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"content": "\u003cp>On a summer day when the deep-blue water is filled with water-skiers, motorboats and kayaks, it’s hard to think of Lake Tahoe as anything but peaceful.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But every four thousand years or so, that changes. Lake Tahoe sits on top of three fault lines. And when an earthquake happens beneath such a deep lake, it causes big problems. The largest fault, the West Tahoe Fault, shifts vertically during quakes. When it shoots up, it pushes up the lake water. Geologist Gordon Seitz explained that during earthquakes the displaced water, “has to flow downhill and generates a wave. And this is a tsunami wave. And that wave, when it hits the shore, is probably on the order of 20, 30 feet high.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5754\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/tahoe-sub-2-e1374248384153.jpg\" alt=\"The barge serves as an operating base for the scientists studying Lake Tahoe's faults. (Scott Detrow/KQED)\" width=\"639\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5754\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The barge serves as an operating base for the scientists studying Lake Tahoe’s faults. (Scott Detrow/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Seitz, who works for the California Geological Survey, has been studying Tahoe’s faults since 1999. If he has a bit more urgency than you’d expect for someone studying a once-every-four millennia event, that’s because the last big quake happened, well, about 4,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Do I expect it to happen tomorrow? Perhaps not,” Seitz said. “But if it did happen I wouldn’t be completely surprised.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Thursday afternoon, Seitz stood on a barge about 300 yards off the lake’s west shore. The barge is the operating base for a robotic submarine that is spending the week about a thousand feet below the lake’s surface, using high-definition cameras and ultrasound-like technology to examine the West Tahoe Fault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"//instagram.com/p/b6nh4qyte7/embed/\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" width=\"612\" height=\"710\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seitz and other researchers have been studying sediment deposits and submerged trees on Tahoe’s shore for years, but these images will yield – he hopes, at least – the best evidence yet of what Tahoe’s last earthquake looked like. “We have a pretty good idea of when that happened right now,” he explained. “This will confirm that, hopefully, but also it will give us a new dimension and tell us more about the magnitude. Did it shift ten feet? Did it shift 20 feet?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At this point, evidence suggests the last quake had a magnitude of 7.1 to 7.4. “Usually, the last earthquake gives you the best picture of what the next earthquake will be doing,” Seitz said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Tahoe barge is packed with cables, a crane, a generator and even a propane grill. In a metal shed, scientists monitor video feeds from the sub, along with data showing the machine’s depth, along with the temperature, oxygen and saline levels of the water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Tahoe dives are a tune-up for the submarine and its Northern Illinois University crew. Their ultimate destination is Antarctica, where the sub will dive under ice shelves to conduct climate change-related research. So in addition to providing data for California researchers, the crew is working out kinks. Among them: a small leak that left the sub temporarily grounded when reporters visited the barge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Exactly the type of problem that’s easier to fix on a sunny Lake Tahoe day than deep below an Antarctic ice shelf.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>On a summer day when the deep-blue water is filled with water-skiers, motorboats and kayaks, it’s hard to think of Lake Tahoe as anything but peaceful.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But every four thousand years or so, that changes. Lake Tahoe sits on top of three fault lines. And when an earthquake happens beneath such a deep lake, it causes big problems. The largest fault, the West Tahoe Fault, shifts vertically during quakes. When it shoots up, it pushes up the lake water. Geologist Gordon Seitz explained that during earthquakes the displaced water, “has to flow downhill and generates a wave. And this is a tsunami wave. And that wave, when it hits the shore, is probably on the order of 20, 30 feet high.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5754\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/tahoe-sub-2-e1374248384153.jpg\" alt=\"The barge serves as an operating base for the scientists studying Lake Tahoe's faults. (Scott Detrow/KQED)\" width=\"639\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5754\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The barge serves as an operating base for the scientists studying Lake Tahoe’s faults. (Scott Detrow/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Seitz, who works for the California Geological Survey, has been studying Tahoe’s faults since 1999. If he has a bit more urgency than you’d expect for someone studying a once-every-four millennia event, that’s because the last big quake happened, well, about 4,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Do I expect it to happen tomorrow? Perhaps not,” Seitz said. “But if it did happen I wouldn’t be completely surprised.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Thursday afternoon, Seitz stood on a barge about 300 yards off the lake’s west shore. The barge is the operating base for a robotic submarine that is spending the week about a thousand feet below the lake’s surface, using high-definition cameras and ultrasound-like technology to examine the West Tahoe Fault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"//instagram.com/p/b6nh4qyte7/embed/\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" width=\"612\" height=\"710\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seitz and other researchers have been studying sediment deposits and submerged trees on Tahoe’s shore for years, but these images will yield – he hopes, at least – the best evidence yet of what Tahoe’s last earthquake looked like. “We have a pretty good idea of when that happened right now,” he explained. “This will confirm that, hopefully, but also it will give us a new dimension and tell us more about the magnitude. Did it shift ten feet? Did it shift 20 feet?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At this point, evidence suggests the last quake had a magnitude of 7.1 to 7.4. “Usually, the last earthquake gives you the best picture of what the next earthquake will be doing,” Seitz said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Tahoe barge is packed with cables, a crane, a generator and even a propane grill. In a metal shed, scientists monitor video feeds from the sub, along with data showing the machine’s depth, along with the temperature, oxygen and saline levels of the water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Tahoe dives are a tune-up for the submarine and its Northern Illinois University crew. Their ultimate destination is Antarctica, where the sub will dive under ice shelves to conduct climate change-related research. So in addition to providing data for California researchers, the crew is working out kinks. Among them: a small leak that left the sub temporarily grounded when reporters visited the barge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Exactly the type of problem that’s easier to fix on a sunny Lake Tahoe day than deep below an Antarctic ice shelf.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "A Geological Jewel Stands Out In Future East Bay Parklands",
"headTitle": "A Geological Jewel Stands Out In Future East Bay Parklands | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/\">East Bay Regional Parks District\u003c/a> directly serves the 2.6 million people of Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, but the whole Bay Area visits the EBRPD’s 65 parks and the trails that connect them. Many of them have worthy geological features, as I’ve pointed out on KQED before: \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/05/17/black-diamond-reopens-visitor-center/\">Black Diamond Mines\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/10/geological-outings-around-the-bay-las-trampas-regional-wilderness/\">Las Trampas Wilderness\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/06/geological-outings-around-the-bay-point-pinole-and-the-hayward-fault/\">Point Pinole\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/25/geological-outings-around-the-bay-the-moraga-formation/\">Sibley Volcanic Preserve\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/19/geological-outings-around-the-bay-sunol-regional-wilderness/\">Sunol Wilderness\u003c/a>—even the former sand quarries of \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/11/what-happens-to-old-quarries/\">Shadow Cliffs\u003c/a>. This week the EBRPD board accepted its latest master plan targeting 16 new sites as future parklands. Two of those are particularly interesting from the geologist’s point of view. I’m excited by one and dismayed by the other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The site called Duarte Canyon, in far-easternmost Alameda County, is the one I look forward to the most. The former mining district up lonesome Mines Road, between Arroyo Mocho and Del Puerto canyons, attracts geologists to its excellent roadside exposures and \u003ca href=\"http://geotripper.blogspot.com/2011/12/spending-day-in-earths-mantle-exploring.html\">deep-seated ophiolite rocks\u003c/a>. It would be delightful to get away from the roadsides and wander in countryside like this.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5698\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/duarte-canyon.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5698\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/duarte-canyon.jpg\" alt=\"duarte canyon\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5698\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Unnamed canyon east of Mines Road between Tarraville Canyon and Callahan Gulch. This may be what is referred to as Duarte Canyon. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The EBRPD master plan has no details of the Duarte Canyon site beyond its rough location on a map and its name on a list. (The name isn’t even on the detailed topo map of the area.) With any luck, there will be interpretive exhibits to help visitors better understand the things they’re seeing, like this tilted and weathered sandstone of the Great Valley Sequence:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/07/18/a-geological-jewel-stands-out-in-future-east-bay-parklands/delpuertocyn/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5699\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/delpuertocyn.jpg\" alt=\"del puerto canyon\" width=\"500\" height=\"466\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-5699\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other candidate site is not obscure at all: at the opposite corner of Alameda County just north of the Dumbarton Bridge toll gates is a monstrous hole in the ground, the inactive Dumbarton Quarry. Here Franciscan melange was excavated down to 310 feet below sea level and crushed into \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/06/06/californias-pending-sand-and-gravel-crunch/\">aggregate\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5700\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/dumbartonquarry.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5700\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/dumbartonquarry.jpg\" alt=\"dumbarton quarry\" width=\"600\" height=\"425\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5700\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dumbarton Quarry in 2005\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The operators agreed with the city of Fremont and the EBRPD to turn the pit into a lake, but \u003ca href=\"http://www.ibabuzz.com/tricitybeat/2011/08/06/dumbarton-quarry-wont-become-dumbarton-lake/\">they found that to be infeasible\u003c/a>. Their \u003ca href=\"http://www.fremont.gov/DocumentCenter/View/18380\">new reclamation plan, amended last year\u003c/a>, is to take the next 15 years filling the pit back up again with whatever construction waste they can lay their hands on, then tamping it down and planting grass on top. All that beautiful exposed rock will be buried again. It would make me and every geology teacher in the Bay Area happy if they could stop a little short of the top of the pit to display the andesite rock. Quarries are part of our heritage just as much as anything else. And rock climbers could use them too. Short of that, I hope they could salvage a few hundred tons of boulders and leave them out as a memorial.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The final draft of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/planning/mp\">EBRPD master plan\u003c/a> is online and full of gorgeous photographs as well as the principles and guidelines that govern the district’s decision-making. The rest of the 16 expansion sites are covered there too. Most of them are along the shorelines, which is fitting. With the seas projected to rise in coming decades, we will need to focus attention on managing the shore by natural means as well as engineering. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I should also note that the much-discussed Tesla site, where offroad drivers and ghost-town lovers have overlapping desires, also has a long mining heritage like that of Black Diamond Mines. In this respect I’m definitely on the rocks’ side.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Long-range plans by the East Bay Regional Parks District promise at least one geological jewel.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/\">East Bay Regional Parks District\u003c/a> directly serves the 2.6 million people of Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, but the whole Bay Area visits the EBRPD’s 65 parks and the trails that connect them. Many of them have worthy geological features, as I’ve pointed out on KQED before: \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/05/17/black-diamond-reopens-visitor-center/\">Black Diamond Mines\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/10/geological-outings-around-the-bay-las-trampas-regional-wilderness/\">Las Trampas Wilderness\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/06/geological-outings-around-the-bay-point-pinole-and-the-hayward-fault/\">Point Pinole\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/25/geological-outings-around-the-bay-the-moraga-formation/\">Sibley Volcanic Preserve\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/07/19/geological-outings-around-the-bay-sunol-regional-wilderness/\">Sunol Wilderness\u003c/a>—even the former sand quarries of \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/11/what-happens-to-old-quarries/\">Shadow Cliffs\u003c/a>. This week the EBRPD board accepted its latest master plan targeting 16 new sites as future parklands. Two of those are particularly interesting from the geologist’s point of view. I’m excited by one and dismayed by the other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The site called Duarte Canyon, in far-easternmost Alameda County, is the one I look forward to the most. The former mining district up lonesome Mines Road, between Arroyo Mocho and Del Puerto canyons, attracts geologists to its excellent roadside exposures and \u003ca href=\"http://geotripper.blogspot.com/2011/12/spending-day-in-earths-mantle-exploring.html\">deep-seated ophiolite rocks\u003c/a>. It would be delightful to get away from the roadsides and wander in countryside like this.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5698\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/duarte-canyon.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5698\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/duarte-canyon.jpg\" alt=\"duarte canyon\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5698\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Unnamed canyon east of Mines Road between Tarraville Canyon and Callahan Gulch. This may be what is referred to as Duarte Canyon. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The EBRPD master plan has no details of the Duarte Canyon site beyond its rough location on a map and its name on a list. (The name isn’t even on the detailed topo map of the area.) With any luck, there will be interpretive exhibits to help visitors better understand the things they’re seeing, like this tilted and weathered sandstone of the Great Valley Sequence:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/07/18/a-geological-jewel-stands-out-in-future-east-bay-parklands/delpuertocyn/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5699\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/delpuertocyn.jpg\" alt=\"del puerto canyon\" width=\"500\" height=\"466\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-5699\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other candidate site is not obscure at all: at the opposite corner of Alameda County just north of the Dumbarton Bridge toll gates is a monstrous hole in the ground, the inactive Dumbarton Quarry. Here Franciscan melange was excavated down to 310 feet below sea level and crushed into \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/06/06/californias-pending-sand-and-gravel-crunch/\">aggregate\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5700\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/dumbartonquarry.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5700\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/dumbartonquarry.jpg\" alt=\"dumbarton quarry\" width=\"600\" height=\"425\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5700\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dumbarton Quarry in 2005\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The operators agreed with the city of Fremont and the EBRPD to turn the pit into a lake, but \u003ca href=\"http://www.ibabuzz.com/tricitybeat/2011/08/06/dumbarton-quarry-wont-become-dumbarton-lake/\">they found that to be infeasible\u003c/a>. Their \u003ca href=\"http://www.fremont.gov/DocumentCenter/View/18380\">new reclamation plan, amended last year\u003c/a>, is to take the next 15 years filling the pit back up again with whatever construction waste they can lay their hands on, then tamping it down and planting grass on top. All that beautiful exposed rock will be buried again. It would make me and every geology teacher in the Bay Area happy if they could stop a little short of the top of the pit to display the andesite rock. Quarries are part of our heritage just as much as anything else. And rock climbers could use them too. Short of that, I hope they could salvage a few hundred tons of boulders and leave them out as a memorial.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The final draft of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/planning/mp\">EBRPD master plan\u003c/a> is online and full of gorgeous photographs as well as the principles and guidelines that govern the district’s decision-making. The rest of the 16 expansion sites are covered there too. Most of them are along the shorelines, which is fitting. With the seas projected to rise in coming decades, we will need to focus attention on managing the shore by natural means as well as engineering. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I should also note that the much-discussed Tesla site, where offroad drivers and ghost-town lovers have overlapping desires, also has a long mining heritage like that of Black Diamond Mines. In this respect I’m definitely on the rocks’ side.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "A Possible Warning Sign for Human-Caused Earthquakes",
