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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Editor's Note\u003c/strong>: 10/24/12 - We are saddened to report that \u003ca href=\"http://www.otherlab.com/news/?p=435\">Corwin Hardam\u003c/a>, wind energy pioneer and CEO of Makani Power has \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Corwin-Hardham-wind-power-pioneer-dies-3982587.php\">died unexpectedly at age 38\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-24140\" title=\"propeller300\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\" alt=\"propeller\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A dreamer stares up into the sky, watches the clouds slowly pass by and ponders what could be. From da Vinci to Newton to the Wright brothers to the little kid down the street, sometimes there’s a fine line between the day-dreamer and the visionary. And now a group of innovative thinkers are looking at those same passing clouds in a whole new way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking up at the jet stream, \u003ca href=\"http://dge.stanford.edu/labs/caldeiralab/\">Ken Caldeira\u003c/a>, a climate scientist from the Carnegie Institution of Global Ecology at Stanford University says, “We find that there’s more than 100 times the power necessary to power civilization in these high altitude winds.” 100 times the energy to power the world is going to get people's attention.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The global need for clean energy is pushing scientists and engineers to search for new, untapped sources of energy. “To solve this problem we need a real revolution in our system of energy development,” continues Caldeira, “We need huge amounts of power, and the things that can provide huge amounts of power include fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas; nuclear power, solar power and wind.” The strongest and most consistent winds are found in the \u003ca href=\"http://squall.sfsu.edu/crws/jetstream.html\">jet stream\u003c/a> as high as 30,000 feet above the earth. But how do you harness the wind power from that high? Now the race is on to find the answer to that question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It may seem pie-in-the-sky, but over 20 companies around the world are now working to develop technology to tap the strong and consistent power of high altitude wind. One company we profiled here on QUEST, \u003ca href=\"http://www.makanipower.com/\">Makani Power\u003c/a> in Alameda, California, has received a $15 million grant from Google to build a wing concept that would autonomously fly in high circles, capturing energy with small turbines and sending the power down its tether. Other companies are exploring the use of kites, parachutes, balloons and other fanciful flying machines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no shortage of skeptics and there are plenty of obstacles to hurdle before true high altitude wind energy can get off the ground. But still, it’s fun and interesting to stare up at the floating clouds and dare to dream.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "On the windswept tarmac of the former Alameda Naval Air Station, an inventive group of scientists and engineers are test-flying a kite-like tethered wing that may someday help revolutionize clean-energy. QUEST explores the potential of wind energy and new airborne wind turbines designed to harness the stronger and more consistent winds found at higher altitudes.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Editor's Note\u003c/strong>: 10/24/12 - We are saddened to report that \u003ca href=\"http://www.otherlab.com/news/?p=435\">Corwin Hardam\u003c/a>, wind energy pioneer and CEO of Makani Power has \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Corwin-Hardham-wind-power-pioneer-dies-3982587.php\">died unexpectedly at age 38\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-24140\" title=\"propeller300\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\" alt=\"propeller\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A dreamer stares up into the sky, watches the clouds slowly pass by and ponders what could be. From da Vinci to Newton to the Wright brothers to the little kid down the street, sometimes there’s a fine line between the day-dreamer and the visionary. And now a group of innovative thinkers are looking at those same passing clouds in a whole new way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking up at the jet stream, \u003ca href=\"http://dge.stanford.edu/labs/caldeiralab/\">Ken Caldeira\u003c/a>, a climate scientist from the Carnegie Institution of Global Ecology at Stanford University says, “We find that there’s more than 100 times the power necessary to power civilization in these high altitude winds.” 100 times the energy to power the world is going to get people's attention.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The global need for clean energy is pushing scientists and engineers to search for new, untapped sources of energy. “To solve this problem we need a real revolution in our system of energy development,” continues Caldeira, “We need huge amounts of power, and the things that can provide huge amounts of power include fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas; nuclear power, solar power and wind.” The strongest and most consistent winds are found in the \u003ca href=\"http://squall.sfsu.edu/crws/jetstream.html\">jet stream\u003c/a> as high as 30,000 feet above the earth. But how do you harness the wind power from that high? Now the race is on to find the answer to that question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It may seem pie-in-the-sky, but over 20 companies around the world are now working to develop technology to tap the strong and consistent power of high altitude wind. One company we profiled here on QUEST, \u003ca href=\"http://www.makanipower.com/\">Makani Power\u003c/a> in Alameda, California, has received a $15 million grant from Google to build a wing concept that would autonomously fly in high circles, capturing energy with small turbines and sending the power down its tether. Other companies are exploring the use of kites, parachutes, balloons and other fanciful flying machines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no shortage of skeptics and there are plenty of obstacles to hurdle before true high altitude wind energy can get off the ground. But still, it’s fun and interesting to stare up at the floating clouds and dare to dream.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/Bird-and-cap.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-23808\" title=\"Bird and cap\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/Bird-and-cap.jpg\" alt=\"Bird and cap\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>A few years ago while sailing a boat back from Hawaii, we skirted the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pacific_High\">North Pacific High\u003c/a>. This is a pressure zone midway between the mainland and the islands. Along the margins is the great current that circulates around the Pacific concentrating flotsam into what is known as the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre\">North Pacific Gyre\u003c/a>. Now considered the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch”, we pass fishing buoys, old nets and plastic bottles. Small colorful bits of plastic bob on the waves as \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shearwater\">shearwaters\u003c/a> swoop down to investigate them as food. We pass a refrigerator overgrown with barnacles, but most of the debris is plastic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Work from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.algalita.org/index.php\">Algalita Marine Research Foundation\u003c/a> indicates there is six times more plastic than phytoplankton (single-celled marine algae) per weight and fifty times more plastic than zooplankton (small crustaceans and larvae) in the North Pacific Gyre. Over half this plastic is plankton size: less than 60 mm or a quarter-inch in size. These tiny plants and animals are the base of the ocean food web, and animals consuming plankton from herring to whales are ingesting plastic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Plastics are Forever\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The plastic doesn’t go away, it just gets smaller. Approximately 70% of plastic sinks to the bottom where it sits like a time bomb waiting to be assimilated. The larger pieces float along until cast ashore or ingested by a marine animal. Plastics absorb organic pollutants like toxic sponges, concentrating the poisons and finding their way into the food chain from fish to humans. One study found \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulmar\">fulmars\u003c/a>, ocean-going birds that visit our waters, have over 30 pieces of plastic in their stomachs. A sea turtle found dead off Hawaii had over 1000 pieces of plastics in its intestines. Hundreds of thousands of seabirds, sea turtles and marine mammals die from plastic ingestion each year. Americans generate 10.5 million tons of plastic waste a year but recycle only 1 or 2% of it. An estimated 14 billion pounds of trash – most of it plastic – is dumped in the world’s oceans every year. Plastic bags and other plastic garbage thrown into the ocean kill as many as 1 million sea creatures every year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This problem occurs in every ocean in the world. We are killing our wildlife and poisoning ourselves through a preventable problem. For hundreds of miles of ocean, patches of plastic cross our bow. A sailboat is like a small planet: we have limited food and water and we generate waste. On past \u003ca href=\"http://SeaStewards.org\">Sea Stewards\u003c/a> expeditions, we are careful to keep all plastic aboard, and minimize plastic wrapping and bags in our provisioning. No plastic goes into the ocean on our watch.