/leviathans/making-leviathans/\" title=\"Making Of Leviathans\">notes\u003c/a> that his pets enjoyed \"oatmeal, this one kind of organic Korean pasta, and an Italian brand of alphabet soup letters.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31143\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/21/beautiful-slime/slime_mold/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31143\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/slime_mold-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Slime Mold Physarum polycephalum\" title=\"slime_mold\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31143\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Physarum polycephalum. Photo by Phil Ross.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>P. polycephalum\u003c/em> is also the poster child for \u003cstrong>plasmodial slime molds\u003c/strong>. An individual slime mold of a plasmodial species is just one enormous cell with a whole lot of nuclei jostling around inside--which is hard to believe when you see the creature's complex network of veins. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Human veins are made of many cells. So how can you build veins inside a single cell?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The slime mold constructs its veins out of proteins called actin and myosin and fills them with cytosol (basic cell fluid). By rhythmically pumping cytosol through its veins in one direction, the slime mold can expand and move toward food, a more pleasant environment, or anything else that strikes its fancy. This kind of movement is called \u003cstrong>cytoplasmic shuttle streaming\u003c/strong>, and a bit of Google Scholar searching will inform you that scientists are not totally sure how it works.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the mysteries of their movement and their fondness for breakfast cereal aren't the only tricks up the slime molds' veins. They can \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/04/science/04slime.html?pagewanted=all\" title=\"New York Times - Slime Molds\">plan cities\u003c/a>! \u003ca href=\"http://news.discovery.com/tech/slime-mold-computer-111229.html\" title=\"Discovery News - Slime Molds\">Grow bio-computers\u003c/a>! \u003ca href=\"http://discovermagazine.com/2009/jan/071\" title=\"Discover Magazine - Slime Molds\">Re-define intelligence\u003c/a>! Or at least they might be able to inform human efforts in these directions. Who knows what will come of it all?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One thing's for sure--slime molds will \u003cem>always \u003c/em>be beautiful.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Hat tip to \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/symbiartic/\" title=\"Symbiartic - Art and Science Blog\">Symbiartic \u003c/a>for linking Vast and Undetectable!\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/21/beautiful-slime/beauty/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31128\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/beauty-640x254.png\" alt=\"xkcd comic about slime molds\" title=\"beauty\" width=\"640\" height=\"254\" class=\"size-large wp-image-31128\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The peculiar sensibility this comic describes is not the sole province of scientists. Meet artist \u003ca href=\"http://philross.org/\" title=\"Phil Ross Artist Website\">Phil Ross\u003c/a> and his slime molds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ross's film \u003cem>Leviathans\u003c/em> is on display at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfartscommission.org/gallery/2011/vast-and-undetectable/\" title=\"Vast and Undetectable Exhibit\">Vast and Undetectable\u003c/a> exhibit in the San Francisco Arts Commission Gallery. The gallery isn't large--you can see it all in half an hour--but it's fun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While we sat on a wooden bench in front of \u003cem>Leviathans\u003c/em>, listening to ambient music and watching the gentle expansion of a veined yellow monster, my husband asked, \"What are slime molds exactly?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Fungi,\" I answered without thinking, because hey, they're mold, right? Wrong! Slime molds are \u003cem>not\u003c/em> true molds, and therefore not fungi, although scientists once thought they were. In fact, slime molds are close cousins to amoebas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Leviathans\u003c/em> features the slime mold \u003cem>Physarum polycephalum\u003c/em>, nicknamed the \"many-headed slime.\" \u003cem>P. polycephalum \u003c/em>is one of the most popular slime molds, in part because it’s extremely easy to grow, even for artists. Ross \u003ca href=\"http://philross.org/projects/leviathans/#projects/leviathans/making-leviathans/\" title=\"Making Of Leviathans\">notes\u003c/a> that his pets enjoyed \"oatmeal, this one kind of organic Korean pasta, and an Italian brand of alphabet soup letters.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31143\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/21/beautiful-slime/slime_mold/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31143\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/slime_mold-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Slime Mold Physarum polycephalum\" title=\"slime_mold\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31143\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Physarum polycephalum. Photo by Phil Ross.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>P. polycephalum\u003c/em> is also the poster child for \u003cstrong>plasmodial slime molds\u003c/strong>. An individual slime mold of a plasmodial species is just one enormous cell with a whole lot of nuclei jostling around inside--which is hard to believe when you see the creature's complex network of veins. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Human veins are made of many cells. So how can you build veins inside a single cell?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The slime mold constructs its veins out of proteins called actin and myosin and fills them with cytosol (basic cell fluid). By rhythmically pumping cytosol through its veins in one direction, the slime mold can expand and move toward food, a more pleasant environment, or anything else that strikes its fancy. This kind of movement is called \u003cstrong>cytoplasmic shuttle streaming\u003c/strong>, and a bit of Google Scholar searching will inform you that scientists are not totally sure how it works.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the mysteries of their movement and their fondness for breakfast cereal aren't the only tricks up the slime molds' veins. They can \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/04/science/04slime.html?pagewanted=all\" title=\"New York Times - Slime Molds\">plan cities\u003c/a>! \u003ca href=\"http://news.discovery.com/tech/slime-mold-computer-111229.html\" title=\"Discovery News - Slime Molds\">Grow bio-computers\u003c/a>! \u003ca href=\"http://discovermagazine.com/2009/jan/071\" title=\"Discover Magazine - Slime Molds\">Re-define intelligence\u003c/a>! Or at least they might be able to inform human efforts in these directions. Who knows what will come of it all?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One thing's for sure--slime molds will \u003cem>always \u003c/em>be beautiful.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Hat tip to \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/symbiartic/\" title=\"Symbiartic - Art and Science Blog\">Symbiartic \u003c/a>for linking Vast and Undetectable!