"headTitle": "A Possible Warning Sign for Human-Caused Earthquakes | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>I always start my day by checking the \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/\">U.S. Geological Survey earthquake map\u003c/a> to see what’s been happening in California. Almost every day there are earthquakes of magnitude 3 here; they feel almost routine. But east of the Rockies, M 3 quakes are rare events that get in the newspaper. They’re big enough to alarm people though they seldom cause any damage. And in the last few years they’ve been getting more common, especially in association with oil and gas operations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These human-induced earthquakes are not related to hydraulic fracturing, but to very deep disposal wells that inject waste fluids—formation brine, excess fracking fluid and the like. Over 100,000 injection wells of this type are operating in the United States. Almost all of them make no problems: they do their thing far away from water supplies and are monitored closely. But a handful of wells, maybe a dozen, have gone on to produce unexpected earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In today’s issue of \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>, a team of researchers reports that injection fields approaching an earthquake-ready state may give us a telltale sign: seismic waves sweeping through from huge distant shocks set off tiny local shakers in the process called dynamic triggering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dynamic triggering was first documented after the Landers quake in June 1992, when the M 7.3 rupture in Southern California set off tiny earthquakes over 1000 kilometers away in places like Yellowstone. Today many examples of dynamic triggering have been documented, and it’s no longer a scientific controversy. Since that time we’ve learned that earthquake faults are generally stressed quite near to their rupture point, and from that it would seem that the closer they get to rupture the more likely the slightest disturbance will set them off. I say “it would seem” because ordinary natural disturbances, like tides, magnetic fluctuations and weather fronts, don’t trigger earthquakes. \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6142/164.abstract\">Today’s \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> paper\u003c/a> fits into that background state of knowledge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The United States was shaken from a distance by three recent great quakes: Chile on 27 February 2010 (M 8.8), Japan on 11 March 2011 (M 9.0) and Sumatra on 12 April 2012 (M 8.6). The seismic waves were very slow and moved the ground by mere millimeters; only seismometers could feel them. They left the midcontinent unperturbed, except near three injection-well sites in the southern Plains states that later produced earthquakes of their own. The map below shows those sites and the small events (red dots) that were triggered by the distant quakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5441\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/midwestEQs.gif\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5441\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5441\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/midwestEQs.gif\" alt=\"Midwest earthquakes 2003-2013\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Circles are M 3 events during the last 10 years. Figure adapted from van der Elst et al., “\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6142/164.abstract\">Enhanced Remote Earthquake Triggering at Fluid-Injection Sites in the Midwestern United States\u003c/a>,” \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Trinidad, Colorado, is the site of fluid injections related to coalbed methane production. The area had a quake swarm in August 2011 that included a M 5.3 event. The 2010 Chile quake triggered four shocks there within a day and many more nearby over the next few weeks. The 2011 Japan quake had no effect and the 2012 Sumatra quake triggered only a few shocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Snyder, Texas, hosts injection wells related to oil production. It had a quake swarm in September 2011 that included a M 4.5 event. The 2010 Chile and 2012 Sumatra quakes had no effect there, but the 2011 Japan quake set off eight events.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prague, Oklahoma, is also an oilfield area with waste injection wells. It had a quake swarm in November 2011 that culminated in three magnitude-5 quakes. The 2010 Chile quake triggered dozens of events while the 2011 Japan quake did nothing and the 2012 Sumatra quake set off just a few events.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What these cases all have in common is that from 6 to 20 months before their earthquake swarms, there was a sensitive period when distant shaking set off small quakes. The picture they suggest is that the injected fluids were changing the balance of forces on a fault, forcing it toward a later earthquake swarm, and the triggered events were the fault’s response to what we might call a stress test. If this sensitive period can be identified in other injection-well fields we might be able to avoid impending quake swarms, perhaps by easing off on injections or injecting elsewhere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This possible pattern is not universal (the authors didn’t find it at three other quake-producing injection sites), but it is suggestive. The data fits the scenario of fluid injection gradually raising underground pore pressures to a critical level on previously undetected faults. High pore pressure pushes the walls of the fault apart and allows it to slip more easily. Injection-well operators know how to deal with known faults, and it appears that temporary sensitivity to distant shaking is a clue about a fault that needs careful handling. Dynamic triggering may fit easily into the well operator’s current “traffic-light” system, in which high microquake levels warn them to slow down or stop injections and give the ground a rest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Progress in this field relies on good data. The study couldn’t look farther back in the past because earthquakes east of the Rockies haven’t been closely monitored. The work reported in the \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> paper was made possible by accurate earthquake records from USArray, the long-running federally funded research project in which a giant grid of hundreds of seismometers was temporarily placed, like a doctor’s stethoscope, in a wide belt from the Dakotas to Texas. \u003ca href=\"http://www.usarray.org/status\">Today the USArray grid is farther east\u003c/a>, but it left some extra instruments behind to help out in the southern Plains states.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>I always start my day by checking the \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/\">U.S. Geological Survey earthquake map\u003c/a> to see what’s been happening in California. Almost every day there are earthquakes of magnitude 3 here; they feel almost routine. But east of the Rockies, M 3 quakes are rare events that get in the newspaper. They’re big enough to alarm people though they seldom cause any damage. And in the last few years they’ve been getting more common, especially in association with oil and gas operations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These human-induced earthquakes are not related to hydraulic fracturing, but to very deep disposal wells that inject waste fluids—formation brine, excess fracking fluid and the like. Over 100,000 injection wells of this type are operating in the United States. Almost all of them make no problems: they do their thing far away from water supplies and are monitored closely. But a handful of wells, maybe a dozen, have gone on to produce unexpected earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In today’s issue of \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>, a team of researchers reports that injection fields approaching an earthquake-ready state may give us a telltale sign: seismic waves sweeping through from huge distant shocks set off tiny local shakers in the process called dynamic triggering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dynamic triggering was first documented after the Landers quake in June 1992, when the M 7.3 rupture in Southern California set off tiny earthquakes over 1000 kilometers away in places like Yellowstone. Today many examples of dynamic triggering have been documented, and it’s no longer a scientific controversy. Since that time we’ve learned that earthquake faults are generally stressed quite near to their rupture point, and from that it would seem that the closer they get to rupture the more likely the slightest disturbance will set them off. I say “it would seem” because ordinary natural disturbances, like tides, magnetic fluctuations and weather fronts, don’t trigger earthquakes. \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6142/164.abstract\">Today’s \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> paper\u003c/a> fits into that background state of knowledge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The United States was shaken from a distance by three recent great quakes: Chile on 27 February 2010 (M 8.8), Japan on 11 March 2011 (M 9.0) and Sumatra on 12 April 2012 (M 8.6). The seismic waves were very slow and moved the ground by mere millimeters; only seismometers could feel them. They left the midcontinent unperturbed, except near three injection-well sites in the southern Plains states that later produced earthquakes of their own. The map below shows those sites and the small events (red dots) that were triggered by the distant quakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_5441\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/midwestEQs.gif\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-5441\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5441\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/07/midwestEQs.gif\" alt=\"Midwest earthquakes 2003-2013\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Circles are M 3 events during the last 10 years. Figure adapted from van der Elst et al., “\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/341/6142/164.abstract\">Enhanced Remote Earthquake Triggering at Fluid-Injection Sites in the Midwestern United States\u003c/a>,” \u003cem>Science\u003c/em>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Trinidad, Colorado, is the site of fluid injections related to coalbed methane production. The area had a quake swarm in August 2011 that included a M 5.3 event. The 2010 Chile quake triggered four shocks there within a day and many more nearby over the next few weeks. The 2011 Japan quake had no effect and the 2012 Sumatra quake triggered only a few shocks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Snyder, Texas, hosts injection wells related to oil production. It had a quake swarm in September 2011 that included a M 4.5 event. The 2010 Chile and 2012 Sumatra quakes had no effect there, but the 2011 Japan quake set off eight events.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Prague, Oklahoma, is also an oilfield area with waste injection wells. It had a quake swarm in November 2011 that culminated in three magnitude-5 quakes. The 2010 Chile quake triggered dozens of events while the 2011 Japan quake did nothing and the 2012 Sumatra quake set off just a few events.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What these cases all have in common is that from 6 to 20 months before their earthquake swarms, there was a sensitive period when distant shaking set off small quakes. The picture they suggest is that the injected fluids were changing the balance of forces on a fault, forcing it toward a later earthquake swarm, and the triggered events were the fault’s response to what we might call a stress test. If this sensitive period can be identified in other injection-well fields we might be able to avoid impending quake swarms, perhaps by easing off on injections or injecting elsewhere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This possible pattern is not universal (the authors didn’t find it at three other quake-producing injection sites), but it is suggestive. The data fits the scenario of fluid injection gradually raising underground pore pressures to a critical level on previously undetected faults. High pore pressure pushes the walls of the fault apart and allows it to slip more easily. Injection-well operators know how to deal with known faults, and it appears that temporary sensitivity to distant shaking is a clue about a fault that needs careful handling. Dynamic triggering may fit easily into the well operator’s current “traffic-light” system, in which high microquake levels warn them to slow down or stop injections and give the ground a rest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Progress in this field relies on good data. The study couldn’t look farther back in the past because earthquakes east of the Rockies haven’t been closely monitored. The work reported in the \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> paper was made possible by accurate earthquake records from USArray, the long-running federally funded research project in which a giant grid of hundreds of seismometers was temporarily placed, like a doctor’s stethoscope, in a wide belt from the Dakotas to Texas. \u003ca href=\"http://www.usarray.org/status\">Today the USArray grid is farther east\u003c/a>, but it left some extra instruments behind to help out in the southern Plains states.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Bay Area’s Best Geology Museum: Children's Natural History Museum",
"headTitle": "Bay Area’s Best Geology Museum: Children’s Natural History Museum | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://cnhm.msnucleus.org/\">Children’s Natural History Museum\u003c/a> is under the radar in a modest building in Fremont. But under the management of Joyce Blueford, a trained paleontologist with a Ph.D. from UC Santa Cruz, it gives thousands of local students and their teachers the chance to put their hands on real scientific tools and geological treasures. Its core attraction is a large set of specimens from the Bay Area’s greatest fossil find: the Ice Age mammals of the Irvington gravels. Some of the museum’s best fossils are appearing right now at the Alameda County Fair.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4486\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-top.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4486\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4486\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-top.jpg\" alt=\"mammoth bones at the CNHM\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mammoths lived all over the Bay Area not that long ago. The Children’s Natural History Museum has a rich collection of their bones. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The sand and gravel quarries of Irvington, one of the five towns that incorporated as Fremont in 1956, were a rich source of fossil bones. Starting in the 1940s, they were assiduously collected by longtime East Bay teacher Wes Gordon. He loved to teach science as a hands-on activity, and Gordon’s group of high-school student assistants were immortalized by \u003cem>Life\u003c/em> magazine as “the Boy Paleontologists.” The fossils of Irvington are the scientific basis of a formal North American Land Mammal Age, the Irvingtonian.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of the fossil trove went to UC Berkeley, but other local institutions were given fossils to promote their science teaching. Gordon’s pride and joy was the science museum he maintained for the San Lorenzo School District, which included many Irvington fossils, a large rock and mineral collection, a set of Ohlone artifacts and century-old taxidermied animals cast off by the De Young Museum.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After Gordon died, his collections became the heart of the Children’s Natural History Museum. I walked in one afternoon and Blueford led me to some of the large Irvington bones, still half encased in their hard gravel matrix. Nowhere else in the world can you simply pick up this material from a shelf in your own hands. The collection has bones of mammoths, camels, horses, wolves, pronghorns, large cats and more, all from Ice Age species that are now extinct.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4487\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-camels.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4487\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4487\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-camels.jpg\" alt=\"Fremont camel fossils\" width=\"600\" height=\"440\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">North America gave rise to the camellid mammals. These bones represent the last New World camels\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One little thing that impressed me when I visited the museum was the rocks for sale in the gift shop. They’re real rocks that you can learn from, not just pretty pebbles, and they’re priced low. The rest of the museum is also full of real stuff, ready to unlock a child’s mind and engage a teacher’s skills in ways that no website or interactive kiosk can offer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The museum also has a small planetarium, a roomful of microscopes and microfossils to use them on, lots of skulls and bones and shells, and two classrooms for groups of young students. There’s also an exhibit on the Boy Paleontologists. More Irvington fossils are still out there, if an effort can be mounted and funded, and maybe a new set of Young Paleontologists, no longer limited to boys, can arise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/06/20/bay-areas-best-geology-museum-childrens-natural-history-museum/cnhm-boysroom/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4488\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-4488\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-boysroom.jpg\" alt=\"Boy Paleontologists\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blueford is showing some of the best fossils from the Children’s Natural History Museum at the Alameda County Fair. Look for them in the Minerals and Gems exhibit in area O, at the center of the fair. The museum is just one of the projects under the \u003ca href=\"http://www.msnucleus.org/\">Math/Science Nucleus\u003c/a>, the nonprofit umbrella organization Blueford founded in 1982. Pull up a chair and ask about the Nucleus’s projects on the Hayward fault, watershed restoration, Fremont history, fossil preparation, and K-8 science curricula and teaching kits. All of them can make well-targeted use of volunteers, interns, docents and donations of talent and equipment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Around these parts, geology has become a niche topic in schools even as interest in local sustainability rises, the need for mined resources grows, and some of the world’s most fascinating geology is on display. The Bay Area is blessed with some wonderful big science museums, but geology is poorly represented at them. So it is that a modest outpost in Fremont with brief hours and a small staff is the Bay Area’s best geology museum. If you have any interest in good science education, seek it out and consider the opportunities it offers.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://cnhm.msnucleus.org/\">Children’s Natural History Museum\u003c/a> is under the radar in a modest building in Fremont. But under the management of Joyce Blueford, a trained paleontologist with a Ph.D. from UC Santa Cruz, it gives thousands of local students and their teachers the chance to put their hands on real scientific tools and geological treasures. Its core attraction is a large set of specimens from the Bay Area’s greatest fossil find: the Ice Age mammals of the Irvington gravels. Some of the museum’s best fossils are appearing right now at the Alameda County Fair.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4486\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-top.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4486\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4486\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-top.jpg\" alt=\"mammoth bones at the CNHM\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mammoths lived all over the Bay Area not that long ago. The Children’s Natural History Museum has a rich collection of their bones. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The sand and gravel quarries of Irvington, one of the five towns that incorporated as Fremont in 1956, were a rich source of fossil bones. Starting in the 1940s, they were assiduously collected by longtime East Bay teacher Wes Gordon. He loved to teach science as a hands-on activity, and Gordon’s group of high-school student assistants were immortalized by \u003cem>Life\u003c/em> magazine as “the Boy Paleontologists.” The fossils of Irvington are the scientific basis of a formal North American Land Mammal Age, the Irvingtonian.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Much of the fossil trove went to UC Berkeley, but other local institutions were given fossils to promote their science teaching. Gordon’s pride and joy was the science museum he maintained for the San Lorenzo School District, which included many Irvington fossils, a large rock and mineral collection, a set of Ohlone artifacts and century-old taxidermied animals cast off by the De Young Museum.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After Gordon died, his collections became the heart of the Children’s Natural History Museum. I walked in one afternoon and Blueford led me to some of the large Irvington bones, still half encased in their hard gravel matrix. Nowhere else in the world can you simply pick up this material from a shelf in your own hands. The collection has bones of mammoths, camels, horses, wolves, pronghorns, large cats and more, all from Ice Age species that are now extinct.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4487\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-camels.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4487\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4487\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-camels.jpg\" alt=\"Fremont camel fossils\" width=\"600\" height=\"440\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">North America gave rise to the camellid mammals. These bones represent the last New World camels\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One little thing that impressed me when I visited the museum was the rocks for sale in the gift shop. They’re real rocks that you can learn from, not just pretty pebbles, and they’re priced low. The rest of the museum is also full of real stuff, ready to unlock a child’s mind and engage a teacher’s skills in ways that no website or interactive kiosk can offer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The museum also has a small planetarium, a roomful of microscopes and microfossils to use them on, lots of skulls and bones and shells, and two classrooms for groups of young students. There’s also an exhibit on the Boy Paleontologists. More Irvington fossils are still out there, if an effort can be mounted and funded, and maybe a new set of Young Paleontologists, no longer limited to boys, can arise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/06/20/bay-areas-best-geology-museum-childrens-natural-history-museum/cnhm-boysroom/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4488\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-4488\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/CNHM-boysroom.jpg\" alt=\"Boy Paleontologists\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blueford is showing some of the best fossils from the Children’s Natural History Museum at the Alameda County Fair. Look for them in the Minerals and Gems exhibit in area O, at the center of the fair. The museum is just one of the projects under the \u003ca href=\"http://www.msnucleus.org/\">Math/Science Nucleus\u003c/a>, the nonprofit umbrella organization Blueford founded in 1982. Pull up a chair and ask about the Nucleus’s projects on the Hayward fault, watershed restoration, Fremont history, fossil preparation, and K-8 science curricula and teaching kits. All of them can make well-targeted use of volunteers, interns, docents and donations of talent and equipment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Around these parts, geology has become a niche topic in schools even as interest in local sustainability rises, the need for mined resources grows, and some of the world’s most fascinating geology is on display. The Bay Area is blessed with some wonderful big science museums, but geology is poorly represented at them. So it is that a modest outpost in Fremont with brief hours and a small staff is the Bay Area’s best geology museum. If you have any interest in good science education, seek it out and consider the opportunities it offers.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Curiosity Prepares to Set Forth From Base Camp At Last",