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Make a Change, Clean it Up\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We can reduce our waste using less, bringing your own bag to the grocer and using a metal water bottle.\u003cbr>\nJoin us and hundreds of thousands of Californians on September 17, \u003ca href=\"http://www.coastal.ca.gov/publiced/ccd/ccd.html\">California Coastal Clean Up Day\u003c/a>. You can participate at one of the regular clean ups organized by your local \u003ca href=\"http://www.surfrider.org/\">Surfrider Foundation\u003c/a> or start your own. Plastics reduction and marine debris clean up is part of \u003ca href=\"http://seastewards.org/healthy-oceans-initiative/\">Sea Stewards Healthy Oceans Initiative\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/Bird-and-cap.jpg\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-23808\" title=\"Bird and cap\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/Bird-and-cap.jpg\" alt=\"Bird and cap\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>A few years ago while sailing a boat back from Hawaii, we skirted the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pacific_High\">North Pacific High\u003c/a>. This is a pressure zone midway between the mainland and the islands. Along the margins is the great current that circulates around the Pacific concentrating flotsam into what is known as the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre\">North Pacific Gyre\u003c/a>. Now considered the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch”, we pass fishing buoys, old nets and plastic bottles. Small colorful bits of plastic bob on the waves as \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shearwater\">shearwaters\u003c/a> swoop down to investigate them as food. We pass a refrigerator overgrown with barnacles, but most of the debris is plastic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Work from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.algalita.org/index.php\">Algalita Marine Research Foundation\u003c/a> indicates there is six times more plastic than phytoplankton (single-celled marine algae) per weight and fifty times more plastic than zooplankton (small crustaceans and larvae) in the North Pacific Gyre. Over half this plastic is plankton size: less than 60 mm or a quarter-inch in size. These tiny plants and animals are the base of the ocean food web, and animals consuming plankton from herring to whales are ingesting plastic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Plastics are Forever\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The plastic doesn’t go away, it just gets smaller. Approximately 70% of plastic sinks to the bottom where it sits like a time bomb waiting to be assimilated. The larger pieces float along until cast ashore or ingested by a marine animal. Plastics absorb organic pollutants like toxic sponges, concentrating the poisons and finding their way into the food chain from fish to humans. One study found \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulmar\">fulmars\u003c/a>, ocean-going birds that visit our waters, have over 30 pieces of plastic in their stomachs. A sea turtle found dead off Hawaii had over 1000 pieces of plastics in its intestines. Hundreds of thousands of seabirds, sea turtles and marine mammals die from plastic ingestion each year. Americans generate 10.5 million tons of plastic waste a year but recycle only 1 or 2% of it. An estimated 14 billion pounds of trash – most of it plastic – is dumped in the world’s oceans every year. Plastic bags and other plastic garbage thrown into the ocean kill as many as 1 million sea creatures every year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This problem occurs in every ocean in the world. We are killing our wildlife and poisoning ourselves through a preventable problem. For hundreds of miles of ocean, patches of plastic cross our bow. A sailboat is like a small planet: we have limited food and water and we generate waste. On past \u003ca href=\"http://SeaStewards.org\">Sea Stewards\u003c/a> expeditions, we are careful to keep all plastic aboard, and minimize plastic wrapping and bags in our provisioning. No plastic goes into the ocean on our watch.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Cattle Ranches and Carbon",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/cattle.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-23340\" title=\"cattle\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/cattle-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">How can California cattle ranches pull carbon out of the atmosphere? Photo courtesy of Becca Ryals.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What if we could pull carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and store it underground? Well, plants do this every day—through photosynthesis. Plants take CO2 from the air and incorporate it into their tissues. When their leaves drop to the ground, or bits of their roots slough off, or they die and decompose, the carbon from the plants’ tissues goes into the soil. Researchers from UC Berkeley are working with cattle ranchers in Marin County to figure out how to increase the amount of carbon stored in the soil. I spoke to Berkeley grad student \u003ca href=\"http://nature.berkeley.edu/silverlab/?p=110\">Becca Ryals\u003c/a> to learn more about the \u003ca href=\"http://www.marincarbonproject.org/\">Marin Carbon Project\u003c/a>.\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca and other students in her advisor \u003ca href=\"http://cnr.berkeley.edu/silverlab/\">Whendee Silver’s lab\u003c/a>, in the \u003ca href=\"http://ourenvironment.berkeley.edu/\">Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management\u003c/a> at Berkeley, had been studying the effects of climate change on the carbon in soil. They were taking soil samples from California’s rangelands to see how much carbon is stored—or sequestered—in the soil, and why carbon storage varies so much from place to place. The cattle ranchers, on whose land the researchers were working, wanted to know how their land management practices could increase carbon sequestration in their soils. The ranchers’ questions were the catalyst for the next step in Becca and her colleagues’ research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They did an experiment to see whether adding compost affects the amount of carbon stored in the soil. They set up a study in 2008 in two places—Nicasio Ranch, in Marin county, and the \u003ca href=\"http://ucanr.org/sites/sfrec/\">Sierra Foothill Research and Extension Center\u003c/a> in the Sierra Valley. At each site, in some areas they added a half-inch thick layer of commercially available compost, made from yard waste and food scraps, to the soil. In other areas, they left the soil alone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-23342\" title=\"tractor2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"290\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2-400x181.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Compost is added to the soil at a cattle ranch, part of the Marin Carbon Project. Photo courtesy of Becca Ryals.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When they returned to the plots a few months later, they found that the plots with compost had a 50-70% increase in grass production. The compost had fertilized the grass and increased its growth. The ranchers were happy to see the increase in grass production—there was more forage for their cattle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23343\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-23343\" title=\"MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"484\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots-400x303.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The boxed areas were treated with a ½ inch layer of compost; the grass there grew thicker for 3 years after the compost was added. Photo courtesy of Becca Ryals.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Becca and her colleagues expected that after a year, the effect of the compost would have worn off. They were wrong. When they went back the next year, the grass production was still up 50-70%. They went back three years after the compost was added, and they could still see its effects—grass production was still up by 50-70%. The compost acted as a slow-release fertilizer. They’re continuing to monitor the plots: for how long will the compost added in 2008 continue to benefit the grass, the soil, and the ranchers?