\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30705\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/20/evolution-easy-as-can-be/rfpyeast/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30705\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/RFPyeast.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"RFPyeast\" width=\"640\" height=\"364\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30705\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/RFPyeast.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/RFPyeast-400x228.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Yeast like these are teaching us how simple evolution really is. Image courtesy of Masur, Wikimedia Commons\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Evolving from something simple like a single celled beast into a slug, mushroom, cactus or a human seems impossibly hard. The series of precise DNA changes you need is mind-boggling to think about. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unless, of course, the changes are easier than we imagine. For example, what if it is pretty easy to go from a single celled beast to a multi-cellular one? Or what if you can get increased complexity through easy to come by DNA changes? Then maybe it becomes easier to wrap your head around evolving complexity. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A couple of new studies in baker’s yeast are showing us just how easy it can be to build up complexity. Going from a single celled yeast into a multi-cellular one is pretty easy under the right conditions. And fairly common DNA changes can lead to increased complexity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Taken together these two studies show us that increased complexity is easier to get than many people think. Certainly simpler than creating a 747 from a tornado in a junkyard!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I won’t have the space to deal with both studies in this blog. So I’ll talk about multicellularity in this one and then tackle the other, more complicated mutation example in my next entry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How to Make a Multi-Cellular Yeast\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the first study, \u003ca href=\"http://www.pnas.org/content/109/5/1595\">Ratcliff and coworkers\u003c/a> used a very clever technique to end up with multi-cellular yeast. Basically they shook yeast in a big flask and only let those that were at the bottom reproduce.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After just two months, you had these beautiful beasts:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZAIzi0M2rY]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These aren’t just yeast cells stuck to each other either. That wouldn’t really be multi-cellular life. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, as you can see in the video, these new creatures give birth to smaller multi-cellular instead of reverting back to single celled yeast. Being multicellular is now the default state of these yeast. This is true even when you stop the flask experiment and let them grow “naturally.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not only do they give rise to little versions of themselves, but they also have specialized cells within the snowflake cluster. For example, certain cells are willing to die so that the little juvenile snowflakes can separate from mom. No self-serving single cell would suicide like that unless it were part of a larger organism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the transition from one to many cells may be simpler than we thought. Which makes sense if current theories about life’s evolution are true. Scientists think multicellularity \u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/%28SICI%291520-6602%281998%291:1%3C27::AID-INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/pdf\">evolved dozens of times\u003c/a> over the last few billion years.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Evolving from something simple like a single celled beast into a slug, mushroom, cactus or a human seems impossibly hard. The series of precise DNA changes you need is mind-boggling to think about. Unless, of course, the changes are easier than we imagine.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30705\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/20/evolution-easy-as-can-be/rfpyeast/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30705\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/RFPyeast.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"RFPyeast\" width=\"640\" height=\"364\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30705\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/RFPyeast.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/RFPyeast-400x228.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Yeast like these are teaching us how simple evolution really is. Image courtesy of Masur, Wikimedia Commons\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Evolving from something simple like a single celled beast into a slug, mushroom, cactus or a human seems impossibly hard. The series of precise DNA changes you need is mind-boggling to think about. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unless, of course, the changes are easier than we imagine. For example, what if it is pretty easy to go from a single celled beast to a multi-cellular one? Or what if you can get increased complexity through easy to come by DNA changes? Then maybe it becomes easier to wrap your head around evolving complexity. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A couple of new studies in baker’s yeast are showing us just how easy it can be to build up complexity. Going from a single celled yeast into a multi-cellular one is pretty easy under the right conditions. And fairly common DNA changes can lead to increased complexity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Taken together these two studies show us that increased complexity is easier to get than many people think. Certainly simpler than creating a 747 from a tornado in a junkyard!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I won’t have the space to deal with both studies in this blog. So I’ll talk about multicellularity in this one and then tackle the other, more complicated mutation example in my next entry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How to Make a Multi-Cellular Yeast\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the first study, \u003ca href=\"http://www.pnas.org/content/109/5/1595\">Ratcliff and coworkers\u003c/a> used a very clever technique to end up with multi-cellular yeast. Basically they shook yeast in a big flask and only let those that were at the bottom reproduce.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After just two months, you had these beautiful beasts:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/mZAIzi0M2rY'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/mZAIzi0M2rY'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These aren’t just yeast cells stuck to each other either. That wouldn’t really be multi-cellular life. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>No, as you can see in the video, these new creatures give birth to smaller multi-cellular instead of reverting back to single celled yeast. Being multicellular is now the default state of these yeast. This is true even when you stop the flask experiment and let them grow “naturally.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not only do they give rise to little versions of themselves, but they also have specialized cells within the snowflake cluster. For example, certain cells are willing to die so that the little juvenile snowflakes can separate from mom. No self-serving single cell would suicide like that unless it were part of a larger organism.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the transition from one to many cells may be simpler than we thought. Which makes sense if current theories about life’s evolution are true. Scientists think multicellularity \u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/%28SICI%291520-6602%281998%291:1%3C27::AID-INBI4%3E3.0.CO;2-6/pdf\">evolved dozens of times\u003c/a> over the last few billion years.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "A Birder’s-Eye View of Conservation",