"headTitle": "Curiosity Prepares to Set Forth From Base Camp At Last | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4352\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/curiosity-and-mount-sharp.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4352\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/curiosity-and-mount-sharp.jpg\" alt=\"NASA's Curiosity Rover and Mount Sharp\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4352\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA’s Curiosity Rover and Mount Sharp\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The exploration of Mars is not like your parents’ science fiction adventure movie, where would-be explorers hit the ground with wheels spinning, flinging up red rooster tails of dust as they motocross their way over the Martian terrain in search of a game-changing plot complication.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not like that at all — well, except for the part about the game-changing plot complication, which is the entire thrust of the mission of NASA’s Curiosity rover. The game-changer–assessing if conditions on Mars were ever suitable for the formation of life–is in fact a much desired complication, something we’ve been hoping to determine since we started studying Mars with robotic probes almost 50 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As far as an action adventure goes, Curiosity’s activities since landing on Mars ten months ago might be called conservative. It’s traveled less than half a mile from its landing spot and poked about the rocks and soil in one small area, while what we might assume is the beginning of its true adventure lies five miles and maybe a year or more away. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Curiosity’s \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/25/mars-mountainclimbing-mashup/\" title=\"Mars Mountain Climbing Mashup\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">primary mission\u003c/a> is to study the geology of the layers of sediment that make up Mount Sharp, a large mountain at the center of the vast Gale Crater. Gale is an ancient impact crater believed to have filled with sediment over billions of years of erosion and deposition, some of it probably by water action. Like an open book of the geologic history of Mars, its story written in pages of sediment, Curiosity has yet to climb up its slopes to read the conditions of the past. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While I am as anxious as the next Mars geek to see the gravel and stone of Mount Sharp up close (and, I admit, my own sense of the fantastic yearns for Curiosity to find something like, oh, say, fossils), it’s worth mentioning that Curiosity’s work at its “base camp” (an area of crater floor alluvium dubbed “Glenelg”) has proven to be a huge down payment on that game-changer we’re looking for. Three different types of geology converge in this area, which has given Curiosity a variety to sample sources to drill, scoop, and analyze. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Early in its exploration Curiosity discovered a \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/05/news-from-mars-a-river-ran-through-it/\" title=\"A River Ran Through It\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">pebbly matrix\u003c/a> that strongly resembles formations on Earth that are known to have been laid down by past streams of water, hinting at liquid water flowing over the Martian terrain long ago. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Using its \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/22/mars-rovercuriosity-digs-a-little-deeper/\" title=\"Curiosity Digs a Little Deeper\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">drill\u003c/a>, Curiosity has probed deeper into Martian geology than ever in the past—2.6 inches—revealing beneath the weathered, rusty orange outer surface of its target rocks (\u003ca href=\"http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2013/05/22/curiosity-drills-a-second-hole-on-mars/\" title=\"NASA's Curiosity drills into Martian rock\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">“John Klein” and “Cumberland”\u003c/a>) the blue-gray face of a hidden Mars. Analysis of the John Klein rock samples revealed a number of chemical elements found in life on Earth, including sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and carbon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Past surface water. The chemicals that comprise Earth-life. Game-changing findings. Not bad for what amount to warm-up exercises at the foot of a mountain that promises to tell us so much more about Mars’ past. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, Curiosity is preparing to shift gears and enter a long-distance travel mode to reach the foot of Mount Sharp in the coming months. Mission scientists can’t say when it will reach the mountain, because there is always the possibility that Curiosity will happen upon something so interesting that we must stop to take a closer look, but that’s how exploration goes: often it is along the journey, and not what we find at the destination, that we discover the biggest game-changers.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "After ten months of studying a small patch of Mars half a mile from its landing point, NASA's Curiosity rover pulls up stakes, packs its bags and prepares to set forth on a trek to reach the base of Mount Sharp, a layered mound of Martian geologic history with secrets just waiting to be discovered. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4352\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/curiosity-and-mount-sharp.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4352\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/curiosity-and-mount-sharp.jpg\" alt=\"NASA's Curiosity Rover and Mount Sharp\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4352\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA’s Curiosity Rover and Mount Sharp\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The exploration of Mars is not like your parents’ science fiction adventure movie, where would-be explorers hit the ground with wheels spinning, flinging up red rooster tails of dust as they motocross their way over the Martian terrain in search of a game-changing plot complication.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not like that at all — well, except for the part about the game-changing plot complication, which is the entire thrust of the mission of NASA’s Curiosity rover. The game-changer–assessing if conditions on Mars were ever suitable for the formation of life–is in fact a much desired complication, something we’ve been hoping to determine since we started studying Mars with robotic probes almost 50 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As far as an action adventure goes, Curiosity’s activities since landing on Mars ten months ago might be called conservative. It’s traveled less than half a mile from its landing spot and poked about the rocks and soil in one small area, while what we might assume is the beginning of its true adventure lies five miles and maybe a year or more away. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Curiosity’s \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/01/25/mars-mountainclimbing-mashup/\" title=\"Mars Mountain Climbing Mashup\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">primary mission\u003c/a> is to study the geology of the layers of sediment that make up Mount Sharp, a large mountain at the center of the vast Gale Crater. Gale is an ancient impact crater believed to have filled with sediment over billions of years of erosion and deposition, some of it probably by water action. Like an open book of the geologic history of Mars, its story written in pages of sediment, Curiosity has yet to climb up its slopes to read the conditions of the past. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While I am as anxious as the next Mars geek to see the gravel and stone of Mount Sharp up close (and, I admit, my own sense of the fantastic yearns for Curiosity to find something like, oh, say, fossils), it’s worth mentioning that Curiosity’s work at its “base camp” (an area of crater floor alluvium dubbed “Glenelg”) has proven to be a huge down payment on that game-changer we’re looking for. Three different types of geology converge in this area, which has given Curiosity a variety to sample sources to drill, scoop, and analyze. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Early in its exploration Curiosity discovered a \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2012/10/05/news-from-mars-a-river-ran-through-it/\" title=\"A River Ran Through It\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">pebbly matrix\u003c/a> that strongly resembles formations on Earth that are known to have been laid down by past streams of water, hinting at liquid water flowing over the Martian terrain long ago. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Using its \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2013/02/22/mars-rovercuriosity-digs-a-little-deeper/\" title=\"Curiosity Digs a Little Deeper\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">drill\u003c/a>, Curiosity has probed deeper into Martian geology than ever in the past—2.6 inches—revealing beneath the weathered, rusty orange outer surface of its target rocks (\u003ca href=\"http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2013/05/22/curiosity-drills-a-second-hole-on-mars/\" title=\"NASA's Curiosity drills into Martian rock\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">“John Klein” and “Cumberland”\u003c/a>) the blue-gray face of a hidden Mars. Analysis of the John Klein rock samples revealed a number of chemical elements found in life on Earth, including sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and carbon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Past surface water. The chemicals that comprise Earth-life. Game-changing findings. Not bad for what amount to warm-up exercises at the foot of a mountain that promises to tell us so much more about Mars’ past. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, Curiosity is preparing to shift gears and enter a long-distance travel mode to reach the foot of Mount Sharp in the coming months. Mission scientists can’t say when it will reach the mountain, because there is always the possibility that Curiosity will happen upon something so interesting that we must stop to take a closer look, but that’s how exploration goes: often it is along the journey, and not what we find at the destination, that we discover the biggest game-changers.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4324\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/EHux.gif\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4324\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/EHux.gif\" alt=\"Emiliania huxleyi\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4324\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> is a one-celled alga that lives inside a shell of coccoliths. Courtesy Gerhard Langer, Alfred Wegener Institute\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This week in the journal \u003ci>Nature\u003c/i>, a worldwide team of 75 scientists revealed the genetic blueprint of the one-celled alga \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i>, which may be the most important species you’ve never heard of. The genomes of the domestic dog and cat are interesting, but the \u003ci>E. huxleyi\u003c/i> genome is a much bigger story. Some day this organism may become another of our partner species, as vital to us as yeast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Oceanographers of all kinds know \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> by the nickname “Ehux,” and that’s what I’ll call it too. Among the marine algae, Ehux is classified as a coccolithophore, so named because it builds loose shells around itself made of coccoliths. Coccoliths, in turn, are the intricate disks seen in the photo above at high magnification. The fate of Earth’s changing climate may ride on coccoliths.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the world’s atmospheric carbon cycle, the ocean is ultimately in charge. And in the ocean’s carbon cycle, Ehux is a keystone species. To make coccoliths, Ehux takes carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater and combines it with calcium ions in the water to make calcium carbonate (the mineral calcite), somehow rendering its spiky crystals into shapes elegant enough to inspire new forms of pasta. CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air replaces what’s removed from the seawater. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coccolithophores are the single largest producer of biogenic calcium carbonate on Earth, and Ehux is their leading species. Ehux grows in every part of the ocean except around the frozen poles. It’s prone to enormous blooms—bursts of reproduction that may cover areas as large as California. Ehux blooms, with their uncountable numbers of coccoliths, reflect so much light that they turn the water a milky blue that is easily monitored by satellites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4325\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/ehuxbloom.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4325\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/ehuxbloom.jpg\" alt=\"Ehux bloom\" width=\"400\" height=\"240\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4325\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A large bloom of \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> in the North Atlantic. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Shed coccoliths drift down to the seafloor, and in favorable times in the geologic past they have formed beds of chalk. (The climax era of the dinosaurs, the Cretaceous Period, got its name from the thick chalk beds of Europe.) Chalk, and the coccoliths that compose it, represent carbon removed from the atmosphere. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another special skill of Ehux is turning sulfur compounds into the gas dimethyl sulfide, a major ingredient in the formation of sea clouds. Its dual roles in cloud formation and CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> regulation put Ehux at the crux of global climate. As atmospheric carbon dioxide rises today we need to learn, as fast as possible, exactly how nature handles it. The open-access \u003ci>Nature\u003c/i> paper promises to put our hands on Ehux’s genetic toolkit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What can we do with that? The possible benefits range from pure science to pure technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i>‘s genome turns out to be as big as that of a full-grown land plant, at 141 million bases. That’s one reason the gene-mapping project took ten years. Another reason is that the genome is an extraordinarily diverse “pan genome,” with a core set of genes and a large set of optional ones suited to particular environments. The pan genome enables Ehux to cope with a wide range of limiting conditions like low nutrient levels and strong ultraviolet radiation. The research team found that Ehux strains in different oceans were less than 80 percent similar—compare that to humans, who are 99 percent similar around the world. This is the first pan genome found outside bacteria. And Ehux may also be as adept as bacteria at gene-swapping. These factors make Ehux extremely adaptable and account for its worldwide abundance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We can make use of genes that control so many things. “\u003ci>E. huxleyi\u003c/i> synthesizes unusual lipids that are used as nutritional/feedstock supplements, polymer precursors and petrochemical replacements,” the authors note. If we are to master the science of making \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/audio/biofuels-face-a-reality-check/\">biofuels\u003c/a> and sustainable plastics from algae, we must domesticate Ehux or a species like it. Perhaps we can also train it to build nanostructures other than coccoliths, with possible applications that include optical-electronic technology and medicine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Nature\u003c/i> paper, “Pan genome of the phytoplankton \u003ci>Emiliania\u003c/i> underpins its global distribution,” \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature12221.html\">is available in full to all readers\u003c/a>. It is thick reading, but dense with meaning and promise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The name \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> honors achievements of two great polymaths in Earth science: \u003ca href=\"http://www.as.miami.edu/geology/emiliani\">Cesare Emiliani\u003c/a> (1922–1995), founder of paleoclimatology, and \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Huxley\">Thomas Henry Huxley\u003c/a> (1825–1895), discoverer of coccoliths. Learn more about Ehux at the \u003ca>Ehux home page\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Several California institutions were part of this effort, most notably the Department of Energy’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.jgi.doe.gov/News/news_13_06_12.html\">Joint Genome Institute\u003c/a> in Walnut Creek. Others included Cal State San Marcos, the Craig Venter Institute, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, UC Santa Barbara and Cal State Chico.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The genome of the one-celled alga Emiliania huxleyi, the most important species you've never heard of, is now open for business.