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca and her colleagues took multiple soil samples from the different plots, and found that in the compost-treated plots the amount of carbon in the soil had increased by about 20%. This is a huge increase in the world of soil carbon. Some of this carbon comes directly from the compost, and some is there because of the increase in grass production—grass dies and the carbon from its tissues enters the soil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://nature.berkeley.edu/silverlab/?p=635\">Marcia DeLonge\u003c/a>, a post-doc in Becca’s lab, is looking at whether the type of compost matters. She’s comparing the effects of yard waste/food scrap compost and compost made from cow manure—which is readily available at her field sites, three dairies in Marin County. Their work has become well known to local ranchers, and they received offers from so many ranchers to do the study on their land that they had difficulty choosing their field sites.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Marin Carbon Project is starting to talk with ranchers and local agencies about a \u003ca href=\"http://www.marincarbonproject.org/programs.php\">carbon market\u003c/a>—using the researchers’ findings, they can monitor the amount of carbon in the soil, and ranchers can be rewarded for the carbon sequestered on their property.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca, Whendee, and her lab-mates share their research findings with ranchers through presentations at public venues. The ranchers ask them questions, and the researchers figure out how they can answer them, by designing new studies and asking more questions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca enjoys the science: “There are interesting, challenging questions,” she says. But “I really like working with the ranchers and seeing the research findings applied to everyday land management decisions.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her work also gives her an appreciation for local food. “When I see Point Reyes Blue Cheese,” Becca says, “I know that rancher. I saw those soils.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/cattle.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-23340\" title=\"cattle\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/cattle-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">How can California cattle ranches pull carbon out of the atmosphere? Photo courtesy of Becca Ryals.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What if we could pull carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and store it underground? Well, plants do this every day—through photosynthesis. Plants take CO2 from the air and incorporate it into their tissues. When their leaves drop to the ground, or bits of their roots slough off, or they die and decompose, the carbon from the plants’ tissues goes into the soil. Researchers from UC Berkeley are working with cattle ranchers in Marin County to figure out how to increase the amount of carbon stored in the soil. I spoke to Berkeley grad student \u003ca href=\"http://nature.berkeley.edu/silverlab/?p=110\">Becca Ryals\u003c/a> to learn more about the \u003ca href=\"http://www.marincarbonproject.org/\">Marin Carbon Project\u003c/a>.\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca and other students in her advisor \u003ca href=\"http://cnr.berkeley.edu/silverlab/\">Whendee Silver’s lab\u003c/a>, in the \u003ca href=\"http://ourenvironment.berkeley.edu/\">Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management\u003c/a> at Berkeley, had been studying the effects of climate change on the carbon in soil. They were taking soil samples from California’s rangelands to see how much carbon is stored—or sequestered—in the soil, and why carbon storage varies so much from place to place. The cattle ranchers, on whose land the researchers were working, wanted to know how their land management practices could increase carbon sequestration in their soils. The ranchers’ questions were the catalyst for the next step in Becca and her colleagues’ research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They did an experiment to see whether adding compost affects the amount of carbon stored in the soil. They set up a study in 2008 in two places—Nicasio Ranch, in Marin county, and the \u003ca href=\"http://ucanr.org/sites/sfrec/\">Sierra Foothill Research and Extension Center\u003c/a> in the Sierra Valley. At each site, in some areas they added a half-inch thick layer of commercially available compost, made from yard waste and food scraps, to the soil. In other areas, they left the soil alone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-23342\" title=\"tractor2\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"290\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/tractor2-400x181.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Compost is added to the soil at a cattle ranch, part of the Marin Carbon Project. Photo courtesy of Becca Ryals.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>When they returned to the plots a few months later, they found that the plots with compost had a 50-70% increase in grass production. The compost had fertilized the grass and increased its growth. The ranchers were happy to see the increase in grass production—there was more forage for their cattle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_23343\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-23343\" title=\"MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"484\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/08/MarinCarbonExperimentalPlots-400x303.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The boxed areas were treated with a ½ inch layer of compost; the grass there grew thicker for 3 years after the compost was added. Photo courtesy of Becca Ryals.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Becca and her colleagues expected that after a year, the effect of the compost would have worn off. They were wrong. When they went back the next year, the grass production was still up 50-70%. They went back three years after the compost was added, and they could still see its effects—grass production was still up by 50-70%. The compost acted as a slow-release fertilizer. They’re continuing to monitor the plots: for how long will the compost added in 2008 continue to benefit the grass, the soil, and the ranchers?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca and her colleagues took multiple soil samples from the different plots, and found that in the compost-treated plots the amount of carbon in the soil had increased by about 20%. This is a huge increase in the world of soil carbon. Some of this carbon comes directly from the compost, and some is there because of the increase in grass production—grass dies and the carbon from its tissues enters the soil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://nature.berkeley.edu/silverlab/?p=635\">Marcia DeLonge\u003c/a>, a post-doc in Becca’s lab, is looking at whether the type of compost matters. She’s comparing the effects of yard waste/food scrap compost and compost made from cow manure—which is readily available at her field sites, three dairies in Marin County. Their work has become well known to local ranchers, and they received offers from so many ranchers to do the study on their land that they had difficulty choosing their field sites.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Marin Carbon Project is starting to talk with ranchers and local agencies about a \u003ca href=\"http://www.marincarbonproject.org/programs.php\">carbon market\u003c/a>—using the researchers’ findings, they can monitor the amount of carbon in the soil, and ranchers can be rewarded for the carbon sequestered on their property.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca, Whendee, and her lab-mates share their research findings with ranchers through presentations at public venues. The ranchers ask them questions, and the researchers figure out how they can answer them, by designing new studies and asking more questions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Becca enjoys the science: “There are interesting, challenging questions,” she says. But “I really like working with the ranchers and seeing the research findings applied to everyday land management decisions.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her work also gives her an appreciation for local food. “When I see Point Reyes Blue Cheese,” Becca says, “I know that rancher. I saw those soils.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>A few weeks ago, scuba divers in \u003ca href=\"http://tahoe.usgs.gov/facts.html\">Lake Tahoe\u003c/a> found the body of a man who had drowned in the lake 17 years ago. Still in its wetsuit, the body was very well preserved. Because the water in this high alpine lake is so cold, decomposition is very slow. This fact has spawned rumors, the most famous of which involves Jacques Cousteau and still makes me shudder, years after I first heard it. Apparently, years ago, Cousteau went scuba diving in Lake Tahoe. He emerged from the water shaken, but not with cold. He said, “The world is not ready for what I have seen.