"title": "A Birder’s-Eye View of Conservation",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30594\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/flycatcher.jpg\" alt=\"Dusky-capped flycatcher\" title=\"flycatcher\" width=\"253\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-30594\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dusky-capped flycatcher (credit: mdf)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most people know the Philadelphia suburbs for cheesesteaks and unruly sports fans. But it’s no wonder that \u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/john-james-audubon/drawn-from-nature/106/\">John James Audubon\u003c/a> started his lifelong affair with birds just 25 miles northwest of Center City, and a 20-minute drive from my natal stomping grounds. The dense, rolling woodlands of Pennsylvania’s Montgomery County where I grew up offered prime habitat for cardinals, chickadees, blue jays, wrens, and countless other species my mom loved to point out to us kids. I didn’t realize it at the time, but my mom’s avian affinities taught me not just to pay attention to the biology in my backyard but, ultimately, to consider which species lived there and why. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This weekend, novice Bay Area wildlife watchers get the chance to play field biologist in their own backyards and join forces with expert birders and scientists to gather data on the incidence, abundance, and distribution of birds. Between February 17 and 20, the 15th annual \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/\">Great Backyard Bird Count\u003c/a> invites people of all ages and experience to spend as little as 15 minutes (or as long as you like) counting birds wherever you are.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The event is a joint project of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.birds.cornell.edu/Page.aspx?pid=1478&ac=ac\">Cornell Lab of Ornithology\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.audubon.org/\">Audubon\u003c/a>, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.bsc-eoc.org/\">Bird Studies Canada\u003c/a>, leading bird conservation organizations that provide a wealth of resources for participants, including tips for \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/howto.html\">getting started\u003c/a>,\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://gbbc.birdsource.org/gbbcApps/checklist\">regional checklists\u003c/a>, and tools for resolving tricky \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/learning\">identifications\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The Great Backyard Bird Count is an excellent introductory citizen science project for any level of birder,” says Brian Sullivan, an expert on North American birds and project leader of Cornell’s online resource for birders around the world, eBird. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can just count the birds you see in your backyard or go to your local park and count what you see there. The idea is to get a weekend snapshot of late-winter bird distribution across the United States and to make things really simple so just about anyone can participate.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sullivan, who has 1,669 species on his life list, says lucky birders could see “mega-rarities” like an Iceland gull, “a very rare bird in California” spotted near Sausalito in early February, or maybe the dusky-capped flycatcher that's been living in Golden Gate Park all winter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The largest estuary on the West Coast, the San Francisco Bay Delta provides habitat and refuge to more than 250 species of waterbirds, some (including pelicans, loons, herons, and egrets) year-round residents, others, like the Wilson’s phalarope and Sabine’s gull, on stopovers to feed and rest before resuming their long-distance migrations. As many as 800,000 birds inhabit Bay Area waterways at any given time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To find out which birds you’re likely to see in your area, go to Cornell’s \u003ca href=\"http://ebird.org/content/ebird/\">eBird\u003c/a>, click on “View and Explore Data,” then click on “Bar Charts,” select “United States,” “California,” and then “Counties in California.” Choose your county, click “continue,” and you’ll see the occurrence of birds throughout the year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last year, participants entered more than 92,000 checklists with 1.4 million birds from 596 species. Their data helped researchers identify changes in abundance (including an increase in evening grosbeaks, which declined 50% between 1988 and 2006) and distribution (winter finches moving south), and spot anomalies (an Asian brown shrike in McKinley, California). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bird counts give weekend nature lovers an easy way to help scientists \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/\">gather data\u003c/a> on a widely distributed group of animals that serve as valuable indicators of biodiversity. Because birds occupy many different “trophic” levels in food webs, eating everything from insects to fish to mammals (and, for top predators like owls, hawks, and eagles, other birds), they play critical roles in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Among their many “ecosystem services,” all of which benefit humans, birds help regulate prey populations, facilitate plant reproduction through pollination and seed dispersal, and recycle nutrients by scavenging carcasses. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This widespread influence on their environment also makes them extremely sensitive to ecosystem disruptions, including habitat destruction and climate change. An alarming 13% of the world’s birds, 1,253 species, face extinction, according to the 2011 IUCN Red List. The \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=2767\">Great Indian bustard\u003c/a>, a native of India and Pakistan that barks when alarmed, has been reclassified as critically endangered, a victim of hunting and widespread habitat destruction. Scientists think fewer than 250 mature birds remain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Closer to home, black-crowned night herons and snowy egrets have been on a downward slide since 2005. And the endangered California clapper rail, once abundant in the tidal marshes of San Francisco Bay, offers a case study in the unintended consequences of development. Extensive filling and diking of the bay has destroyed some 85% of the clapper rail’s salt marsh habitat, making a shy species that seems to prefer scampering over swimming and flying easy pickings for feral cats and invasive red foxes, which now have unfettered access to adults and their ground-nesting offspring. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30595\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 365px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/15/a-birder%e2%80%99s-eye-view-of-conservation/clapperrail2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30595\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/clapperrail2-365x253.jpg\" alt=\"clapper rail\" title=\"clapperrail2\" width=\"365\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-30595\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">California clapper rail (Don Roberson)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Roughly 60% of the critically endangered clapper rail population, estimated at between 1,000 and 1,500, lives in San Francisco Bay’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.fws.gov/desfbay/\">Don Edwards National Wildlife Refuge\u003c/a>, in Fremont. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers will use the information collected from the bird count to learn how birds like the clapper rail are coping with these new predation pressures, as well as other stresses from ongoing urbanization, global climate change, and disease.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The decline of suitable habitat for these species affects us as well. Tidal marshes filter contaminants to enhance water quality and serve as natural flood barriers. If the marshes can no longer support species like the clapper rail, chances are they can’t provide these ecosystem services for us either. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Birds are among the most diverse and ubiquitous vertebrates on the planet and often offer humans a first brush with wildlife. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a little girl, I marveled that my mom always knew when Jenny Wren and her husband, Joe (as she liked to call the resident house wrens), would appear in our backyard, build their nest, and settle into the business of raising, feeding, and protecting their broods. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She couldn’t have known that scientists would one day blame the precipitous declines in Bewick’s wrens in the eastern United States on the expansion of her beloved house wrens, known for ejecting eggs, and even young, from coveted nest sites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30596\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 437px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/15/a-birder%e2%80%99s-eye-view-of-conservation/blue-jay/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30596\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Blue-jay-437x253.jpg\" alt=\"Blue jay\" title=\"Blue jay\" width=\"437\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-30596\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Blue jay (Liza Gross)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As I listened to Mom’s fanciful tales of avian domestic dramas, my young imagination conjured all manner of worrisome scenarios. Would Joe find enough food for the babies? Could Jenny protect them from a torrential summer downpour? How would either of them cope with a curious cat? Some may shudder at such anthropomorphizing, but I wonder: If more people viewed birds the way my mom did, struggling to survive like the rest of us, would they worry about their welfare, too?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Henry David Thoreau first said “In wildness is the preservation of the world” in a lecture some months after Audubon’s death. I like to think, had they discussed the question, Audubon would have objected: “My dear sir, I believe you meant to say, ‘In \u003ci>birds\u003c/i> is the preservation of the world.’ ”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30594\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/flycatcher.jpg\" alt=\"Dusky-capped flycatcher\" title=\"flycatcher\" width=\"253\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-30594\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dusky-capped flycatcher (credit: mdf)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most people know the Philadelphia suburbs for cheesesteaks and unruly sports fans. But it’s no wonder that \u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/john-james-audubon/drawn-from-nature/106/\">John James Audubon\u003c/a> started his lifelong affair with birds just 25 miles northwest of Center City, and a 20-minute drive from my natal stomping grounds. The dense, rolling woodlands of Pennsylvania’s Montgomery County where I grew up offered prime habitat for cardinals, chickadees, blue jays, wrens, and countless other species my mom loved to point out to us kids. I didn’t realize it at the time, but my mom’s avian affinities taught me not just to pay attention to the biology in my backyard but, ultimately, to consider which species lived there and why. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This weekend, novice Bay Area wildlife watchers get the chance to play field biologist in their own backyards and join forces with expert birders and scientists to gather data on the incidence, abundance, and distribution of birds. Between February 17 and 20, the 15th annual \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/\">Great Backyard Bird Count\u003c/a> invites people of all ages and experience to spend as little as 15 minutes (or as long as you like) counting birds wherever you are.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The event is a joint project of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.birds.cornell.edu/Page.aspx?pid=1478&ac=ac\">Cornell Lab of Ornithology\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www.audubon.org/\">Audubon\u003c/a>, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.bsc-eoc.org/\">Bird Studies Canada\u003c/a>, leading bird conservation organizations that provide a wealth of resources for participants, including tips for \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/howto.html\">getting started\u003c/a>,\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://gbbc.birdsource.org/gbbcApps/checklist\">regional checklists\u003c/a>, and tools for resolving tricky \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/learning\">identifications\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The Great Backyard Bird Count is an excellent introductory citizen science project for any level of birder,” says Brian Sullivan, an expert on North American birds and project leader of Cornell’s online resource for birders around the world, eBird. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You can just count the birds you see in your backyard or go to your local park and count what you see there. The idea is to get a weekend snapshot of late-winter bird distribution across the United States and to make things really simple so just about anyone can participate.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sullivan, who has 1,669 species on his life list, says lucky birders could see “mega-rarities” like an Iceland gull, “a very rare bird in California” spotted near Sausalito in early February, or maybe the dusky-capped flycatcher that's been living in Golden Gate Park all winter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The largest estuary on the West Coast, the San Francisco Bay Delta provides habitat and refuge to more than 250 species of waterbirds, some (including pelicans, loons, herons, and egrets) year-round residents, others, like the Wilson’s phalarope and Sabine’s gull, on stopovers to feed and rest before resuming their long-distance migrations. As many as 800,000 birds inhabit Bay Area waterways at any given time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To find out which birds you’re likely to see in your area, go to Cornell’s \u003ca href=\"http://ebird.org/content/ebird/\">eBird\u003c/a>, click on “View and Explore Data,” then click on “Bar Charts,” select “United States,” “California,” and then “Counties in California.” Choose your county, click “continue,” and you’ll see the occurrence of birds throughout the year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last year, participants entered more than 92,000 checklists with 1.4 million birds from 596 species. Their data helped researchers identify changes in abundance (including an increase in evening grosbeaks, which declined 50% between 1988 and 2006) and distribution (winter finches moving south), and spot anomalies (an Asian brown shrike in McKinley, California). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bird counts give weekend nature lovers an easy way to help scientists \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc/\">gather data\u003c/a> on a widely distributed group of animals that serve as valuable indicators of biodiversity. Because birds occupy many different “trophic” levels in food webs, eating everything from insects to fish to mammals (and, for top predators like owls, hawks, and eagles, other birds), they play critical roles in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Among their many “ecosystem services,” all of which benefit humans, birds help regulate prey populations, facilitate plant reproduction through pollination and seed dispersal, and recycle nutrients by scavenging carcasses. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This widespread influence on their environment also makes them extremely sensitive to ecosystem disruptions, including habitat destruction and climate change. An alarming 13% of the world’s birds, 1,253 species, face extinction, according to the 2011 IUCN Red List. The \u003ca href=\"http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=2767\">Great Indian bustard\u003c/a>, a native of India and Pakistan that barks when alarmed, has been reclassified as critically endangered, a victim of hunting and widespread habitat destruction. Scientists think fewer than 250 mature birds remain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Closer to home, black-crowned night herons and snowy egrets have been on a downward slide since 2005. And the endangered California clapper rail, once abundant in the tidal marshes of San Francisco Bay, offers a case study in the unintended consequences of development. Extensive filling and diking of the bay has destroyed some 85% of the clapper rail’s salt marsh habitat, making a shy species that seems to prefer scampering over swimming and flying easy pickings for feral cats and invasive red foxes, which now have unfettered access to adults and their ground-nesting offspring. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30595\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 365px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/15/a-birder%e2%80%99s-eye-view-of-conservation/clapperrail2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30595\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/clapperrail2-365x253.jpg\" alt=\"clapper rail\" title=\"clapperrail2\" width=\"365\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-30595\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">California clapper rail (Don Roberson)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Roughly 60% of the critically endangered clapper rail population, estimated at between 1,000 and 1,500, lives in San Francisco Bay’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.fws.gov/desfbay/\">Don Edwards National Wildlife Refuge\u003c/a>, in Fremont. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers will use the information collected from the bird count to learn how birds like the clapper rail are coping with these new predation pressures, as well as other stresses from ongoing urbanization, global climate change, and disease.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The decline of suitable habitat for these species affects us as well. Tidal marshes filter contaminants to enhance water quality and serve as natural flood barriers. If the marshes can no longer support species like the clapper rail, chances are they can’t provide these ecosystem services for us either. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Birds are among the most diverse and ubiquitous vertebrates on the planet and often offer humans a first brush with wildlife. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a little girl, I marveled that my mom always knew when Jenny Wren and her husband, Joe (as she liked to call the resident house wrens), would appear in our backyard, build their nest, and settle into the business of raising, feeding, and protecting their broods. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She couldn’t have known that scientists would one day blame the precipitous declines in Bewick’s wrens in the eastern United States on the expansion of her beloved house wrens, known for ejecting eggs, and even young, from coveted nest sites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30596\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 437px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/15/a-birder%e2%80%99s-eye-view-of-conservation/blue-jay/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30596\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Blue-jay-437x253.jpg\" alt=\"Blue jay\" title=\"Blue jay\" width=\"437\" height=\"253\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-30596\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Blue jay (Liza Gross)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As I listened to Mom’s fanciful tales of avian domestic dramas, my young imagination conjured all manner of worrisome scenarios. Would Joe find enough food for the babies? Could Jenny protect them from a torrential summer downpour? How would either of them cope with a curious cat? Some may shudder at such anthropomorphizing, but I wonder: If more people viewed birds the way my mom did, struggling to survive like the rest of us, would they worry about their welfare, too?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Henry David Thoreau first said “In wildness is the preservation of the world” in a lecture some months after Audubon’s death. I like to think, had they discussed the question, Audubon would have objected: “My dear sir, I believe you meant to say, ‘In \u003ci>birds\u003c/i> is the preservation of the world.’ ”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>A rooftop is a long way from the deep blue sea, so when I learned that the skull of a juvenile minke whale was resting atop the California Academy of Sciences' living roof, my curiosity was piqued. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30429\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Minke-Whale-27-Dec-2011-e1328911342328.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Minke-Whale-27-Dec-2011-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Stranded minke whale\" title=\"Stranded minke whale\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30429\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo submitted to the Bear Valley Visitor Center in Point Reyes National Seashore by an unknown visitor.