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4324\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/EHux.gif\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4324\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/EHux.gif\" alt=\"Emiliania huxleyi\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4324\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> is a one-celled alga that lives inside a shell of coccoliths. Courtesy Gerhard Langer, Alfred Wegener Institute\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This week in the journal \u003ci>Nature\u003c/i>, a worldwide team of 75 scientists revealed the genetic blueprint of the one-celled alga \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i>, which may be the most important species you’ve never heard of. The genomes of the domestic dog and cat are interesting, but the \u003ci>E. huxleyi\u003c/i> genome is a much bigger story. Some day this organism may become another of our partner species, as vital to us as yeast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Oceanographers of all kinds know \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> by the nickname “Ehux,” and that’s what I’ll call it too. Among the marine algae, Ehux is classified as a coccolithophore, so named because it builds loose shells around itself made of coccoliths. Coccoliths, in turn, are the intricate disks seen in the photo above at high magnification. The fate of Earth’s changing climate may ride on coccoliths.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the world’s atmospheric carbon cycle, the ocean is ultimately in charge. And in the ocean’s carbon cycle, Ehux is a keystone species. To make coccoliths, Ehux takes carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater and combines it with calcium ions in the water to make calcium carbonate (the mineral calcite), somehow rendering its spiky crystals into shapes elegant enough to inspire new forms of pasta. CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air replaces what’s removed from the seawater. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coccolithophores are the single largest producer of biogenic calcium carbonate on Earth, and Ehux is their leading species. Ehux grows in every part of the ocean except around the frozen poles. It’s prone to enormous blooms—bursts of reproduction that may cover areas as large as California. Ehux blooms, with their uncountable numbers of coccoliths, reflect so much light that they turn the water a milky blue that is easily monitored by satellites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4325\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/ehuxbloom.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4325\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/ehuxbloom.jpg\" alt=\"Ehux bloom\" width=\"400\" height=\"240\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4325\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A large bloom of \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> in the North Atlantic. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Shed coccoliths drift down to the seafloor, and in favorable times in the geologic past they have formed beds of chalk. (The climax era of the dinosaurs, the Cretaceous Period, got its name from the thick chalk beds of Europe.) Chalk, and the coccoliths that compose it, represent carbon removed from the atmosphere. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another special skill of Ehux is turning sulfur compounds into the gas dimethyl sulfide, a major ingredient in the formation of sea clouds. Its dual roles in cloud formation and CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> regulation put Ehux at the crux of global climate. As atmospheric carbon dioxide rises today we need to learn, as fast as possible, exactly how nature handles it. The open-access \u003ci>Nature\u003c/i> paper promises to put our hands on Ehux’s genetic toolkit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What can we do with that? The possible benefits range from pure science to pure technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i>‘s genome turns out to be as big as that of a full-grown land plant, at 141 million bases. That’s one reason the gene-mapping project took ten years. Another reason is that the genome is an extraordinarily diverse “pan genome,” with a core set of genes and a large set of optional ones suited to particular environments. The pan genome enables Ehux to cope with a wide range of limiting conditions like low nutrient levels and strong ultraviolet radiation. The research team found that Ehux strains in different oceans were less than 80 percent similar—compare that to humans, who are 99 percent similar around the world. This is the first pan genome found outside bacteria. And Ehux may also be as adept as bacteria at gene-swapping. These factors make Ehux extremely adaptable and account for its worldwide abundance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We can make use of genes that control so many things. “\u003ci>E. huxleyi\u003c/i> synthesizes unusual lipids that are used as nutritional/feedstock supplements, polymer precursors and petrochemical replacements,” the authors note. If we are to master the science of making \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/audio/biofuels-face-a-reality-check/\">biofuels\u003c/a> and sustainable plastics from algae, we must domesticate Ehux or a species like it. Perhaps we can also train it to build nanostructures other than coccoliths, with possible applications that include optical-electronic technology and medicine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ci>Nature\u003c/i> paper, “Pan genome of the phytoplankton \u003ci>Emiliania\u003c/i> underpins its global distribution,” \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature12221.html\">is available in full to all readers\u003c/a>. It is thick reading, but dense with meaning and promise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The name \u003ci>Emiliania huxleyi\u003c/i> honors achievements of two great polymaths in Earth science: \u003ca href=\"http://www.as.miami.edu/geology/emiliani\">Cesare Emiliani\u003c/a> (1922–1995), founder of paleoclimatology, and \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Huxley\">Thomas Henry Huxley\u003c/a> (1825–1895), discoverer of coccoliths. Learn more about Ehux at the \u003ca>Ehux home page\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Several California institutions were part of this effort, most notably the Department of Energy’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.jgi.doe.gov/News/news_13_06_12.html\">Joint Genome Institute\u003c/a> in Walnut Creek. Others included Cal State San Marcos, the Craig Venter Institute, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, UC Santa Barbara and Cal State Chico.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "California's Looming Sand-and-Gravel Crunch",
"headTitle": "California’s Looming Sand-and-Gravel Crunch | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4035\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate-top.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4035\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate-top.jpg\" alt=\"Gravel piles at the Tiechert quarry near Yuba City\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4035\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Graded gravel piles at the Tiechert quarry near Yuba City. Andrew Alden photos\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Civilization runs on refined energy and refined materials. While refined energy needs no introduction these days, most people need reminding that there is no economy without steady supplies of the most basic refined material of all: aggregate. A new map from the state government’s geologists is alerting us that California cities and regions must keep thinking locally to keep prospering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The big three commodities that define aggregate are sand, gravel and crushed stone. They are essential for modern roads, whether white concrete or black asphalt, and for the deep roadbeds beneath them. They underlie foundations of all kinds: railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers and apartment blocks, gas station tanks, stadiums. Every pothole filled requires aggregate from somewhere, usually fresh from a quarry. Recycling is important, but limited.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can’t use any old sand and gravel. Some deposits have chemically active minerals like pyrite; others are too weak or full of dust. Every construction project specifies a tightly controlled grade of material, and concrete, the mixture of aggregate and portland cement holding it together, is the most demanding. Concrete is 80 percent aggregate. The numbers that follow refer to concrete-grade aggregate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4036\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4036\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate.jpg\" alt=\"crushed stone\" width=\"600\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4036\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crushed stone makes up the bulk of concrete\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These days, the state goes through more than 200 million tons of high-grade aggregate every year, the equivalent of more than 7 million trips by large diesel trucks. Take a minute and consider the wear and tear those 7 million truckloads put on the roads; beyond that, trucking aggregate produces a huge amount of carbon emissions. And it adds 15 cents per mile to the cost of every ton delivered, or $7.50 per ton for the typical 50-mile haul on straight roads with little traffic. The material itself costs around $10 per ton for mining, crushing and other processing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As California’s population rises, local regions must plan to reduce their waste output, decrease their water usage, and manage many other aspects of environmentally sustainable practices. Aggregate, too, needs to remain sustainable. The transportation costs of aggregate mean that it must always have a local source. Whether that source is artisanal aggregate from a boutique rock quarry or a big pit of good cheap river gravel—either is fine—is up to your local and regional jurisdictions. And quarries aren’t awful things; \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/11/what-happens-to-old-quarries/\">once played out they can be repurposed for all sorts of uses\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where does the new map fit in this picture? The California Geological Survey has been classifying the state’s mineral lands, based strictly on geological data, since 1975, and it follows the aggregate industry closely. The CGS has found that population is the best gauge of demand for aggregate, so it’s a straightforward if intricate exercise to work out which regions are doing fine and which need to issue more quarry permits to keep up. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The CGS issued its first statewide map of aggregate supply and demand in 2002 and updated it in 2006 and 2012. \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/minerals/mlc/Pages/Index.aspx\">The latest edition, Map Sheet 52, was released this spring\u003c/a> and covers about 85 percent of the total market. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4037\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregatemap.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4037\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregatemap.png\" alt=\"part of CGS map sheet 52\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4037\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Part of CGS Map Sheet 52. Pie charts represent total demand for aggregate (circles) and permitted reserves (darker wedges). Triangles are aggregate suppliers\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today four “aggregate study areas” of California have aggregate reserves—bodies of suitable material with companies permitted to produce them—that will last less than 10 years. They are important, fast-growing regions: San Diego, Sacramento, Fresno and the San Fernando Valley. Only a little behind, with 11- to 20-year reserves, are 13 other areas that encompass the Bay Area and most of the Los Angeles conurbation. Placer County and the Yuba City–Marysville area are set for life with enormous reserves, but as I mentioned, transport costs limit where they can be profitably marketed. It seems to me that nearby Sacramento is probably OK if a dedicated rail connection can be set up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the distance of quarries from their markets continues to grow, the costs of aggregate will keep rising. Sooner or later those costs will hit limits that force hard choices. Surges in demand, such as those after a large earthquake or a Delta levee failure, could stress and fracture the system. It behooves our leaders, and citizens who care, to stay farsighted about this basic matter. Meanwhile \u003ca href=\"http://fallmeeting.agu.org/2012/eposters/eposter/gc11b-0996/\">the CGS is considering more sophisticated maps\u003c/a> to help decision-makers. The aggregate industry is weighing in too; the website \u003ca href=\"http://www.calcima.org/\">calcima.org\u003c/a> sends mixed messages (imported Chinese cement is not related to the aggregate supply), but its \u003ca href=\"http://www.calcima.org/html/links.html\">links page\u003c/a> is useful background.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4035\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate-top.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4035\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate-top.jpg\" alt=\"Gravel piles at the Tiechert quarry near Yuba City\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4035\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Graded gravel piles at the Tiechert quarry near Yuba City. Andrew Alden photos\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Civilization runs on refined energy and refined materials. While refined energy needs no introduction these days, most people need reminding that there is no economy without steady supplies of the most basic refined material of all: aggregate. A new map from the state government’s geologists is alerting us that California cities and regions must keep thinking locally to keep prospering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The big three commodities that define aggregate are sand, gravel and crushed stone. They are essential for modern roads, whether white concrete or black asphalt, and for the deep roadbeds beneath them. They underlie foundations of all kinds: railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers and apartment blocks, gas station tanks, stadiums. Every pothole filled requires aggregate from somewhere, usually fresh from a quarry. Recycling is important, but limited.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can’t use any old sand and gravel. Some deposits have chemically active minerals like pyrite; others are too weak or full of dust. Every construction project specifies a tightly controlled grade of material, and concrete, the mixture of aggregate and portland cement holding it together, is the most demanding. Concrete is 80 percent aggregate. The numbers that follow refer to concrete-grade aggregate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4036\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4036\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregate.jpg\" alt=\"crushed stone\" width=\"600\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4036\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crushed stone makes up the bulk of concrete\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These days, the state goes through more than 200 million tons of high-grade aggregate every year, the equivalent of more than 7 million trips by large diesel trucks. Take a minute and consider the wear and tear those 7 million truckloads put on the roads; beyond that, trucking aggregate produces a huge amount of carbon emissions. And it adds 15 cents per mile to the cost of every ton delivered, or $7.50 per ton for the typical 50-mile haul on straight roads with little traffic. The material itself costs around $10 per ton for mining, crushing and other processing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As California’s population rises, local regions must plan to reduce their waste output, decrease their water usage, and manage many other aspects of environmentally sustainable practices. Aggregate, too, needs to remain sustainable. The transportation costs of aggregate mean that it must always have a local source. Whether that source is artisanal aggregate from a boutique rock quarry or a big pit of good cheap river gravel—either is fine—is up to your local and regional jurisdictions. And quarries aren’t awful things; \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/11/what-happens-to-old-quarries/\">once played out they can be repurposed for all sorts of uses\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where does the new map fit in this picture? The California Geological Survey has been classifying the state’s mineral lands, based strictly on geological data, since 1975, and it follows the aggregate industry closely. The CGS has found that population is the best gauge of demand for aggregate, so it’s a straightforward if intricate exercise to work out which regions are doing fine and which need to issue more quarry permits to keep up. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The CGS issued its first statewide map of aggregate supply and demand in 2002 and updated it in 2006 and 2012. \u003ca href=\"http://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/minerals/mlc/Pages/Index.aspx\">The latest edition, Map Sheet 52, was released this spring\u003c/a> and covers about 85 percent of the total market. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_4037\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregatemap.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-4037\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/aggregatemap.png\" alt=\"part of CGS map sheet 52\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4037\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Part of CGS Map Sheet 52. Pie charts represent total demand for aggregate (circles) and permitted reserves (darker wedges). Triangles are aggregate suppliers\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today four “aggregate study areas” of California have aggregate reserves—bodies of suitable material with companies permitted to produce them—that will last less than 10 years. They are important, fast-growing regions: San Diego, Sacramento, Fresno and the San Fernando Valley. Only a little behind, with 11- to 20-year reserves, are 13 other areas that encompass the Bay Area and most of the Los Angeles conurbation. Placer County and the Yuba City–Marysville area are set for life with enormous reserves, but as I mentioned, transport costs limit where they can be profitably marketed. It seems to me that nearby Sacramento is probably OK if a dedicated rail connection can be set up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the distance of quarries from their markets continues to grow, the costs of aggregate will keep rising. Sooner or later those costs will hit limits that force hard choices. Surges in demand, such as those after a large earthquake or a Delta levee failure, could stress and fracture the system. It behooves our leaders, and citizens who care, to stay farsighted about this basic matter. Meanwhile \u003ca href=\"http://fallmeeting.agu.org/2012/eposters/eposter/gc11b-0996/\">the CGS is considering more sophisticated maps\u003c/a> to help decision-makers. The aggregate industry is weighing in too; the website \u003ca href=\"http://www.calcima.org/\">calcima.org\u003c/a> sends mixed messages (imported Chinese cement is not related to the aggregate supply), but its \u003ca href=\"http://www.calcima.org/html/links.html\">links page\u003c/a> is useful background.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Sizing Up Tsunamis By Their Sound Waves",