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What did Cousteau see? Maybe the bodies of unlucky gamblers who crossed the Mafia in 1950s Reno. Or maybe it was Tahoe Tessie, the Loch Ness likeness of the lake. But, in its \u003ca href=\"http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-missing-diver-20110809,0,7841332.story\">coverage\u003c/a> of the recent discovery, the LA Times said that Cousteau never actually visited Lake Tahoe. The Cousteau story may be a myth, but it is no less chilling, because the physical conditions of the lake are such that bodies could still be drifting beneath the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At 1645 feet (depending on the level of water in the basin), Lake Tahoe is the second deepest lake in the US. (Crater Lake in Oregon is the deepest in the country. The world record goes to Russia’s Lake Baikal, which is some 5,369 feet deep.) Lake Tahoe is located between two fault zones, and it formed through a tectonic combo of uplift and subsidence. The Sierra Nevada mountains rose up on the west and the Carson Range rose up on the east. The rock underneath the lake sank down to form a flat-bottomed basin called a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graben\">graben\u003c/a>. The word is German for “grave” and refers to the lake’s low-lying nature—and perhaps also to whatever Cousteau purportedly saw underwater.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Tahoe is cold. The temperature at the surface of the lake varies, from a low of about 40 degrees in February or March to a high of about 75 degrees towards the end of the summer. Below the surface, the temperature is a chilly 39 degrees. In the winter, when the surface and the deep waters are relatively close in temperature, the wind blowing across the surface of the lake mixes the water. This brings oxygen from the surface layer down to the depths, and nutrients from the depths up to the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2010, the mixing occurred from the surface down to about 550 feet, because the surface of the lake remained relatively warm throughout the winter. In previous years, mixing has occurred down to about 1500 feet. Since the 1970s, the surface layer of the lake has gotten warmer in the summer, and it retains that heat throughout the winter. Just like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/08/the-deep-cold-secret-behind-summer-fog/\">in the ocean\u003c/a>, stratification—a warm surface layer that is distinct from the cold bottom layer—means it is hard to get the surface and deep waters to mix.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Tahoe is famous for its clear waters. But, as UC Davis’s recently released \u003ca href=\"http://terc.ucdavis.edu/stateofthelake/\">Tahoe: State of the Lake Report\u003c/a> explains, the lake is \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2011/08/12/state/n133751D33.DTL\">not as clear as it used to be\u003c/a>. In the 1960s, you could see down to a depth of about 100 feet, but now you can see down to only about 70 feet. The lake has become cloudier because nutrients enter the lake via 63 rivers and streams, and those nutrients fuel the growth of algae. And, global warming plays a role: the warm surface of the lake gives a particular species of microalgae a competitive advantage, and the tiny bodies of the microalgae cloud the water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The clarity of the lake, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.tahoefund.org/about-tahoe/threats-to-tahoe/\">its invasive species\u003c/a>, will be on the agenda today at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.tahoefund.org/events/the-2011-lake-tahoe-environmental-summit/\">Lake Tahoe Environmental Summit\u003c/a>. Nevada Senator Harry Reid and California Senator Dianne Feinstein will both be at the Homewood Resort, discussing Lake Tahoe’s economic and ecological challenges.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>A few weeks ago, scuba divers in \u003ca href=\"http://tahoe.usgs.gov/facts.html\">Lake Tahoe\u003c/a> found the body of a man who had drowned in the lake 17 years ago. Still in its wetsuit, the body was very well preserved. Because the water in this high alpine lake is so cold, decomposition is very slow. This fact has spawned rumors, the most famous of which involves Jacques Cousteau and still makes me shudder, years after I first heard it. Apparently, years ago, Cousteau went scuba diving in Lake Tahoe. He emerged from the water shaken, but not with cold. He said, “The world is not ready for what I have seen.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What did Cousteau see? Maybe the bodies of unlucky gamblers who crossed the Mafia in 1950s Reno. Or maybe it was Tahoe Tessie, the Loch Ness likeness of the lake. But, in its \u003ca href=\"http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-missing-diver-20110809,0,7841332.story\">coverage\u003c/a> of the recent discovery, the LA Times said that Cousteau never actually visited Lake Tahoe. The Cousteau story may be a myth, but it is no less chilling, because the physical conditions of the lake are such that bodies could still be drifting beneath the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At 1645 feet (depending on the level of water in the basin), Lake Tahoe is the second deepest lake in the US. (Crater Lake in Oregon is the deepest in the country. The world record goes to Russia’s Lake Baikal, which is some 5,369 feet deep.) Lake Tahoe is located between two fault zones, and it formed through a tectonic combo of uplift and subsidence. The Sierra Nevada mountains rose up on the west and the Carson Range rose up on the east. The rock underneath the lake sank down to form a flat-bottomed basin called a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graben\">graben\u003c/a>. The word is German for “grave” and refers to the lake’s low-lying nature—and perhaps also to whatever Cousteau purportedly saw underwater.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Tahoe is cold. The temperature at the surface of the lake varies, from a low of about 40 degrees in February or March to a high of about 75 degrees towards the end of the summer. Below the surface, the temperature is a chilly 39 degrees. In the winter, when the surface and the deep waters are relatively close in temperature, the wind blowing across the surface of the lake mixes the water. This brings oxygen from the surface layer down to the depths, and nutrients from the depths up to the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2010, the mixing occurred from the surface down to about 550 feet, because the surface of the lake remained relatively warm throughout the winter. In previous years, mixing has occurred down to about 1500 feet. Since the 1970s, the surface layer of the lake has gotten warmer in the summer, and it retains that heat throughout the winter. Just like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/08/the-deep-cold-secret-behind-summer-fog/\">in the ocean\u003c/a>, stratification—a warm surface layer that is distinct from the cold bottom layer—means it is hard to get the surface and deep waters to mix.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Tahoe is famous for its clear waters. But, as UC Davis’s recently released \u003ca href=\"http://terc.ucdavis.edu/stateofthelake/\">Tahoe: State of the Lake Report\u003c/a> explains, the lake is \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2011/08/12/state/n133751D33.DTL\">not as clear as it used to be\u003c/a>. In the 1960s, you could see down to a depth of about 100 feet, but now you can see down to only about 70 feet. The lake has become cloudier because nutrients enter the lake via 63 rivers and streams, and those nutrients fuel the growth of algae. And, global warming plays a role: the warm surface of the lake gives a particular species of microalgae a competitive advantage, and the tiny bodies of the microalgae cloud the water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The clarity of the lake, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.tahoefund.org/about-tahoe/threats-to-tahoe/\">its invasive species\u003c/a>, will be on the agenda today at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.tahoefund.org/events/the-2011-lake-tahoe-environmental-summit/\">Lake Tahoe Environmental Summit\u003c/a>. Nevada Senator Harry Reid and California Senator Dianne Feinstein will both be at the Homewood Resort, discussing Lake Tahoe’s economic and ecological challenges.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Another foggy morning. Why is the Bay Area so foggy in summer? To answer that question, look west—at the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’ve ever tried to swim at the beach in Northern California, your chattering teeth will tell you that the water is cold. This cold water makes fog form. The cold water cools down the air above it, and cool air can’t hold as much moisture as warm air. The moisture condenses into fog.