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On December 27, 2011, a hiker snapped some photos of a whale carcass stranded in a cove just south of Alamere Falls. Point Reyes ecologists forwarded the report to the Bay Area Marine Mammal Stranding Network team, a specialized group of volunteers and representatives from the California Academy of Sciences (which collects tissue samples and bones for its research collections) and the Marine Mammal Center (which leads any necropsy proceedings). In responding to such calls, their goal is to learn as much as possible from the animal's body. When you're talking about a body the size of a whale (literally), the logistics get complicated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you've ever hiked or biked to \u003ca href=\"http://www.everytrail.com/guide/the-coastal-trail-to-alamere-falls\" title=\"Alamere Falls hike\">Alamere Falls\u003c/a>, you'll know the beautiful spot is not easy to access. Luckily the team received special permission from the National Park Service to drive to Wildcat Camp, shortening their walk to a mile each way. Upon arriving at the scene, they quickly realized that between its location, the tide schedule, and ocean conditions, it would be impossible to access the whale during daylight hours. Unable to perform a necropsy to determine the cause of death, they left it to roll in the surf. This turned out to be a mixed blessing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30439\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop.jpg\" alt=\"Whale skull on beach\" title=\"Whale skull on beach\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30439\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"> Photo submitted to the Bear Valley Visitor Center in Point Reyes National Seashore by an unknown visitor.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>After just eleven days, the surf and surge had cleaned the skull and deposited it on the beach. The upside was that nature took care of the dirty work in record time. Typically to recover a skull, the team has to remove enough tissue by hand in order to transport the bones off the beach (not a task for the faint of heart). Then the skull is either buried or left to steep in a saltwater maceration tank for one to two months to finish the cleaning process. The downside to the \"surf method\" is that most of the smaller bones and tissue were lost in the ebb and flow. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30441\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/P1000102-e1328911311727.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/P1000102-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Hauling the skull down the beach\" title=\"P1000102\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30441\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Volunteer Rick James and Academy Collections Manager Moe Flannery of the Bay Area Marine Mammal Stranding Network towed the skull down the beach at Alamere Falls, using a cart rigged out of two dollies and some inflatable \"beach wheels.\" Photo courtesy of California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A week later, the tides were right to collect the skull specimen, estimated at 200 pounds. The team sought special permission to drive to a point just one mile from the skull, greatly reducing the distance they needed to carry the heavy skull. It took five people two hours and a cart rigged from \"beach wheels\" and a pair of dollies to get the skull to their truck. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, the skull is degreasing on the Academy's living roof, visible to museum-goers from the viewing deck. Over the course of the next year, its weight is expected to decrease by about half as rain and gravity work the grease out of the bones, providing nutrients for the native plants below.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30438\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Skullonroof-e1328911329210.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Skullonroof-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Whale skull on Academy's rooftop\" title=\"Skull on roof\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30438\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">When complete, the skull will be the largest of five in the Academy's mammalogy collection, and the first collected since 1992.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>For the scientific community, specimens like this one serve as a record of an animal at a specific location and time, as part of a valuable library of life. For future generations, it can be used to help answer questions about the health of whale populations through time, phylogenetic relationships, even what our ancestors used to eat. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The minke whale population is considered stable through most of its range, with an estimated \u003ca href=\"http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/minkewhale.htm\" title=\"Minke whale population\">500-1,000 animals along the California-Oregon-Washington coastline\u003c/a>. Beachgoers in the Bay Area should note that all marine mammals are protected by federal law, even after death. If you spot a dead marine mammal, contact the Academy's \u003ca href=\"http://research.calacademy.org/om/mmsn\" title=\"Ornithology and Mammalogy Department\">Ornithology & Mammalogy Department\u003c/a>. For sick or injured marine mammals, please contact \u003ca href=\"http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/\" title=\"Marine Mammal Center\">The Marine Mammal Center\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>A rooftop is a long way from the deep blue sea, so when I learned that the skull of a juvenile minke whale was resting atop the California Academy of Sciences' living roof, my curiosity was piqued. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30429\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Minke-Whale-27-Dec-2011-e1328911342328.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Minke-Whale-27-Dec-2011-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Stranded minke whale\" title=\"Stranded minke whale\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30429\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo submitted to the Bear Valley Visitor Center in Point Reyes National Seashore by an unknown visitor.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On December 27, 2011, a hiker snapped some photos of a whale carcass stranded in a cove just south of Alamere Falls. Point Reyes ecologists forwarded the report to the Bay Area Marine Mammal Stranding Network team, a specialized group of volunteers and representatives from the California Academy of Sciences (which collects tissue samples and bones for its research collections) and the Marine Mammal Center (which leads any necropsy proceedings). In responding to such calls, their goal is to learn as much as possible from the animal's body. When you're talking about a body the size of a whale (literally), the logistics get complicated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you've ever hiked or biked to \u003ca href=\"http://www.everytrail.com/guide/the-coastal-trail-to-alamere-falls\" title=\"Alamere Falls hike\">Alamere Falls\u003c/a>, you'll know the beautiful spot is not easy to access. Luckily the team received special permission from the National Park Service to drive to Wildcat Camp, shortening their walk to a mile each way. Upon arriving at the scene, they quickly realized that between its location, the tide schedule, and ocean conditions, it would be impossible to access the whale during daylight hours. Unable to perform a necropsy to determine the cause of death, they left it to roll in the surf. This turned out to be a mixed blessing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30439\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop.jpg\" alt=\"Whale skull on beach\" title=\"Whale skull on beach\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30439\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Whale_3_Tougher_crop-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"> Photo submitted to the Bear Valley Visitor Center in Point Reyes National Seashore by an unknown visitor.