"headTitle": "Sizing Up Tsunamis By Their Sound Waves | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3943\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/IMG_05241.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3943\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3943\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/IMG_05241.jpg\" alt=\"Crescent City carnage: the 2011 earthquake off Japan caused millions in damage along the California coast. (Photo: Craig Miller / KQED)\" width=\"640\" height=\"361\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crescent City carnage: the 2011 earthquake off Japan caused millions in damage along the California coast. (Photo: Craig Miller / KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists at Stanford may have found a way to build a better warning system for tsunamis. The key is listening, for the earthquake’s sonic signature.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When earthquakes rumble below the ocean floor, they can trigger the big killer waves we call \u003ca title=\"NOAA - Tsunami\" href=\"http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/\">tsunamis\u003c/a>. But they also make sound waves. And those race ahead at ten times the speed of the ocean waves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“These sound waves are very sensitive to vertical sea floor uplift, exactly the same thing that’s exciting the tsunamis,” says Eric Dunham, the Stanford geophysicist whose team at Stanford stumbled on that connection when they were \u003ca title=\"Bulletin - article\" href=\"http://pangea.stanford.edu/~edunham/publications/Kozdon_Dunham_Tohoku_BSSA13.pdf\">modeling the 2011 tsunami\u003c/a> that claimed more than 15,000 lives in Japan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When making plots of that, we just saw incredibly huge-amplitude sound waves, which is not something we were really expecting, Dunham told me in a phone interview. “It is,” he added, “something that’s obvious in retrospect.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those sound waves are the sonic signature that, if captured in real time, could give scientists a critical piece of information that’s been missing: the height of the waves likely to make landfall. Current systems can estimate the magnitude of an undersea quake, but not whether the slip of the fault occurred far beneath the ocean floor, or close to it. And that’s important.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“Shallow slip is what causes sea floor uplift and hence, large tsunamis.”\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Shallow slip is what causes sea floor uplift and hence, large tsunamis,” explains Dunham.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dunham says that knowing the sonic signature in real time could have signalled to people in Japan the enormity of the waves heading for them 10 or 15 minutes sooner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This kind of sonic monitoring wouldn’t be cheap or simple. It would require a network of underwater microphones called hydrophones, listening for sub-sea quakes, and fast computers to quickly analyze the data.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dunham thinks a warning system based on the concept would be most helpful in areas near subduction zones, such as Japan and the U.S. Pacific Northwest, less so along the California coast. The \u003ca title=\"Live Science - Tohoku\" href=\"http://www.livescience.com/27776-tohoku-two-years-later-geology.html\">2011 Tohoku quake\u003c/a> erupted in the Japan Trench, a \u003ca title=\"USGS - glossary\" href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=subduction%20zone\">subduction zone\u003c/a> just 43 miles off the coast of Japan. Hours later, it did nearly $60 million in \u003ca title=\"CW - blog post\" href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/climatewatch/2011/03/13/crescent-city-its-a-mess-all-right/\">damage along the California coast\u003c/a>, but by then Californians had a pretty good idea of what was coming. The Japanese had only about 30 minutes warning and were caught off guard by the height of the waves, which overwhelmed defenses at the Fukushima nuclear power plant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dunham’s work, developed with Jeremy Kozdon, now an assistant professor at the Navel Postgraduate School, is \u003ca title=\"Journal - article\" href=\"http://pangea.stanford.edu/~edunham/publications/Kozdon_Dunham_Tohoku_BSSA13.pdf\">described in the current issue\u003c/a> of \u003cem>The Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3943\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/IMG_05241.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3943\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3943\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/06/IMG_05241.jpg\" alt=\"Crescent City carnage: the 2011 earthquake off Japan caused millions in damage along the California coast. (Photo: Craig Miller / KQED)\" width=\"640\" height=\"361\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Crescent City carnage: the 2011 earthquake off Japan caused millions in damage along the California coast. (Photo: Craig Miller / KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists at Stanford may have found a way to build a better warning system for tsunamis. The key is listening, for the earthquake’s sonic signature.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When earthquakes rumble below the ocean floor, they can trigger the big killer waves we call \u003ca title=\"NOAA - Tsunami\" href=\"http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/\">tsunamis\u003c/a>. But they also make sound waves. And those race ahead at ten times the speed of the ocean waves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“These sound waves are very sensitive to vertical sea floor uplift, exactly the same thing that’s exciting the tsunamis,” says Eric Dunham, the Stanford geophysicist whose team at Stanford stumbled on that connection when they were \u003ca title=\"Bulletin - article\" href=\"http://pangea.stanford.edu/~edunham/publications/Kozdon_Dunham_Tohoku_BSSA13.pdf\">modeling the 2011 tsunami\u003c/a> that claimed more than 15,000 lives in Japan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When making plots of that, we just saw incredibly huge-amplitude sound waves, which is not something we were really expecting, Dunham told me in a phone interview. “It is,” he added, “something that’s obvious in retrospect.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those sound waves are the sonic signature that, if captured in real time, could give scientists a critical piece of information that’s been missing: the height of the waves likely to make landfall. Current systems can estimate the magnitude of an undersea quake, but not whether the slip of the fault occurred far beneath the ocean floor, or close to it. And that’s important.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“Shallow slip is what causes sea floor uplift and hence, large tsunamis.”\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Shallow slip is what causes sea floor uplift and hence, large tsunamis,” explains Dunham.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dunham says that knowing the sonic signature in real time could have signalled to people in Japan the enormity of the waves heading for them 10 or 15 minutes sooner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This kind of sonic monitoring wouldn’t be cheap or simple. It would require a network of underwater microphones called hydrophones, listening for sub-sea quakes, and fast computers to quickly analyze the data.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dunham thinks a warning system based on the concept would be most helpful in areas near subduction zones, such as Japan and the U.S. Pacific Northwest, less so along the California coast. The \u003ca title=\"Live Science - Tohoku\" href=\"http://www.livescience.com/27776-tohoku-two-years-later-geology.html\">2011 Tohoku quake\u003c/a> erupted in the Japan Trench, a \u003ca title=\"USGS - glossary\" href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=subduction%20zone\">subduction zone\u003c/a> just 43 miles off the coast of Japan. Hours later, it did nearly $60 million in \u003ca title=\"CW - blog post\" href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/climatewatch/2011/03/13/crescent-city-its-a-mess-all-right/\">damage along the California coast\u003c/a>, but by then Californians had a pretty good idea of what was coming. The Japanese had only about 30 minutes warning and were caught off guard by the height of the waves, which overwhelmed defenses at the Fukushima nuclear power plant.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dunham’s work, developed with Jeremy Kozdon, now an assistant professor at the Navel Postgraduate School, is \u003ca title=\"Journal - article\" href=\"http://pangea.stanford.edu/~edunham/publications/Kozdon_Dunham_Tohoku_BSSA13.pdf\">described in the current issue\u003c/a> of \u003cem>The Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "The Terroir of Tap",
"headTitle": "The Terroir of Tap | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp align=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-55136 aligncenter\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured.jpg\" alt=\"tap_featured\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>Dining at local restaurants is the usual strategy for exploring regional flavors, but it turns out that there’s another way to get a real taste for a place: turn on the tap. We know that tap water tastes different in different parts of the U.S., but what many of us don’t know is that the flavor variations are partly a reflection of local geology. And according to one Cleveland chef, the distinct make-up of regional waters doesn’t just impact the taste of the water we drink; it also plays an important role in shaping the taste of the local dishes themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52503\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 389px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/1-STEVE.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-52503 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/1-STEVE-540x360.jpg\" alt=\"Chef Steve Schimoler of Crop Bistro, in front of his water filtration system.\" width=\"389\" height=\"259\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Chef Steve Schimoler of Crop Bistro, in front of his water filtration system.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">“In many, many recipes, water is a key ingredient and many times it might be 90 percent of the recipe, so it becomes more important,” says Steve Schimoler, owner and chef at \u003ca href=\"http://cropbistro.com/\">CROP Bistro\u003c/a>, a hip eatery in the Ohio City neighborhood. “As a chef, I go out of my way to procure the best ingredients for our menu. How could you not want the best water?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Despite the earthy connotation of the name CROP, it actually stands for something a bit more technological: “Custom Restaurant Operation Platform.” Schimoler, a former food scientist for industry titans like Nestle, opened CROP as a place to develop recipes that he tests on diners—and he uses the results to advise large restaurant chains. This year he’s turned his attention to taste-testing tap water.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“Whether it’s myth or legend, everyone says New York bagel dough and pizza dough is so good because of the New York City water,” says Schimoler.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Whether it’s myth or legend, everyone says New York bagel dough and pizza dough is so good because of the New York City water,” says Schimoler, a native New Yorker who grew up on the city’s iconic foods. So Schimoler put the myth to the test. He made three pizza doughs – one with Cleveland tap, one with New York tap, and one with Reverse Osmosis water (a heavily filtered water, which Schimoler calls “pure H20”) – and presented them to his customers without identifying them. He left it up to his customers to decide which water he should use in his pizza dough.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Schimoler refers to the variation in tap water flavor – the subtle difference between Cleveland tap and New York tap – with a rather high-brow culinary term: “You hear the word ‘terroir’ in wine and produce, where those ingredients are picking up the limey-ness, or the slate-ness, or whatever the environmental impact is within a region.” Schimoler believes water can have a slight, but powerful impact – one that can make or break the overall meal he serves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Deirdre Mueller of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.awwa.org/\">American Water Works Association\u003c/a> (AWWA), this “terroir” of tap is the result of a combination of factors, such as whether the source is surface water (e.g. a lake or river), or ground water (e.g. a deep aquifer). “If the water comes from an aquifer, it’s probably been deep underground for perhaps thousands of years and it’s buried in rock, so it could be more mineral-y. A lot of bottled water companies use aquifer water and say that it tastes fresher,” she says. That said, over the last few years, all of the winners of the AWWA’s annual \u003ca href=\"http://www.awwa.org/resources-tools/public-affairs/public-affairs-events/taste-test.aspx\">Tap Water Taste Tests\u003c/a> have been sourced from surface water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_55339\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 346px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-55339 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water.jpg\" alt=\"Untreated Lake Erie water in filtered at the Garrett A. Morgan Water Treatment Plant in Cleveland. \" width=\"346\" height=\"230\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water.jpg 2000w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-400x267.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-800x533.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-1440x960.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-1920x1280.jpg 1920w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-1180x786.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-960x640.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 346px) 100vw, 346px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Untreated Lake Erie water is filtered at the Garrett A. Morgan Water Treatment Plant in Cleveland.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Another factor affecting the taste of tap is a region’s location within a \u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/whatis.cfm\">watershed\u003c/a>. Cities that are positioned near the top of a watershed, like Denver, receive water straight from the snowpack of surrounding mountains. Being close to the source, this water does not require many disinfectants to make it potable. However, like all public drinking water in the U.S., it is treated and tested to limit the amount of certain naturally-occurring minerals and microorganisms, along with other chemicals added by the water departments (\u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/\">as mandated by the EPA\u003c/a>).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">As water from the watershed heads downstream, its flavor often changes. “By the time water gets to cities in Southern California, for instance, it’s probably been through a handful of treatment processes in cities upstream,” says Mueller. The natural organic flavor in the water evolves into “more of a chemical taste.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Some regions require more chemical additives disinfectants than others to meet the EPA’s guidelines. The amount needed depends on environmental factors (like pollution levels) and regional health directives . In Cleveland, where Chef Schimoler’s kitchen lab is, that list includes fluoride, mandated by the state of Ohio to prevent cavities; chlorine, to kill bacteria; and orthophosphate, to help control lead corrosion in pipes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\"> “Regarding the taste, chlorine is one of the things that, I think, many people have a sensitivity to,” says Alex Margevicius, Interim Commissioner of \u003ca href=\"http://www.clevelandwater.com/\">Cleveland Water\u003c/a>. The EPA allows up to \u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/disinfectants.cfm\">4 milligrams of chlorine per liter\u003c/a>. Cleveland Water, which sources its water from intake pipes 3-5 miles offshore in Lake Erie, currently adds 1 ½ milligrams per liter, to strike a balance between taste and safety. “Customers, in general, are more demanding than they were 20 years ago.” says Margevicius.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54263\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 242px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/22/drinking-local-the-taste-of-tap/figi-water_ad-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54263\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-54263 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/figi-water_ad2-302x360.jpg\" alt=\"This now-infamous Fiji Water ad caused quite a stir when is was published in 2006. \" width=\"242\" height=\"288\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Fiji Water ad published in 2006.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>They’re more demanding because tap water has had some fierce competition: over 9 billion gallons of bottled water are sold in the U.S. every year. But simply because something costs more, doesn’t mean it’s a better product. When Fiji Water released an ad poking fun at Cleveland’s historic water troubles by proclaiming “The Label Says Fiji Because It’s Not Bottled in Cleveland,” Cleveland Water shot back. “We kind of took offense to that,” says Cleveland Water Quality Manager Maggie Rodgers, who went on to test Fiji Water side-by-side with Cleveland tap, and other bottled water brands. “Low and behold, Fiji Water came back with arsenic at higher levels than our water or the other national brands.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Health concerns aside, when it comes down to what we prefer to eat and drink, it’s all about taste. Back in his kitchen laboratory, Chef Steve Schimoler assesses the results of his own tests: “Surprisingly, the pizza dough made with New York tap water didn’t win, although, it’s purported to be the best,” he says. The consumers chose the pizza made with the heavily-filtered reverse osmosis water. “They were tasting what they thought they should taste: says Schimoler, “the yeast, the sweetness of the dough, the browning.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Does this mean that filtered water tastes better than tap? Not necessarily. Schimoler acknowledges that when it comes to water, many factors can impact people’s taste preference – even marketing, “Now, if we labeled it New York [pizza], I bet a lot of people would pick New York just because they knew it was New York. So, it’s a little subjective.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp align=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"size-full wp-image-55136 aligncenter\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured.jpg\" alt=\"tap_featured\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/tap_featured-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>Dining at local restaurants is the usual strategy for exploring regional flavors, but it turns out that there’s another way to get a real taste for a place: turn on the tap. We know that tap water tastes different in different parts of the U.S., but what many of us don’t know is that the flavor variations are partly a reflection of local geology. And according to one Cleveland chef, the distinct make-up of regional waters doesn’t just impact the taste of the water we drink; it also plays an important role in shaping the taste of the local dishes themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_52503\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 389px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/1-STEVE.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-52503 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/1-STEVE-540x360.jpg\" alt=\"Chef Steve Schimoler of Crop Bistro, in front of his water filtration system.\" width=\"389\" height=\"259\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Chef Steve Schimoler of Crop Bistro, in front of his water filtration system.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">“In many, many recipes, water is a key ingredient and many times it might be 90 percent of the recipe, so it becomes more important,” says Steve Schimoler, owner and chef at \u003ca href=\"http://cropbistro.com/\">CROP Bistro\u003c/a>, a hip eatery in the Ohio City neighborhood. “As a chef, I go out of my way to procure the best ingredients for our menu. How could you not want the best water?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Despite the earthy connotation of the name CROP, it actually stands for something a bit more technological: “Custom Restaurant Operation Platform.” Schimoler, a former food scientist for industry titans like Nestle, opened CROP as a place to develop recipes that he tests on diners—and he uses the results to advise large restaurant chains. This year he’s turned his attention to taste-testing tap water.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“Whether it’s myth or legend, everyone says New York bagel dough and pizza dough is so good because of the New York City water,” says Schimoler.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Whether it’s myth or legend, everyone says New York bagel dough and pizza dough is so good because of the New York City water,” says Schimoler, a native New Yorker who grew up on the city’s iconic foods. So Schimoler put the myth to the test. He made three pizza doughs – one with Cleveland tap, one with New York tap, and one with Reverse Osmosis water (a heavily filtered water, which Schimoler calls “pure H20”) – and presented them to his customers without identifying them. He left it up to his customers to decide which water he should use in his pizza dough.