\u003c!--more--> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://ceres.ca.gov/ceres/calweb/coastal/waters.html\">water along the coast of California\u003c/a> is cold for a couple of reasons. First, the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Current\">California Current\u003c/a> brings cold water from Alaska southward along the coast. And second, cold water from the deep ocean comes up to the surface through a process called \u003ca href=\"http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02quest/background/upwelling/upwelling.html\">upwelling\u003c/a>. From March through September, wind blows southward along the coast. This wind, combined with the rotation of the earth, creates surface currents that move water from the coast out into the ocean. Something has to fill in the space that was left behind when the surface waters moved out to sea. So water from the deep ocean is sucked to the surface. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The water from the deep ocean is full of nutrients. Upwelling is super important for ocean dwelling creatures—the nutrients in the water feed the phytoplankton and move on up the food web. The lush kelp forests along the California coast exist because of upwelling. And the water from the deep ocean is really cold, which makes fog form over the areas of upwelling. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fog rolls in from the ocean onto land in the morning as the rising sun heats up the land. Warm air rises, and something has to fill its place—the foggy air that’s hanging out above the ocean. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So to summarize, summer winds create upwelling, fog forms over the cold water, summer sun heats the air above the land and makes it rise, and the fog gets sucked in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, the amount of fog has declined by 33% over the past 60 years. UC Berkeley professor Todd Dawson talks about this in QUEST’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/science-on-the-spot-science-of-fog/\">Science on the SPOT: Science of Fog\u003c/a>. Fog is declining in part because upwelling along the coast has weakened, thanks to global warming.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Warmer air temperatures are heating the surface layer of the ocean. As the surface layer gets warmer and thicker, it becomes harder for the cold deep water to mix with the warm surface layer. This weakens the upwelling. Weak upwelling means less fog is produced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Someone (\u003ca href=\"http://books.google.com/books?id=d6JZryGvfxYC&lpg=PA33&ots=-GMOc8cu2Z&dq=get%20out%20of%20wet%20dry%20martini%20benchley%20butterworth&pg=PA232#v=onepage&q=%22the%20coldest%20winter%20I%20ever%20spent%20was%20a%20summer%20in%20san%20francisco%22&f=false\">though maybe not Mark Twain\u003c/a>) once said that the coldest winter they ever spent was a summer in San Francisco. That San Francisco summer was cold because of the fog. Which brings to mind another (potential) Twain quote: “Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about it.” San Francisco is getting less and less foggy, thanks to global warming, and so far we aren’t really doing anything about it.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Another foggy morning. Why is the Bay Area so foggy in summer? To answer that question, look west—at the Pacific Ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’ve ever tried to swim at the beach in Northern California, your chattering teeth will tell you that the water is cold. This cold water makes fog form. The cold water cools down the air above it, and cool air can’t hold as much moisture as warm air. The moisture condenses into fog.\u003c!--more--> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://ceres.ca.gov/ceres/calweb/coastal/waters.html\">water along the coast of California\u003c/a> is cold for a couple of reasons. First, the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Current\">California Current\u003c/a> brings cold water from Alaska southward along the coast. And second, cold water from the deep ocean comes up to the surface through a process called \u003ca href=\"http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02quest/background/upwelling/upwelling.html\">upwelling\u003c/a>. From March through September, wind blows southward along the coast. This wind, combined with the rotation of the earth, creates surface currents that move water from the coast out into the ocean. Something has to fill in the space that was left behind when the surface waters moved out to sea. So water from the deep ocean is sucked to the surface. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The water from the deep ocean is full of nutrients. Upwelling is super important for ocean dwelling creatures—the nutrients in the water feed the phytoplankton and move on up the food web. The lush kelp forests along the California coast exist because of upwelling. And the water from the deep ocean is really cold, which makes fog form over the areas of upwelling. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fog rolls in from the ocean onto land in the morning as the rising sun heats up the land. Warm air rises, and something has to fill its place—the foggy air that’s hanging out above the ocean. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So to summarize, summer winds create upwelling, fog forms over the cold water, summer sun heats the air above the land and makes it rise, and the fog gets sucked in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, the amount of fog has declined by 33% over the past 60 years. UC Berkeley professor Todd Dawson talks about this in QUEST’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/science-on-the-spot-science-of-fog/\">Science on the SPOT: Science of Fog\u003c/a>. Fog is declining in part because upwelling along the coast has weakened, thanks to global warming.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Warmer air temperatures are heating the surface layer of the ocean. As the surface layer gets warmer and thicker, it becomes harder for the cold deep water to mix with the warm surface layer. This weakens the upwelling. Weak upwelling means less fog is produced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Someone (\u003ca href=\"http://books.google.com/books?id=d6JZryGvfxYC&lpg=PA33&ots=-GMOc8cu2Z&dq=get%20out%20of%20wet%20dry%20martini%20benchley%20butterworth&pg=PA232#v=onepage&q=%22the%20coldest%20winter%20I%20ever%20spent%20was%20a%20summer%20in%20san%20francisco%22&f=false\">though maybe not Mark Twain\u003c/a>) once said that the coldest winter they ever spent was a summer in San Francisco. That San Francisco summer was cold because of the fog. Which brings to mind another (potential) Twain quote: “Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about it.” San Francisco is getting less and less foggy, thanks to global warming, and so far we aren’t really doing anything about it.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Climate Change Favors Invasive Species in California Grasslands",
"title": "Climate Change Favors Invasive Species in California Grasslands",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_21062\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/25/climate-change-favors-invasive-species-in-california-grasslands/tomspoint/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-21062\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-21062\" title=\"TomsPoint\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/TomsPoint-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Grasses blow in the wind near Toms Point in Marin County, on the east side of Tomales Bay. Most of the grasses in the photo are exotic. Photo: Brody Sandel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>California’s grasslands are some of the most heavily invaded habitats in the state. As the climate changes—temperatures increase and water becomes scarcer—the conditions will favor exotic grasses, which will become even more prevalent. These are the conclusions drawn by Brody Sandel, a post-doc at Aarhus University in Denmark, and Emily Dangremond, a grad student at UC Berkeley, in their recent paper, \u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02480.x/full\">\"\u003cem>Climate change and the invasion of California by grasses\u003c/em>\"\u003c/a> in \u003ca href=\"http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=1354-1013\">Global Change Biology\u003c/a>. They studied the traits of native and exotic grasses. Many of the characteristics that make an exotic grass successful in a new habitat (tall stature, big leaves, big seeds) will also be beneficial traits in the world to come.