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>After just eleven days, the surf and surge had cleaned the skull and deposited it on the beach. The upside was that nature took care of the dirty work in record time. Typically to recover a skull, the team has to remove enough tissue by hand in order to transport the bones off the beach (not a task for the faint of heart). Then the skull is either buried or left to steep in a saltwater maceration tank for one to two months to finish the cleaning process. The downside to the \"surf method\" is that most of the smaller bones and tissue were lost in the ebb and flow. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30441\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/P1000102-e1328911311727.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/P1000102-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Hauling the skull down the beach\" title=\"P1000102\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30441\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Volunteer Rick James and Academy Collections Manager Moe Flannery of the Bay Area Marine Mammal Stranding Network towed the skull down the beach at Alamere Falls, using a cart rigged out of two dollies and some inflatable \"beach wheels.\" Photo courtesy of California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A week later, the tides were right to collect the skull specimen, estimated at 200 pounds. The team sought special permission to drive to a point just one mile from the skull, greatly reducing the distance they needed to carry the heavy skull. It took five people two hours and a cart rigged from \"beach wheels\" and a pair of dollies to get the skull to their truck. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, the skull is degreasing on the Academy's living roof, visible to museum-goers from the viewing deck. Over the course of the next year, its weight is expected to decrease by about half as rain and gravity work the grease out of the bones, providing nutrients for the native plants below.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30438\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Skullonroof-e1328911329210.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/Skullonroof-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Whale skull on Academy's rooftop\" title=\"Skull on roof\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30438\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">When complete, the skull will be the largest of five in the Academy's mammalogy collection, and the first collected since 1992.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>For the scientific community, specimens like this one serve as a record of an animal at a specific location and time, as part of a valuable library of life. For future generations, it can be used to help answer questions about the health of whale populations through time, phylogenetic relationships, even what our ancestors used to eat. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The minke whale population is considered stable through most of its range, with an estimated \u003ca href=\"http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/minkewhale.htm\" title=\"Minke whale population\">500-1,000 animals along the California-Oregon-Washington coastline\u003c/a>. Beachgoers in the Bay Area should note that all marine mammals are protected by federal law, even after death. If you spot a dead marine mammal, contact the Academy's \u003ca href=\"http://research.calacademy.org/om/mmsn\" title=\"Ornithology and Mammalogy Department\">Ornithology & Mammalogy Department\u003c/a>. For sick or injured marine mammals, please contact \u003ca href=\"http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/\" title=\"Marine Mammal Center\">The Marine Mammal Center\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?",
"title": "What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Does the prospect of life in subglacial Lake Vostok really point to the same on the icy satellite Europa? The answer may surprise you.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "California’s Gray Wolves",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30291\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gray_wolf.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30291\" title=\"gray_wolf\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gray_wolf-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Will gray wolves return to California? Photo: MacNeil Lyons, National Park Service/{link url=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwsmidwest/6545954933/in/set-72157628504266513/\"} U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service – Midwest Region{/link}.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When a gray wolf wearing a GPS collar crossed from Oregon into California in December, it was the first wild gray wolf to tread on California soil since the 1920s. Wolves once roamed throughout California, and some people think packs may prowl the state again. It is debatable whether this lone wolf is a sign of things to come, but if wolves return to California, their role in the ecosystem will be different than it was in times past.\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until the early 1900s, \u003ca href=\"http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/wolf/\">gray wolves\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Canis lupus\u003c/em>) lived throughout much of North America. They were present in California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains, the Coast Range, and the Central Valley, among other locations. Their range was not well documented. Gray wolves are predators; they hunt in packs and eat all kinds of prey, from small rodents on up to Bison. Their main prey items were \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tule_elk\">Tule Elk\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronghorn\">Pronghorn\u003c/a>, an animal similar to an antelope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As California’s Central Valley was converted to agricultural fields and pastures, the number of Tule Elk and Pronghorn dwindled. A shrinking supply of wild \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungulate\">ungulates\u003c/a> (hoofed mammals, such as elk, Pronghorn, and deer) meant that wolves started going after livestock—with major repercussions. Predator control programs led to extinction of the gray wolf in the lower 48 states. In 1924, the last known wolf in California was trapped and killed in Lassen County.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gray wolves were added to the Endangered Species List in 1974, shortly after the Endangered Species Act was passed. Then, in the mid 1990s, gray wolves from Canada were re-introduced to Idaho and to Yellowstone National Park.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The gray wolves introduced to Idaho expanded their range, and there are now about 1600 wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest. In Idaho, there are concerns that the local population is growing too large, and the wolves are getting too close to human habitation. Last year, \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/story/2011/06/23/58434/gray_wolf_in_cross_hairs_again_after_delisting?source=npr&category=politics\">gray wolves were de-listed\u003c/a> in certain areas, where it became legal to hunt them. Five wolves were killed via aerial gunning in Idaho.