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Schimoler refers to the variation in tap water flavor – the subtle difference between Cleveland tap and New York tap – with a rather high-brow culinary term: “You hear the word ‘terroir’ in wine and produce, where those ingredients are picking up the limey-ness, or the slate-ness, or whatever the environmental impact is within a region.” Schimoler believes water can have a slight, but powerful impact – one that can make or break the overall meal he serves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Deirdre Mueller of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.awwa.org/\">American Water Works Association\u003c/a> (AWWA), this “terroir” of tap is the result of a combination of factors, such as whether the source is surface water (e.g. a lake or river), or ground water (e.g. a deep aquifer). “If the water comes from an aquifer, it’s probably been deep underground for perhaps thousands of years and it’s buried in rock, so it could be more mineral-y. A lot of bottled water companies use aquifer water and say that it tastes fresher,” she says. That said, over the last few years, all of the winners of the AWWA’s annual \u003ca href=\"http://www.awwa.org/resources-tools/public-affairs/public-affairs-events/taste-test.aspx\">Tap Water Taste Tests\u003c/a> have been sourced from surface water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_55339\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 346px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-55339 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water.jpg\" alt=\"Untreated Lake Erie water in filtered at the Garrett A. Morgan Water Treatment Plant in Cleveland. \" width=\"346\" height=\"230\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water.jpg 2000w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-400x267.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-800x533.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-1440x960.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-1920x1280.jpg 1920w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-1180x786.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/filter_lake_water-960x640.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 346px) 100vw, 346px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Untreated Lake Erie water is filtered at the Garrett A. Morgan Water Treatment Plant in Cleveland.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Another factor affecting the taste of tap is a region’s location within a \u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/whatis.cfm\">watershed\u003c/a>. Cities that are positioned near the top of a watershed, like Denver, receive water straight from the snowpack of surrounding mountains. Being close to the source, this water does not require many disinfectants to make it potable. However, like all public drinking water in the U.S., it is treated and tested to limit the amount of certain naturally-occurring minerals and microorganisms, along with other chemicals added by the water departments (\u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/\">as mandated by the EPA\u003c/a>).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">As water from the watershed heads downstream, its flavor often changes. “By the time water gets to cities in Southern California, for instance, it’s probably been through a handful of treatment processes in cities upstream,” says Mueller. The natural organic flavor in the water evolves into “more of a chemical taste.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Some regions require more chemical additives disinfectants than others to meet the EPA’s guidelines. The amount needed depends on environmental factors (like pollution levels) and regional health directives . In Cleveland, where Chef Schimoler’s kitchen lab is, that list includes fluoride, mandated by the state of Ohio to prevent cavities; chlorine, to kill bacteria; and orthophosphate, to help control lead corrosion in pipes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\"> “Regarding the taste, chlorine is one of the things that, I think, many people have a sensitivity to,” says Alex Margevicius, Interim Commissioner of \u003ca href=\"http://www.clevelandwater.com/\">Cleveland Water\u003c/a>. The EPA allows up to \u003ca href=\"http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/disinfectants.cfm\">4 milligrams of chlorine per liter\u003c/a>. Cleveland Water, which sources its water from intake pipes 3-5 miles offshore in Lake Erie, currently adds 1 ½ milligrams per liter, to strike a balance between taste and safety. “Customers, in general, are more demanding than they were 20 years ago.” says Margevicius.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_54263\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 242px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2013/03/22/drinking-local-the-taste-of-tap/figi-water_ad-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-54263\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\" wp-image-54263 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/03/figi-water_ad2-302x360.jpg\" alt=\"This now-infamous Fiji Water ad caused quite a stir when is was published in 2006. \" width=\"242\" height=\"288\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Fiji Water ad published in 2006.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>They’re more demanding because tap water has had some fierce competition: over 9 billion gallons of bottled water are sold in the U.S. every year. But simply because something costs more, doesn’t mean it’s a better product. When Fiji Water released an ad poking fun at Cleveland’s historic water troubles by proclaiming “The Label Says Fiji Because It’s Not Bottled in Cleveland,” Cleveland Water shot back. “We kind of took offense to that,” says Cleveland Water Quality Manager Maggie Rodgers, who went on to test Fiji Water side-by-side with Cleveland tap, and other bottled water brands. “Low and behold, Fiji Water came back with arsenic at higher levels than our water or the other national brands.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Health concerns aside, when it comes down to what we prefer to eat and drink, it’s all about taste. Back in his kitchen laboratory, Chef Steve Schimoler assesses the results of his own tests: “Surprisingly, the pizza dough made with New York tap water didn’t win, although, it’s purported to be the best,” he says. The consumers chose the pizza made with the heavily-filtered reverse osmosis water. “They were tasting what they thought they should taste: says Schimoler, “the yeast, the sweetness of the dough, the browning.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp align=\"left\">Does this mean that filtered water tastes better than tap? Not necessarily. Schimoler acknowledges that when it comes to water, many factors can impact people’s taste preference – even marketing, “Now, if we labeled it New York [pizza], I bet a lot of people would pick New York just because they knew it was New York. So, it’s a little subjective.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Oakland Museum's Nature Section Is Back in Business",
"headTitle": "Oakland Museum’s Nature Section Is Back in Business | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>Long-time visitors to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.museumca.org/\">Oakland Museum of California\u003c/a> enjoyed the old Natural Sciences gallery, which covered the state’s great variety of habitats in a “walk across California” format. At least, I always enjoyed it. At its entrance the exhibit had a large 3D map of California, mountain ranges and great basins laid out in miniature. I felt like a giant, 500 miles tall, watching from outer space. Inside, hundreds of wonderfully made dioramas showed California landscapes at small scale and their typical plants and animals at full size, giving a zoom-in approach to every corner of the state. The gallery was closed in 2009 for a complete redesign, \u003ca href=\"http://www.museumca.org/natural-sciences\">which will be unveiled starting May 31\u003c/a>. While the old gallery was good, I can say after a backstage tour this week that the new one, the California Gallery of Natural Sciences, is even better.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem with the old gallery, Senior Curator Douglas Long told me, was that many people had trouble getting it. I think I understand why: the state of California alone has so much variety that people might have thought they were in a national exhibit, or even a global one like you see at a zoo. To them, the Sierra Nevada might as well be the Rockies and the Yosemite bears the same as those at Yellowstone. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new gallery, like the old one, opens with a giant 3D map—not the original but a better version. It then sharpens its focus on California by narrowing down to seven specific places, the first of which is Oakland itself. I think this is a stroke of genius.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What’s so Californian about Oakland? Everything, when you look at it in detail. The landscape it sits on includes habitats found up and down the Coast Range: redwood forest, oak woodlands, grasslands, coastal marsh, the estuary of San Francisco Bay. Fossils on display extend these into the geologic past. Oakland’s mediterranean climate represents a wide swath of California, too, with its distinctive pattern of seasons and generally great weather. The first Oaklanders recognized these natural blessings even as they exploited them and paved them over with grids of streets, but the original woods and fields and animals remain in attenuated overlays, lurking in alleyways and culverts. The exhibit on the city’s hidden creeks, and the groups seeking to restore them, finds an echo in the museum itself: a walled-off section that once housed a set of aquariums was reopened, and now a nice new fish tank features living Bay species. Kiosks in the exhibit will let Oakland residents add their local knowledge, while out-of-towners will gain a deeper appreciation of the city around the museum. The deep interactions between human and natural systems are a theme repeated throughout the new gallery.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The six other California localities include the familiar (\u003ca href=\"http://www.nps.gov/yose/\">Yosemite\u003c/a> and Shasta), the less-visited (\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/sutterbuttes/\">Sutter Buttes\u003c/a>, the Tehachapi Mountains, Coachella Valley) and the hopelessly remote \u003ca href=\"http://cordellbank.noaa.gov/\">Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary\u003c/a>, known only to determined scuba divers. Every one of these archetypical places has its own examples of landscape, climate, habitat and human interaction to show. (The Tehachapi and Coachella exhibits will open later this year, but don’t let that keep you away now.) Fresh works by environmentally minded artists brighten the space and enlighten the visitor. And most of the great old dioramas are back, spruced up and looking in their prime.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3584\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/OMCA-yosemite.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3584\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/OMCA-yosemite.jpg\" alt=\"yosemite diroama\" width=\"600\" height=\"468\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3584\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The gallery-within-a-gallery in the Yosemite section will bring back the exquisite miniature Half Dome diorama in a fresh new case. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Not to be overlooked is the south wall of the gallery, where selections from the museum’s art collection make their own declarations about the different ways we see California. And outside the flanking windows in the museum’s rooftop garden, California native plants are being raised for the first time. There too you’ll see one of the signature geologic items, the big serpentine boulder, the same as ever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/05/30/oakland-museums-nature-section-is-back-in-business/omca-serp/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3585\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/OMCA-serp.jpg\" alt=\"OMCA-serp\" width=\"600\" height=\"466\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-3585\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a geologist, I have to say that another major problem with the old exhibit, installed in 1969, was that California geology got superficial treatment. Back then plate tectonics was in its infancy and our geological understanding of the state was crude; I think that no curator of the time could have found a compelling story to tell. Today is radically different, but in that respect there has been little change in the new California Gallery of Natural Sciences. There are sliding trays of taxidermied roadkill, but not rocks and minerals. The volcanism of Shasta is replicated for young spelunkers, but its larger tectonic setting is not explained. The vivid sea life and oceanography of Cordell Bank are presented, but not the telling fact that its bedrock is the same as Yosemite’s. (The exhibits were unfinished during my visit, and I will be glad to be mistaken about any of these details.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Beneath the landscapes and habitats, California’s geological framework—dynamic in deep time and big space—is what ties all seven Californias together. And mineral resources, starting with gold, are the historical infrastructure of California and the cause of its preeminence among the states today. As the Oakland Museum of California expands to close this gap in its coverage, the beautiful new gallery has plenty of room to keep growing.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Long-time visitors to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.museumca.org/\">Oakland Museum of California\u003c/a> enjoyed the old Natural Sciences gallery, which covered the state’s great variety of habitats in a “walk across California” format. At least, I always enjoyed it. At its entrance the exhibit had a large 3D map of California, mountain ranges and great basins laid out in miniature. I felt like a giant, 500 miles tall, watching from outer space. Inside, hundreds of wonderfully made dioramas showed California landscapes at small scale and their typical plants and animals at full size, giving a zoom-in approach to every corner of the state. The gallery was closed in 2009 for a complete redesign, \u003ca href=\"http://www.museumca.org/natural-sciences\">which will be unveiled starting May 31\u003c/a>. While the old gallery was good, I can say after a backstage tour this week that the new one, the California Gallery of Natural Sciences, is even better.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The problem with the old gallery, Senior Curator Douglas Long told me, was that many people had trouble getting it. I think I understand why: the state of California alone has so much variety that people might have thought they were in a national exhibit, or even a global one like you see at a zoo. To them, the Sierra Nevada might as well be the Rockies and the Yosemite bears the same as those at Yellowstone. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The new gallery, like the old one, opens with a giant 3D map—not the original but a better version. It then sharpens its focus on California by narrowing down to seven specific places, the first of which is Oakland itself. I think this is a stroke of genius.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What’s so Californian about Oakland? Everything, when you look at it in detail. The landscape it sits on includes habitats found up and down the Coast Range: redwood forest, oak woodlands, grasslands, coastal marsh, the estuary of San Francisco Bay. Fossils on display extend these into the geologic past. Oakland’s mediterranean climate represents a wide swath of California, too, with its distinctive pattern of seasons and generally great weather. The first Oaklanders recognized these natural blessings even as they exploited them and paved them over with grids of streets, but the original woods and fields and animals remain in attenuated overlays, lurking in alleyways and culverts. The exhibit on the city’s hidden creeks, and the groups seeking to restore them, finds an echo in the museum itself: a walled-off section that once housed a set of aquariums was reopened, and now a nice new fish tank features living Bay species. Kiosks in the exhibit will let Oakland residents add their local knowledge, while out-of-towners will gain a deeper appreciation of the city around the museum. The deep interactions between human and natural systems are a theme repeated throughout the new gallery.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The six other California localities include the familiar (\u003ca href=\"http://www.nps.gov/yose/\">Yosemite\u003c/a> and Shasta), the less-visited (\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_ca/ig/sutterbuttes/\">Sutter Buttes\u003c/a>, the Tehachapi Mountains, Coachella Valley) and the hopelessly remote \u003ca href=\"http://cordellbank.noaa.gov/\">Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary\u003c/a>, known only to determined scuba divers. Every one of these archetypical places has its own examples of landscape, climate, habitat and human interaction to show. (The Tehachapi and Coachella exhibits will open later this year, but don’t let that keep you away now.) Fresh works by environmentally minded artists brighten the space and enlighten the visitor. And most of the great old dioramas are back, spruced up and looking in their prime.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3584\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/OMCA-yosemite.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3584\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/OMCA-yosemite.jpg\" alt=\"yosemite diroama\" width=\"600\" height=\"468\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3584\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The gallery-within-a-gallery in the Yosemite section will bring back the exquisite miniature Half Dome diorama in a fresh new case. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Not to be overlooked is the south wall of the gallery, where selections from the museum’s art collection make their own declarations about the different ways we see California. And outside the flanking windows in the museum’s rooftop garden, California native plants are being raised for the first time. There too you’ll see one of the signature geologic items, the big serpentine boulder, the same as ever.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/05/30/oakland-museums-nature-section-is-back-in-business/omca-serp/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3585\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/OMCA-serp.jpg\" alt=\"OMCA-serp\" width=\"600\" height=\"466\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-3585\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a geologist, I have to say that another major problem with the old exhibit, installed in 1969, was that California geology got superficial treatment. Back then plate tectonics was in its infancy and our geological understanding of the state was crude; I think that no curator of the time could have found a compelling story to tell. Today is radically different, but in that respect there has been little change in the new California Gallery of Natural Sciences. There are sliding trays of taxidermied roadkill, but not rocks and minerals. The volcanism of Shasta is replicated for young spelunkers, but its larger tectonic setting is not explained. The vivid sea life and oceanography of Cordell Bank are presented, but not the telling fact that its bedrock is the same as Yosemite’s. (The exhibits were unfinished during my visit, and I will be glad to be mistaken about any of these details.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Beneath the landscapes and habitats, California’s geological framework—dynamic in deep time and big space—is what ties all seven Californias together. And mineral resources, starting with gold, are the historical infrastructure of California and the cause of its preeminence among the states today. As the Oakland Museum of California expands to close this gap in its coverage, the beautiful new gallery has plenty of room to keep growing.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "California’s Vanishing Glaciers: A Defining Moment",