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Full disclosure here: Brody, Emily and I were all grad students together in the same \u003ca href=\"http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/sousa/\">lab at UC Berkeley\u003c/a>. So when Emily told me she had a new paper, I was curious to see what it was all about. It turns out their study is really cool. It looks at the interaction of two major world-changers: invasive species and climate change. Their paper talks about exotic species—species that are not native to a particular habitat but are not necessarily detrimental, and noxious weeds—species that are somehow disruptive, because they outcompete native species or alter the habitat. Noxious weeds are what we would also call invasive plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Brody and Emily’s study draws on existing datasets on current plant distribution across the state, plant traits, and current and future climate. They mapped the distribution of all the different species in California grasslands, using data from the Jepson Manual (the bible of California plant life), and a few other sources, to fill out an 800-cell grid of the state. They looked at the traits of the species—including how tall the plants are, whether they are annual or perennial, how much of their leaf mass comes from nitrogen, and the size of their seeds—and examined how the traits relate to the climate where the plants live today. Especially important was the proportion of exotic species in each of the grid cells. Then they turned up the temperature. They predicted the proportion of exotic species in each grid under climate change scenarios: higher average temperatures and less available water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They found that as the temperature increases and water availability decreases, the proportion of exotic species increases. And, the proportion of noxious weeds increases. Higher temperatures favor traits that tend to be possessed by exotic species, such as tall plants with big leaves and annual lifestyles. These are the same traits that made the plants successful invaders in the first place. For example, a tall plant extends above a short plant, stealing its light. But burly exotic plants like Holcus lanatus outcompete native species for light. And generally, plants with big seeds grow to be hearty seedlings, which are better competitors than scrappy little seedlings grown from modest sized seeds. This study predicts that noxious weeds will become even more prevalent, because they have traits that will serve them well under the conditions of climate change. The changing climate acts as a filter, straining out the native species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_21065\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/Holcus.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-21065\" title=\"Holcus\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/Holcus.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The noxious weed Holcus lanatus, a.k.a. “The Hulk,” so named because it towers above native grasses and outcompetes them for light. Photo courtesy of Brody Sandel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Years ago, I asked a grad student friend why she studied grasslands. I just couldn’t understand the appeal of a field of grass—it seemed boring. My friend Tasha explained that she just loved the way grasses look when they blow in the wind. A few weeks later, I went with her to her field site near Point Reyes, and I immediately understood the aesthetic appeal of grasslands. If you’re picturing a green manicured lawn with short little blades of grass, toss that idea right now. Instead, think of taller grasses, shin height or higher, in all shades of green, brown, gold and even purple. Think of the colors shifting as the wind blows. It is really a beautiful sight. California’s grasslands are expected to expand as the climate changes. But the inhabitants of these grasslands won’t be the grasses that were there 100 or 200 years ago. Instead, there will be a bunch of weeds blowing in the wind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To learn more about the interplay between California’s native plants and exotic species, check out the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cnps.org/\">California Native Plant Society\u003c/a>, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cal-ipc.org/\">California Invasive Plant Council\u003c/a>, or take a \u003ca href=\"http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/workshops/\">workshop\u003c/a> with the \u003ca href=\"http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/jeps/\">Jepson Herbarium\u003c/a> at UC Berkeley.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_21062\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/25/climate-change-favors-invasive-species-in-california-grasslands/tomspoint/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-21062\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-21062\" title=\"TomsPoint\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/TomsPoint-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Grasses blow in the wind near Toms Point in Marin County, on the east side of Tomales Bay. Most of the grasses in the photo are exotic. Photo: Brody Sandel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>California’s grasslands are some of the most heavily invaded habitats in the state. As the climate changes—temperatures increase and water becomes scarcer—the conditions will favor exotic grasses, which will become even more prevalent. These are the conclusions drawn by Brody Sandel, a post-doc at Aarhus University in Denmark, and Emily Dangremond, a grad student at UC Berkeley, in their recent paper, \u003ca href=\"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02480.x/full\">\"\u003cem>Climate change and the invasion of California by grasses\u003c/em>\"\u003c/a> in \u003ca href=\"http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=1354-1013\">Global Change Biology\u003c/a>. They studied the traits of native and exotic grasses. Many of the characteristics that make an exotic grass successful in a new habitat (tall stature, big leaves, big seeds) will also be beneficial traits in the world to come.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Full disclosure here: Brody, Emily and I were all grad students together in the same \u003ca href=\"http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/sousa/\">lab at UC Berkeley\u003c/a>. So when Emily told me she had a new paper, I was curious to see what it was all about. It turns out their study is really cool. It looks at the interaction of two major world-changers: invasive species and climate change. Their paper talks about exotic species—species that are not native to a particular habitat but are not necessarily detrimental, and noxious weeds—species that are somehow disruptive, because they outcompete native species or alter the habitat. Noxious weeds are what we would also call invasive plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Brody and Emily’s study draws on existing datasets on current plant distribution across the state, plant traits, and current and future climate. They mapped the distribution of all the different species in California grasslands, using data from the Jepson Manual (the bible of California plant life), and a few other sources, to fill out an 800-cell grid of the state. They looked at the traits of the species—including how tall the plants are, whether they are annual or perennial, how much of their leaf mass comes from nitrogen, and the size of their seeds—and examined how the traits relate to the climate where the plants live today. Especially important was the proportion of exotic species in each of the grid cells. Then they turned up the temperature. They predicted the proportion of exotic species in each grid under climate change scenarios: higher average temperatures and less available water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They found that as the temperature increases and water availability decreases, the proportion of exotic species increases. And, the proportion of noxious weeds increases. Higher temperatures favor traits that tend to be possessed by exotic species, such as tall plants with big leaves and annual lifestyles. These are the same traits that made the plants successful invaders in the first place. For example, a tall plant extends above a short plant, stealing its light. But burly exotic plants like Holcus lanatus outcompete native species for light. And generally, plants with big seeds grow to be hearty seedlings, which are better competitors than scrappy little seedlings grown from modest sized seeds. This study predicts that noxious weeds will become even more prevalent, because they have traits that will serve them well under the conditions of climate change. The changing climate acts as a filter, straining out the native species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_21065\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/Holcus.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-21065\" title=\"Holcus\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/07/Holcus.