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Studies on the wolves in Yellowstone, conducted by \u003ca href=\"http://people.ucsc.edu/~cwilmers/index.html\">Chris Wilmers\u003c/a>, Assistant Professor in the Environmental Studies Department at the University of California Santa Cruz, have found that \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030092\">gray wolves buffer the effects of climate change\u003c/a> for other carnivores. Many scavengers, such as bald eagles, coyotes, and black bears, feed on elk carcasses during the winter. After heavy snowfall, elk become exhausted from walking through deep snow and eventually expire. However, winters are becoming shorter as a result of climate change, and there are fewer elk carcasses to be scavenged. After wolves were released in Yellowstone, their hunting activity increased the availability of food for scavengers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Gray Wolf that recently crossed into California—named \u003ca href=\"http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/wolf/OR7story.html\">OR7\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/28/us/wildlife-activists-follow-lone-wolfs-trek-into-california.html\">re-named “Journey” in a naming contest\u003c/a>—split off from his pack in Oregon. Wolves can outgrow their packs and will disperse to find a mate. As the only known wild gray wolf in the state, is highly unlikely that Journey will find a mate. And without a pack to hunt with, this lone wolf will probably need to scavenge for food. Journey probably won’t father California’s future wolf population, but it is possible that other Oregon wolves may follow in his nearly 1000 miles of footsteps.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California has suitable habitat for gray wolves, and has plenty of potential prey. But the state has changed a lot since gray wolves had the run of the place in the 1800s. There is little open space, and the climate is drastically altered; if wolves return, their ecological role will be very different.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "When a gray wolf wearing a GPS collar crossed from Oregon into California in December, it was the first wild gray wolf to tread on California soil since the 1920s. It is debatable whether this lone wolf is a sign of things to come, but if wolves return to California, their role in the ecosystem will be different than it was in times past.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30291\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gray_wolf.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30291\" title=\"gray_wolf\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gray_wolf-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Will gray wolves return to California? Photo: MacNeil Lyons, National Park Service/{link url=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwsmidwest/6545954933/in/set-72157628504266513/\"} U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service – Midwest Region{/link}.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When a gray wolf wearing a GPS collar crossed from Oregon into California in December, it was the first wild gray wolf to tread on California soil since the 1920s. Wolves once roamed throughout California, and some people think packs may prowl the state again. It is debatable whether this lone wolf is a sign of things to come, but if wolves return to California, their role in the ecosystem will be different than it was in times past.\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until the early 1900s, \u003ca href=\"http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/wolf/\">gray wolves\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Canis lupus\u003c/em>) lived throughout much of North America. They were present in California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains, the Coast Range, and the Central Valley, among other locations. Their range was not well documented. Gray wolves are predators; they hunt in packs and eat all kinds of prey, from small rodents on up to Bison. Their main prey items were \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tule_elk\">Tule Elk\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronghorn\">Pronghorn\u003c/a>, an animal similar to an antelope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As California’s Central Valley was converted to agricultural fields and pastures, the number of Tule Elk and Pronghorn dwindled. A shrinking supply of wild \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungulate\">ungulates\u003c/a> (hoofed mammals, such as elk, Pronghorn, and deer) meant that wolves started going after livestock—with major repercussions. Predator control programs led to extinction of the gray wolf in the lower 48 states. In 1924, the last known wolf in California was trapped and killed in Lassen County.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gray wolves were added to the Endangered Species List in 1974, shortly after the Endangered Species Act was passed. Then, in the mid 1990s, gray wolves from Canada were re-introduced to Idaho and to Yellowstone National Park.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The gray wolves introduced to Idaho expanded their range, and there are now about 1600 wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest. In Idaho, there are concerns that the local population is growing too large, and the wolves are getting too close to human habitation. Last year, \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/story/2011/06/23/58434/gray_wolf_in_cross_hairs_again_after_delisting?source=npr&category=politics\">gray wolves were de-listed\u003c/a> in certain areas, where it became legal to hunt them. Five wolves were killed via aerial gunning in Idaho.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Studies on the wolves in Yellowstone, conducted by \u003ca href=\"http://people.ucsc.edu/~cwilmers/index.html\">Chris Wilmers\u003c/a>, Assistant Professor in the Environmental Studies Department at the University of California Santa Cruz, have found that \u003ca href=\"http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030092\">gray wolves buffer the effects of climate change\u003c/a> for other carnivores. Many scavengers, such as bald eagles, coyotes, and black bears, feed on elk carcasses during the winter. After heavy snowfall, elk become exhausted from walking through deep snow and eventually expire. However, winters are becoming shorter as a result of climate change, and there are fewer elk carcasses to be scavenged. After wolves were released in Yellowstone, their hunting activity increased the availability of food for scavengers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Gray Wolf that recently crossed into California—named \u003ca href=\"http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/wolf/OR7story.html\">OR7\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/28/us/wildlife-activists-follow-lone-wolfs-trek-into-california.html\">re-named “Journey” in a naming contest\u003c/a>—split off from his pack in Oregon. Wolves can outgrow their packs and will disperse to find a mate. As the only known wild gray wolf in the state, is highly unlikely that Journey will find a mate. And without a pack to hunt with, this lone wolf will probably need to scavenge for food. Journey probably won’t father California’s future wolf population, but it is possible that other Oregon wolves may follow in his nearly 1000 miles of footsteps.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California has suitable habitat for gray wolves, and has plenty of potential prey. But the state has changed a lot since gray wolves had the run of the place in the 1800s. There is little open space, and the climate is drastically altered; if wolves return, their ecological role will be very different.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"soldout": {
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