"headTitle": "California’s Vanishing Glaciers: A Defining Moment | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3328\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3328\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/Lyell_Stock_p921-e1369354344722.jpg\" alt=\"Geologist Greg Stock climbs the Lyell Glacier in Yosemite. (Photo: Tim Palmer)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geologist Greg Stock climbs the Lyell Glacier in Yosemite. (Photo: Tim Palmer)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Last September, I climbed with a team of scientists and volunteers into the remote high country of Yosemite National Park, onto the ashen hide of the park’s largest ice sheet, the Lyell Glacier.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I was there to report but also to assist Greg Stock, Yosemite’s geologist, and Robert Anderson, a glacier researcher from the University of Colorado, in a four-year survey of the \u003ca title=\"Wiki - Lyell Glacier\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyell_Glacier\">Lyell\u003c/a> and neighboring \u003ca title=\"Wiki - Maclure Glacier\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclure_Glacier\">Maclure Glacier\u003c/a>. The objective was to measure the rate of the Lyell and Maclure’s downhill advance by surveying an array of PVC stakes Stock and his team had driven into the ice over the last few summers. On an earlier trip, in July, we drilled in several new stakes with a six-foot ice auger. Two months of ferocious melting had uprooted many of these. The ones that remained in place were bent like reeds, barely anchored to the ice.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"10\" align=\"alignright\">\n\u003ctbody>\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/tbody>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>The story of disappearing ice is \u003ca title=\"Science Daily - post\" href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130513174811.htm\">a global narrative\u003c/a>. The Lyell and Maclure – like glaciers and ice sheets worldwide – are in rapid state of retreat. Before the trip, the Lyell and Maclure were presumed to be “true” glaciers – that is, thick slabs of ice dragged downhill under their own weight, scouring the land as they move.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But after we came down from the ice, Stock would come to a sober realization. Amid decades of rising average temperatures, the Lyell and Maclure have lost roughly 65 percent of their surface area and an even greater proportion of their volume. As a result of this mass melting, the Lyell Glacier \u003ca title=\"NPS - release\" href=\"http://www.nps.gov/yose/parknews/lyellglacier.htm\">has stopped moving\u003c/a> altogether – transformed from a “living” glacier to a dead patch of ice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which is to say, the Lyell Glacier is a glacier no more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is not just a matter of semantics. Meltwater from the Lyell and Maclure feeds the Tuolomne River, the main artery of Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, which supplies water to 2.4 million residents in the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"10\" align=\"left\">\n\u003ctbody>\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/tbody>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>Though the total volume of water they contribute to Hetch Hetchy is minimal, the glaciers and permanent snowfields of the Sierra act as important buffers. In late summer, many High Sierra streams go dry. But glacier-fed streams like the Tuolomne supply year-round water to numerous plants, animals – not to mention thirsty hikers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Beyond local effects, glaciers respond to long-term changes in average temperature and precipitation, and serve as powerful barometers of climate change. One or two cold or warm years won’t have much effect. But string a decade or two of warm years together and you will see dramatic reductions in ice cover. This warming trend corresponds to a diminution of the state’s snowpack. As of May 1, the state’s snowpack stood at a meager \u003ca title=\"DWR - release\" href=\"http://www.water.ca.gov/news/newsreleases/2013/050213.pdf\">17 percent of average\u003c/a>. Statewide, snowpack is expected to dwindle by 25 percent by the middle of the century, according to the Department of Water Resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3331\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3331\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/yosemite_glaciers_900-e1369354643426.jpg\" alt=\"(Yael Braha/KQED)\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">(Yael Braha/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Ice-Fueled Heated Debate\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Beyond their vital ecological roles, these glaciers were also the stage for one of the greatest scientific feuds in California history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the great wanderer and chronicler of the Sierra, John Muir, traveled to Lyell and Maclure in the 1870s, he was in a heated debate with Josiah Whitney, California’s eminent state geologist, who derided Muir as “a mere sheepherder” for venturing into a field in which he had no formal training. Whitney believed a great earthquake was responsible for the formation of Yosemite Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Muir, however, postulated that Ice Age glaciers had sculpted Yosemite’s characteristic cliffs and smooth granite faces. Moreover, he knew small glaciers still existed in high recesses of the Sierra. To prove his point, he set out for Mount Maclure on August 21, 1872. When he arrived, he drove tall stakes of whitebark pine into the ice, surveying them with a makeshift plumb-bob to ensure they’d been set in a straight line. If the stakes had moved when he returned, Muir would have powerful evidence that Maclure’s ice sheet was, in fact, a “living” glacier, moving downhill under its own weight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Muir returned in October and found that the stakes set near the glacier’s edge had shifted little, but those in the center showed significant movement. As Muir related in an 1875 \u003cem>Harper’s Magazine\u003c/em> article called “The Living Glaciers of California,” that stake had traveled “forty-seven inches in forty-six days, or about one inch every twenty-four hours.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though his debate with Whitney would rage long after his discovery, Muir’s ideas today have been mostly vindicated. Around 10 million years ago, the granite of Yosemite Valley was uplifted and simultaneously \u003ca title=\"Yosemite\" href=\"http://www.yosemite.ca.us/formation/\">cut by the Merced River\u003c/a>. Then, about 2 or 3 million years ago, during the Ice Age, Earth’s climate cooled rapidly and the glaciers took over – scouring the undulating granite canyons, or “yosemites”– including its most famous, Yosemite Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3322\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/yosemitemap-e1369353940264.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3322 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/yosemitemap-e1369353940264.jpg\" alt=\"(Map: USGS)\" width=\"640\" height=\"371\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">(Map: USGS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In Muir’s time, the Sierra’s glaciers were near their maximum extent from the so-called Little Ice Age glaciation, a period of cooling and glacial advance that began around 700 years ago. If Stock and Anderson’s estimates hold, these great shapers of the Sierra may be gone within decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of Yosemite’s glaciers have already vanished. In August, I hiked up Illilouette Creek and into the Clark Range, to the site of the Black Mountain Glacier, the first “discovered” by Muir in 1871. He wrote of descending into a deep crevasse known as a \u003cem>bergschrund \u003c/em>along the glacier’s uppermost reaches.\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>\u003cem>Its chambered hollows were hung with a multitude of clustered icicles, amidst which thin subdued light pulsed and shimmered with indescribable loveliness. Water dripped and tinkled overhead, and from far below came strange, solemn murmurs from currents feeding their way among veins and fissures on the bottom. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>Today nothing remains of the Black Mountain Glacier but a few ellipses of snow in a vast basin of gray talus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Death Throes of a Glacier\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3032\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 251px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/MG_5390-Edit.jpeg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3032\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-3032 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/MG_5390-Edit.jpeg\" alt=\"Lyell Glacier (Photo: Kirk Keeler)\" width=\"251\" height=\"512\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lyell Glacier (Photo: Kirk Keeler)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Lyell Glacier is rapidly approaching a similar fate. \u003ca title=\"UCSD - image\" href=\"http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/thisweek/2009/05/images/icemelt01.jpg\">A photograph from 1903\u003c/a> shows the Lyell Glacier as an unbroken swath of white. In the 110 years of melting since, the Lyell has been cleaved into two separate ice fields. The indications of disappearance are even more dramatic from the Lyell’s surface. High on a cliff on Mt. Lyell is a hand-painted orange letter “K.” When Point K was established in the 1930s, it was at the level of the ice; today, more than 120 feet of bare rock separate it from the glacier’s surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fading glaciers signal serious problems for the state’s already strained water supplies. A 2008 study conducted by a former hydrologist for Hetch Hetchy Water and Power, for example, predicted that 1.5 degrees Celsius of warming would trigger an uphill shift of snowpack by 2,000 feet by the end of the century – rendering nearly 60 percent of the Hetch Hetchy watershed snow-free by 2100. The Feather River, the main tributary of the Sacramento River, the state’s largest river (and key source of water to the State Water Project) is particularly vulnerable, says Michael Anderson, California’s state climatologist, since much of its snowpack is held at “lower” elevations between 5,000 and 6,000 feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Movement Can Be Deceiving\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The day after Stock’s findings on the Lyell, we climbed into the ragged basin of the Maclure Glacier. Unlike the surface of the Lyell, the Maclure bears deep, dark crevasses – signs of a still active glacier. At the Maclure’s edge, dozens of wooden stakes from previous surveys were strewn in the rubble – spat out over the decades from the surging tongue of ice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the steep slopes of the Maclure, the team set out as they had on the Lyell – scouring the ice for the white PVC stakes and re-surveying them. As afternoon temperatures climbed, runoff from the glacier rose to a dull roar, pouring through vibrant blue fissures into the glacier’s recesses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the last of the stakes had been surveyed, the team descended. Stock and Anderson pored over the data, performing a few quick calculations. What they found was stunning. The Maclure was not only still moving, it was moving at almost the exact rate Muir calculated back in 1872 – “\u003cem>one inch every twenty four hours.”\u003c/em> Somehow, in spite of its loss of ice, the Maclure continues to move at nearly the same velocity that Muir detected.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stock and Anderson may have a solution to the conundrum: The mechanics of the Maclure’s motion may have shifted over a century-and-a-half. Turns out glaciers move by one of two possible mechanisms: deformation and sliding. Deformation is the way the world’s very large glaciers move, with the ice moving in layers or “sheets,” the uppermost sheets moving fastest and farthest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sliding, on the other hand is not dictated by thickness but the steepness and structure of the rock under the ice as well as the amount of meltwater coating the glacial bed. This meltwater, Stock explains, can come from one of two sources — melting snow and ice on the surface and “pressure melting” of ice at the bed of the glacier as it is forced around bumps in the bedrock. This water acts as a kind of lubricant, allowing the whole glacier to slide at once.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stock and Anderson suspect that while the extreme loss of ice has caused deformation to cease, sliding continues to move the Maclure at the same rate measured by Muir. But this scenario may not be a sign of the Maclure’s health. “You can move even a thin carapace of ice if you’ve just got a lubricant underneath it,” says Stock, careful to point out that under a critical threshold thickness – one that the Lyell Glacier seems to have crossed and one the Maclure may be fast approaching – movement stops altogether.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"10\" align=\"alignright\">\n\u003ctbody>\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/tbody>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>The best evidence for sliding can be seen from \u003cem>underneath\u003c/em> the Maclure. At the glacier’s edge, a lip of ice cantilevers precariously over the talus. Stock, Anderson and the rest of the team quickly duck under, revealing a cave of ice, in most places no more than three feet high and extending perhaps 150 feet beneath the glacier.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cavern was adorned with surreal stalactites and colonnades of contorted ice, some of which probably derived from snow that fell hundreds of years before the first Europeans arrived on the continent. Above our heads, long straight grooves glittered with ice crystals – clear marks of a glacier actively grinding down its rocky bed. Though I knew the Maclure’s footprint was vastly different from when Muir visited 140 years earlier, I couldn’t help but imagine him here, slithering on hands and knees in this magnificent hollow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our reverie was soon broken. In less than a half-hour, our body heat had discernibly raised the temperature in the cave. Small droplets fell from the low ceiling, making the floor slippery and the tug of gravity more pronounced. It was getting late and we had a long hike back to camp. There was a bright doorway, a glowing oval, where the sun was shining. I snapped a final photograph and slid toward the light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>A longer version of this article appears in \u003ca title=\"Earth Island Journal - main\" href=\"http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/eij/article/the_dying_glaciers_of_california/\">Earth Island Journal\u003c/a>. Our thanks to EIJ for sharing Jeremy Miller’s work with us. Photos in the sound modules are by Jonathan Byers and Kirk Keeler.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>You can see more photos and hear more about the role of glaciers in California’s ecosystem in a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/audio/a-summer-communing-with-californias-glaciers\">conversation between KQED Science Editor Craig Miller and Tim Palmer\u003c/a>, author of \u003c/em>California Glaciers\u003cem>.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv>\n\u003chr align=\"left\" size=\"1\" width=\"33%\">\n\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The Lyell and Maclure glaciers in Yosemite – like glaciers and ice sheets worldwide – are in rapid state of retreat. The Lyell and Maclure were presumed to be “true” glaciers – that is, thick slabs of ice dragged downhill under their own weight, scouring the land as they move – but scientists are discovering that the Maclure is deteriorating as it moves, and the Lyell is no longer moving at all.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3328\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3328\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/Lyell_Stock_p921-e1369354344722.jpg\" alt=\"Geologist Greg Stock climbs the Lyell Glacier in Yosemite. (Photo: Tim Palmer)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Geologist Greg Stock climbs the Lyell Glacier in Yosemite. (Photo: Tim Palmer)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Last September, I climbed with a team of scientists and volunteers into the remote high country of Yosemite National Park, onto the ashen hide of the park’s largest ice sheet, the Lyell Glacier.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I was there to report but also to assist Greg Stock, Yosemite’s geologist, and Robert Anderson, a glacier researcher from the University of Colorado, in a four-year survey of the \u003ca title=\"Wiki - Lyell Glacier\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyell_Glacier\">Lyell\u003c/a> and neighboring \u003ca title=\"Wiki - Maclure Glacier\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclure_Glacier\">Maclure Glacier\u003c/a>. The objective was to measure the rate of the Lyell and Maclure’s downhill advance by surveying an array of PVC stakes Stock and his team had driven into the ice over the last few summers. On an earlier trip, in July, we drilled in several new stakes with a six-foot ice auger. Two months of ferocious melting had uprooted many of these. The ones that remained in place were bent like reeds, barely anchored to the ice.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"10\" align=\"alignright\">\n\u003ctbody>\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/tbody>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>The story of disappearing ice is \u003ca title=\"Science Daily - post\" href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130513174811.htm\">a global narrative\u003c/a>. The Lyell and Maclure – like glaciers and ice sheets worldwide – are in rapid state of retreat. Before the trip, the Lyell and Maclure were presumed to be “true” glaciers – that is, thick slabs of ice dragged downhill under their own weight, scouring the land as they move.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But after we came down from the ice, Stock would come to a sober realization. Amid decades of rising average temperatures, the Lyell and Maclure have lost roughly 65 percent of their surface area and an even greater proportion of their volume. As a result of this mass melting, the Lyell Glacier \u003ca title=\"NPS - release\" href=\"http://www.nps.gov/yose/parknews/lyellglacier.htm\">has stopped moving\u003c/a> altogether – transformed from a “living” glacier to a dead patch of ice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which is to say, the Lyell Glacier is a glacier no more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is not just a matter of semantics. Meltwater from the Lyell and Maclure feeds the Tuolomne River, the main artery of Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, which supplies water to 2.4 million residents in the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"10\" align=\"left\">\n\u003ctbody>\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/tbody>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>Though the total volume of water they contribute to Hetch Hetchy is minimal, the glaciers and permanent snowfields of the Sierra act as important buffers. In late summer, many High Sierra streams go dry. But glacier-fed streams like the Tuolomne supply year-round water to numerous plants, animals – not to mention thirsty hikers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Beyond local effects, glaciers respond to long-term changes in average temperature and precipitation, and serve as powerful barometers of climate change. One or two cold or warm years won’t have much effect. But string a decade or two of warm years together and you will see dramatic reductions in ice cover. This warming trend corresponds to a diminution of the state’s snowpack. As of May 1, the state’s snowpack stood at a meager \u003ca title=\"DWR - release\" href=\"http://www.water.ca.gov/news/newsreleases/2013/050213.pdf\">17 percent of average\u003c/a>. Statewide, snowpack is expected to dwindle by 25 percent by the middle of the century, according to the Department of Water Resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3331\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3331\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/yosemite_glaciers_900-e1369354643426.jpg\" alt=\"(Yael Braha/KQED)\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">(Yael Braha/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Ice-Fueled Heated Debate\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Beyond their vital ecological roles, these glaciers were also the stage for one of the greatest scientific feuds in California history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When the great wanderer and chronicler of the Sierra, John Muir, traveled to Lyell and Maclure in the 1870s, he was in a heated debate with Josiah Whitney, California’s eminent state geologist, who derided Muir as “a mere sheepherder” for venturing into a field in which he had no formal training. Whitney believed a great earthquake was responsible for the formation of Yosemite Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Muir, however, postulated that Ice Age glaciers had sculpted Yosemite’s characteristic cliffs and smooth granite faces. Moreover, he knew small glaciers still existed in high recesses of the Sierra. To prove his point, he set out for Mount Maclure on August 21, 1872. When he arrived, he drove tall stakes of whitebark pine into the ice, surveying them with a makeshift plumb-bob to ensure they’d been set in a straight line. If the stakes had moved when he returned, Muir would have powerful evidence that Maclure’s ice sheet was, in fact, a “living” glacier, moving downhill under its own weight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Muir returned in October and found that the stakes set near the glacier’s edge had shifted little, but those in the center showed significant movement. As Muir related in an 1875 \u003cem>Harper’s Magazine\u003c/em> article called “The Living Glaciers of California,” that stake had traveled “forty-seven inches in forty-six days, or about one inch every twenty-four hours.