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The noxious weed Holcus lanatus, a.k.a. “The Hulk,” so named because it towers above native grasses and outcompetes them for light. Photo courtesy of Brody Sandel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Years ago, I asked a grad student friend why she studied grasslands. I just couldn’t understand the appeal of a field of grass—it seemed boring. My friend Tasha explained that she just loved the way grasses look when they blow in the wind. A few weeks later, I went with her to her field site near Point Reyes, and I immediately understood the aesthetic appeal of grasslands. If you’re picturing a green manicured lawn with short little blades of grass, toss that idea right now. Instead, think of taller grasses, shin height or higher, in all shades of green, brown, gold and even purple. Think of the colors shifting as the wind blows. It is really a beautiful sight. California’s grasslands are expected to expand as the climate changes. But the inhabitants of these grasslands won’t be the grasses that were there 100 or 200 years ago. Instead, there will be a bunch of weeds blowing in the wind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To learn more about the interplay between California’s native plants and exotic species, check out the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cnps.org/\">California Native Plant Society\u003c/a>, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cal-ipc.org/\">California Invasive Plant Council\u003c/a>, or take a \u003ca href=\"http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/workshops/\">workshop\u003c/a> with the \u003ca href=\"http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/jeps/\">Jepson Herbarium\u003c/a> at UC Berkeley.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/Humpback_tail_Fallarones.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-20112\" title=\"Humpback_tail_Fallarones\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/Humpback_tail_Fallarones-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>In June, a report was released by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.stateoftheocean.org/\">International Programmes on the State of the Ocean\u003c/a>, announcing the results of a high level summit. Conclusions? It’s worse than we thought. We are rapidly accelerating toward the next wide-scale extinction event in the oceans, and the rate of change is faster than anticipated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The team of international scientists published a grave assessment of current threats and a stark conclusion about future risks to marine and human life. If the current trajectory of damage continues, the world's ocean is at high risk of entering an unprecedented phase of extinction of marine species.\u003cbr>\nThe greatest threat the group concluded was climate change leading to \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification\">ocean acidification\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ocean acidification is a direct result of the absorption of carbon dioxide by the ocean. This threatens all marine animals and plants that secrete calcium carbonate as part of their structure. Ocean acidification can prevent marine animals, from snails to plankton to corals, from building their protective shells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Historically and before the presence of humans, three factors have been present in every mass extinction event: low oxygen levels (hypoxia) and the absence of oxygen (anoxia) causing ocean dead zones; ocean warming; and acean acidification. Thanks to modern technology, we have accelerated and exacerbated the conditions leading to the historical marine extinctions. Already one quarter of the world’s coral reefs have vanished and another one third are endangered. Ninety percent of many some of the ocean’s great fish have vanished. Species like sharks contribute to the health of the ocean yet are being systematically and unsustainably fished.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These climate and marine experts found strong evidence that the effects of the three factors, coupled with other human induced impacts such as overfishing and nutrient runoff from farming have already caused a dramatic decline in ocean health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last great extinction event occurred 55 million years ago, where over half of all deep sea species became extinct. It has been determined that the rate of carbon absorption in the ocean is already greater than the conditions leading to that event.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was concluded that these impacts are synergistic and the rate of degeneration is far faster than previously predicted. The report urges strong and rapid action by governments to reduce carbon emissions such as those urged by the last \u003ca href=\"http://www.ipcc.ch/\">IPCC\u003c/a> report, better manage our fisheries - especially those of the high seas, and increase marine reserves to serve as pockets of resilience.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The conclusions are serious indeed yet it also offers solutions, many of which we can deal with in our daily lives. As citizens, we can work for ocean health by driving less, eating only sustainable seafoods, minimizing run off from detergents and fertilizers and supporting marine protection.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ocean and ocean life are too important to lose through negligence or ignorance.\u003cbr>\nAs one of the co-authors of the event Dr. Dan Laffoley stated, “The time to protect the blue heart of our planet is now, today and urgent.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ocean is our planet’s heartbeat, and the future heartbeat for billions of humans. Lets keep it beating.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.7699 -122.467174\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/Humpback_tail_Fallarones.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-20112\" title=\"Humpback_tail_Fallarones\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/07/Humpback_tail_Fallarones-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>In June, a report was released by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.stateoftheocean.org/\">International Programmes on the State of the Ocean\u003c/a>, announcing the results of a high level summit. Conclusions? It’s worse than we thought. We are rapidly accelerating toward the next wide-scale extinction event in the oceans, and the rate of change is faster than anticipated.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The team of international scientists published a grave assessment of current threats and a stark conclusion about future risks to marine and human life. If the current trajectory of damage continues, the world's ocean is at high risk of entering an unprecedented phase of extinction of marine species.\u003cbr>\nThe greatest threat the group concluded was climate change leading to \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidification\">ocean acidification\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ocean acidification is a direct result of the absorption of carbon dioxide by the ocean. This threatens all marine animals and plants that secrete calcium carbonate as part of their structure. Ocean acidification can prevent marine animals, from snails to plankton to corals, from building their protective shells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Historically and before the presence of humans, three factors have been present in every mass extinction event: low oxygen levels (hypoxia) and the absence of oxygen (anoxia) causing ocean dead zones; ocean warming; and acean acidification. Thanks to modern technology, we have accelerated and exacerbated the conditions leading to the historical marine extinctions. Already one quarter of the world’s coral reefs have vanished and another one third are endangered. Ninety percent of many some of the ocean’s great fish have vanished. Species like sharks contribute to the health of the ocean yet are being systematically and unsustainably fished.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These climate and marine experts found strong evidence that the effects of the three factors, coupled with other human induced impacts such as overfishing and nutrient runoff from farming have already caused a dramatic decline in ocean health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last great extinction event occurred 55 million years ago, where over half of all deep sea species became extinct. It has been determined that the rate of carbon absorption in the ocean is already greater than the conditions leading to that event.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was concluded that these impacts are synergistic and the rate of degeneration is far faster than previously predicted. The report urges strong and rapid action by governments to reduce carbon emissions such as those urged by the last \u003ca href=\"http://www.ipcc.ch/\">IPCC\u003c/a> report, better manage our fisheries - especially those of the high seas, and increase marine reserves to serve as pockets of resilience.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The conclusions are serious indeed yet it also offers solutions, many of which we can deal with in our daily lives. As citizens, we can work for ocean health by driving less, eating only sustainable seafoods, minimizing run off from detergents and fertilizers and supporting marine protection.