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Though his debate with Whitney would rage long after his discovery, Muir’s ideas today have been mostly vindicated. Around 10 million years ago, the granite of Yosemite Valley was uplifted and simultaneously \u003ca title=\"Yosemite\" href=\"http://www.yosemite.ca.us/formation/\">cut by the Merced River\u003c/a>. Then, about 2 or 3 million years ago, during the Ice Age, Earth’s climate cooled rapidly and the glaciers took over – scouring the undulating granite canyons, or “yosemites”– including its most famous, Yosemite Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3322\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/yosemitemap-e1369353940264.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-3322 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/yosemitemap-e1369353940264.jpg\" alt=\"(Map: USGS)\" width=\"640\" height=\"371\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">(Map: USGS)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In Muir’s time, the Sierra’s glaciers were near their maximum extent from the so-called Little Ice Age glaciation, a period of cooling and glacial advance that began around 700 years ago. If Stock and Anderson’s estimates hold, these great shapers of the Sierra may be gone within decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of Yosemite’s glaciers have already vanished. In August, I hiked up Illilouette Creek and into the Clark Range, to the site of the Black Mountain Glacier, the first “discovered” by Muir in 1871. He wrote of descending into a deep crevasse known as a \u003cem>bergschrund \u003c/em>along the glacier’s uppermost reaches.\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>\u003cem>Its chambered hollows were hung with a multitude of clustered icicles, amidst which thin subdued light pulsed and shimmered with indescribable loveliness. Water dripped and tinkled overhead, and from far below came strange, solemn murmurs from currents feeding their way among veins and fissures on the bottom. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>Today nothing remains of the Black Mountain Glacier but a few ellipses of snow in a vast basin of gray talus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Death Throes of a Glacier\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_3032\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 251px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/MG_5390-Edit.jpeg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-3032\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-3032 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2013/05/MG_5390-Edit.jpeg\" alt=\"Lyell Glacier (Photo: Kirk Keeler)\" width=\"251\" height=\"512\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lyell Glacier (Photo: Kirk Keeler)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Lyell Glacier is rapidly approaching a similar fate. \u003ca title=\"UCSD - image\" href=\"http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/thisweek/2009/05/images/icemelt01.jpg\">A photograph from 1903\u003c/a> shows the Lyell Glacier as an unbroken swath of white. In the 110 years of melting since, the Lyell has been cleaved into two separate ice fields. The indications of disappearance are even more dramatic from the Lyell’s surface. High on a cliff on Mt. Lyell is a hand-painted orange letter “K.” When Point K was established in the 1930s, it was at the level of the ice; today, more than 120 feet of bare rock separate it from the glacier’s surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fading glaciers signal serious problems for the state’s already strained water supplies. A 2008 study conducted by a former hydrologist for Hetch Hetchy Water and Power, for example, predicted that 1.5 degrees Celsius of warming would trigger an uphill shift of snowpack by 2,000 feet by the end of the century – rendering nearly 60 percent of the Hetch Hetchy watershed snow-free by 2100. The Feather River, the main tributary of the Sacramento River, the state’s largest river (and key source of water to the State Water Project) is particularly vulnerable, says Michael Anderson, California’s state climatologist, since much of its snowpack is held at “lower” elevations between 5,000 and 6,000 feet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Movement Can Be Deceiving\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The day after Stock’s findings on the Lyell, we climbed into the ragged basin of the Maclure Glacier. Unlike the surface of the Lyell, the Maclure bears deep, dark crevasses – signs of a still active glacier. At the Maclure’s edge, dozens of wooden stakes from previous surveys were strewn in the rubble – spat out over the decades from the surging tongue of ice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the steep slopes of the Maclure, the team set out as they had on the Lyell – scouring the ice for the white PVC stakes and re-surveying them. As afternoon temperatures climbed, runoff from the glacier rose to a dull roar, pouring through vibrant blue fissures into the glacier’s recesses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the last of the stakes had been surveyed, the team descended. Stock and Anderson pored over the data, performing a few quick calculations. What they found was stunning. The Maclure was not only still moving, it was moving at almost the exact rate Muir calculated back in 1872 – “\u003cem>one inch every twenty four hours.”\u003c/em> Somehow, in spite of its loss of ice, the Maclure continues to move at nearly the same velocity that Muir detected.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stock and Anderson may have a solution to the conundrum: The mechanics of the Maclure’s motion may have shifted over a century-and-a-half. Turns out glaciers move by one of two possible mechanisms: deformation and sliding. Deformation is the way the world’s very large glaciers move, with the ice moving in layers or “sheets,” the uppermost sheets moving fastest and farthest.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sliding, on the other hand is not dictated by thickness but the steepness and structure of the rock under the ice as well as the amount of meltwater coating the glacial bed. This meltwater, Stock explains, can come from one of two sources — melting snow and ice on the surface and “pressure melting” of ice at the bed of the glacier as it is forced around bumps in the bedrock. This water acts as a kind of lubricant, allowing the whole glacier to slide at once.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stock and Anderson suspect that while the extreme loss of ice has caused deformation to cease, sliding continues to move the Maclure at the same rate measured by Muir. But this scenario may not be a sign of the Maclure’s health. “You can move even a thin carapace of ice if you’ve just got a lubricant underneath it,” says Stock, careful to point out that under a critical threshold thickness – one that the Lyell Glacier seems to have crossed and one the Maclure may be fast approaching – movement stops altogether.\u003c/p>\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"10\" align=\"alignright\">\n\u003ctbody>\n\u003ctr>\n\u003ctd>\u003c/td>\n\u003c/tr>\n\u003c/tbody>\n\u003c/table>\n\u003cp>The best evidence for sliding can be seen from \u003cem>underneath\u003c/em> the Maclure. At the glacier’s edge, a lip of ice cantilevers precariously over the talus. Stock, Anderson and the rest of the team quickly duck under, revealing a cave of ice, in most places no more than three feet high and extending perhaps 150 feet beneath the glacier.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cavern was adorned with surreal stalactites and colonnades of contorted ice, some of which probably derived from snow that fell hundreds of years before the first Europeans arrived on the continent. Above our heads, long straight grooves glittered with ice crystals – clear marks of a glacier actively grinding down its rocky bed. Though I knew the Maclure’s footprint was vastly different from when Muir visited 140 years earlier, I couldn’t help but imagine him here, slithering on hands and knees in this magnificent hollow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our reverie was soon broken. In less than a half-hour, our body heat had discernibly raised the temperature in the cave. Small droplets fell from the low ceiling, making the floor slippery and the tug of gravity more pronounced. It was getting late and we had a long hike back to camp. There was a bright doorway, a glowing oval, where the sun was shining. I snapped a final photograph and slid toward the light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>A longer version of this article appears in \u003ca title=\"Earth Island Journal - main\" href=\"http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/eij/article/the_dying_glaciers_of_california/\">Earth Island Journal\u003c/a>. Our thanks to EIJ for sharing Jeremy Miller’s work with us. Photos in the sound modules are by Jonathan Byers and Kirk Keeler.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"meta": {
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"source": "BBC World Service"
},
"link": "/radio/program/bbc-world-service",
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"rss": "https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"
}
},
"californiareport": {
"id": "californiareport",
"title": "The California Report",
"tagline": "California, day by day",
"info": "KQED’s statewide radio news program providing daily coverage of issues, trends and public policy decisions.",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-California-Report-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/californiareport",
"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 8
},
"link": "/californiareport",
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"amazon": "https://music.amazon.com/podcasts/26099305-72af-4542-9dde-ac1807fe36d5/kqed-s-the-california-report",
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}
},
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"id": "californiareportmagazine",
"title": "The California Report Magazine",
"tagline": "Your state, your stories",
"info": "Every week, The California Report Magazine takes you on a road trip for the ears: to visit the places and meet the people who make California unique. The in-depth storytelling podcast from the California Report.",
"airtime": "FRI 4:30pm-5pm, 6:30pm-7pm, 11pm-11:30pm",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/californiareportmagazine",
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"order": 10
},
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM3NjkwNjk1OTAz",
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},
"city-arts": {
"id": "city-arts",
"title": "City Arts & Lectures",
"info": "A one-hour radio program to hear celebrated writers, artists and thinkers address contemporary ideas and values, often discussing the creative process. Please note: tapes or transcripts are not available",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/05/cityartsandlecture-300x300.jpg",
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"airtime": "SUN 1pm-2pm, TUE 10pm, WED 1am",
"meta": {
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"source": "City Arts & Lectures"
},
"link": "https://www.cityarts.net",
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"rss": "https://www.cityarts.net/feed/"
}
},
"closealltabs": {
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/closealltabs",
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"order": 1
},
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"id": "code-switch-life-kit",
"title": "Code Switch / Life Kit",
"info": "\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />",
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"meta": {
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"id": "commonwealth-club",
"title": "Commonwealth Club of California Podcast",
"info": "The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.",
"airtime": "THU 10pm, FRI 1am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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"meta": {
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"source": "Commonwealth Club of California"
},
"link": "/radio/program/commonwealth-club",
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw",
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"id": "forum",
"title": "Forum",
"tagline": "The conversation starts here",
"info": "KQED’s live call-in program discussing local, state, national and international issues, as well as in-depth interviews.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 9am-11am, 10pm-11pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Forum-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Forum with Mina Kim and Alexis Madrigal",
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 9
},
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM5NTU3MzgxNjMz",
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"freakonomics-radio": {
"id": "freakonomics-radio",
"title": "Freakonomics Radio",
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"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/freakonomicsRadio.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://freakonomics.com/",
"airtime": "SUN 1am-2am, SAT 3pm-4pm",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WNYC"
},
"link": "/radio/program/freakonomics-radio",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/freakonomics-radio/id354668519",
"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/WNYC-Podcasts/Freakonomics-Radio-p272293/",
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},
"fresh-air": {
"id": "fresh-air",
"title": "Fresh Air",
"info": "Hosted by Terry Gross, \u003cem>Fresh Air from WHYY\u003c/em> is the Peabody Award-winning weekday magazine of contemporary arts and issues. One of public radio's most popular programs, Fresh Air features intimate conversations with today's biggest luminaries.",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=214089682&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"here-and-now": {
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"info": "A live production of NPR and WBUR Boston, in collaboration with stations across the country, Here & Now reflects the fluid world of news as it's happening in the middle of the day, with timely, in-depth news, interviews and conversation. Hosted by Robin Young, Jeremy Hobson and Tonya Mosley.",
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},
"hidden-brain": {
"id": "hidden-brain",
"title": "Hidden Brain",
"info": "Shankar Vedantam uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, shape our choices and direct our relationships.",
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"airtime": "SUN 7pm-8pm",
"meta": {
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"source": "NPR"
},
"link": "/radio/program/hidden-brain",
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},
"how-i-built-this": {
"id": "how-i-built-this",
"title": "How I Built This with Guy Raz",
"info": "Guy Raz dives into the stories behind some of the world's best known companies. How I Built This weaves a narrative journey about innovators, entrepreneurs and idealists—and the movements they built.",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510313/how-i-built-this",
"airtime": "SUN 7:30pm-8pm",
"meta": {
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"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/how-i-built-this",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/how-i-built-this-with-guy-raz/id1150510297?mt=2",
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},
"hyphenacion": {
"id": "hyphenacion",
"title": "Hyphenación",
"tagline": "Where conversation and cultura meet",
"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hyphenacion_FinalAssets_PodcastTile.png",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/hyphenacion",
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"order": 15
},
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},
"jerrybrown": {
"id": "jerrybrown",
"title": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown",
"tagline": "Lessons from a lifetime in politics",
"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-Political-Mind-of-Jerry-Brown-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
"meta": {
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"order": 18
},
"link": "/podcasts/jerrybrown",
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}
},
"latino-usa": {
"id": "latino-usa",
"title": "Latino USA",
"airtime": "MON 1am-2am, SUN 6pm-7pm",
"info": "Latino USA, the radio journal of news and culture, is the only national, English-language radio program produced from a Latino perspective.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/latinoUsa.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://latinousa.org/",
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"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/latino-usa",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=79681317&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510016/podcast.xml"
}
},
"marketplace": {
"id": "marketplace",
"title": "Marketplace",
"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 4pm-4:30pm, MON-WED 6:30pm-7pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marketplace-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.marketplace.org/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "American Public Media"
},
"link": "/radio/program/marketplace",
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"rss": "https://feeds.publicradio.org/public_feeds/marketplace-pm/rss/rss"
}
},
"masters-of-scale": {
"id": "masters-of-scale",
"title": "Masters of Scale",
"info": "Masters of Scale is an original podcast in which LinkedIn co-founder and Greylock Partner Reid Hoffman sets out to describe and prove theories that explain how great entrepreneurs take their companies from zero to a gazillion in ingenious fashion.",
"airtime": "Every other Wednesday June 12 through October 16 at 8pm (repeats Thursdays at 2am)",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "https://mastersofscale.com/",
"meta": {
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"source": "WaitWhat"
},
"link": "/radio/program/masters-of-scale",
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"rss": "https://rss.art19.com/masters-of-scale"
}
},
"mindshift": {
"id": "mindshift",
"title": "MindShift",
"tagline": "A podcast about the future of learning and how we raise our kids",
"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/mindshift/",
"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 12
},
"link": "/podcasts/mindshift",
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5",
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}
},
"morning-edition": {
"id": "morning-edition",
"title": "Morning Edition",
"info": "\u003cem>Morning Edition\u003c/em> takes listeners around the country and the world with multi-faceted stories and commentaries every weekday. Hosts Steve Inskeep, David Greene and Rachel Martin bring you the latest breaking news and features to prepare you for the day.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 3am-9am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Morning-Edition-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/programs/morning-edition/",
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"link": "/radio/program/morning-edition"
},
"onourwatch": {
"id": "onourwatch",
"title": "On Our Watch",
"tagline": "Deeply-reported investigative journalism",
"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/On-Our-Watch-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "On Our Watch from NPR and KQED",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/podcasts/onourwatch",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "kqed",
"order": 11
},
"link": "/podcasts/onourwatch",
"subscribe": {
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5ucHIub3JnLzUxMDM2MC9wb2RjYXN0LnhtbD9zYz1nb29nbGVwb2RjYXN0cw",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510360/podcast.xml"
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