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ocean and ocean life are too important to lose through negligence or ignorance.\u003cbr>\nAs one of the co-authors of the event Dr. Dan Laffoley stated, “The time to protect the blue heart of our planet is now, today and urgent.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ocean is our planet’s heartbeat, and the future heartbeat for billions of humans. Lets keep it beating.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.7699 -122.467174\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/Pier391.jpg\">\u003cem>San Francisco's Pier 39 is home to only a few sea lions this summer.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I spent Saturday sightseeing in San Francisco with a friend visiting from out of town, and I thought I’d check in on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/education/marine-mammal-information/pinnipeds/california-sea-lion/\">sea lions\u003c/a> at \u003ca href=\"http://www.pier39.com/Information/webcamnew.htm\">Pier 39\u003c/a>. Just a few years ago, there were about 1600 of them, slithering on and off the wooden docks, basking in the sun, and barking at one another. Then in 2009, most of them swam away, as QUEST blogger Amy Gotliffe \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/02/11/wonderin-where-the-lions-are/\">explained\u003c/a>. The sea lions’ favorite food, herring, was in short supply, so they went to Oregon to feast on anchovies and salmon. Now the herring are making a comeback—will the sea lions return too?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This weekend the floating wooden palates at Pier 39 were mostly bare; there were perhaps a dozen sea lions. We would expect the sea lion numbers to be low this time of year, herring or no herring. In the summer, sea lions travel down south (the Channel Islands, San Diego, Baja) to breed. But there were still fewer sea lions at Pier 39 than in summers past. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sea lions will eat a lot of different prey items: octopus, squid, small sharks. But their bread and butter is herring, which have been hard to find in recent years. The herring fishery is the only fishery still in operation in San Francisco Bay, and it \u003ca href=\"http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_13280772\">closed\u003c/a> during the 2009/2010 season (December through April), because there were so few fish. This year, \u003ca href=\"http://baynature.org/articles/web-only-articles/a-good-season-for-bay-herring\">the herring fishery opened again\u003c/a>, but with a lower quota than in the past, to allow the fish to recover.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are a few hypotheses about why the herring numbers dipped so low in 2009. First, herring lay their eggs in the brackish waters of the estuaries around San Francisco Bay. Each female fish can lay up to 50,000 eggs, which are a prized commodity in Japan. However, the years leading up to 2009 were drought years, so the estuaries were saltier than usual. That may have affected the herrings’ spawning success. Second, the 2007 Cosco Busan oil spill may have affected herring health. Researchers found oil-soaked embryos, which were deformed. Third, herring declines may be the result of climate change. As surface waters get warmer, there is less mixing with cold, nutrient-rich water from the bottom of the ocean. There are also big patches of the ocean that have very little oxygen. These hypoxic zones are deadly to their inhabitants, and are affecting many marine species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, the herring appear to be making a comeback, possibly because the past few years have been wet and the estuaries are sufficiently fresh, or because the spilled oil has been flushed from the Bay. Time will tell whether the sea lions follow their food and return to Pier 39. I hope they come back—along with the twists and turns of Lombard Street and the Golden Gate Bridge, the Embarcadero’s sea lions are one of my favorite San Francisco treasures to show off to visiting friends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.809079 -122.411934\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/Pier391.jpg\">\u003cem>San Francisco's Pier 39 is home to only a few sea lions this summer.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I spent Saturday sightseeing in San Francisco with a friend visiting from out of town, and I thought I’d check in on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.marinemammalcenter.org/education/marine-mammal-information/pinnipeds/california-sea-lion/\">sea lions\u003c/a> at \u003ca href=\"http://www.pier39.com/Information/webcamnew.htm\">Pier 39\u003c/a>. Just a few years ago, there were about 1600 of them, slithering on and off the wooden docks, basking in the sun, and barking at one another. Then in 2009, most of them swam away, as QUEST blogger Amy Gotliffe \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/02/11/wonderin-where-the-lions-are/\">explained\u003c/a>. The sea lions’ favorite food, herring, was in short supply, so they went to Oregon to feast on anchovies and salmon. Now the herring are making a comeback—will the sea lions return too?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This weekend the floating wooden palates at Pier 39 were mostly bare; there were perhaps a dozen sea lions. We would expect the sea lion numbers to be low this time of year, herring or no herring. In the summer, sea lions travel down south (the Channel Islands, San Diego, Baja) to breed. But there were still fewer sea lions at Pier 39 than in summers past. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sea lions will eat a lot of different prey items: octopus, squid, small sharks. But their bread and butter is herring, which have been hard to find in recent years. The herring fishery is the only fishery still in operation in San Francisco Bay, and it \u003ca href=\"http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_13280772\">closed\u003c/a> during the 2009/2010 season (December through April), because there were so few fish. This year, \u003ca href=\"http://baynature.org/articles/web-only-articles/a-good-season-for-bay-herring\">the herring fishery opened again\u003c/a>, but with a lower quota than in the past, to allow the fish to recover.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are a few hypotheses about why the herring numbers dipped so low in 2009. First, herring lay their eggs in the brackish waters of the estuaries around San Francisco Bay. Each female fish can lay up to 50,000 eggs, which are a prized commodity in Japan. However, the years leading up to 2009 were drought years, so the estuaries were saltier than usual. That may have affected the herrings’ spawning success. Second, the 2007 Cosco Busan oil spill may have affected herring health. Researchers found oil-soaked embryos, which were deformed. Third, herring declines may be the result of climate change. As surface waters get warmer, there is less mixing with cold, nutrient-rich water from the bottom of the ocean. There are also big patches of the ocean that have very little oxygen. These hypoxic zones are deadly to their inhabitants, and are affecting many marine species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, the herring appear to be making a comeback, possibly because the past few years have been wet and the estuaries are sufficiently fresh, or because the spilled oil has been flushed from the Bay. Time will tell whether the sea lions follow their food and return to Pier 39. I hope they come back—along with the twists and turns of Lombard Street and the Golden Gate Bridge, the Embarcadero’s sea lions are one of my favorite San Francisco treasures to show off to visiting friends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.809079 -122.411934\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Resolving Clouds in Climate Change Models",
"title": "Resolving Clouds in Climate Change Models",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/climateglobe1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>How one climate model breaks the planet into a 10,242-cell\u003cbr>\nspherical geodesic grid. Source: Prabhat, LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-future-of-supercomputers\">my QUEST radio story this week\u003c/a>, we learn about how faster supercomputers will help scientists run climate simulations. One of the trickiest aspects of that is dealing with clouds. To find out why, I sat down with \u003ca href=\"http://esd.lbl.gov/about/staff/williamcollins/\">Bill Collins\u003c/a>, head of Climate Science Department at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How important are supercomputers to climate change science?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We understand the climate by making observations using satellites and ice sheets. But the only crystal ball we know about, short of a time machine, is the supercomputer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We started with by running simple climate models on supercomputers that included simulating the weather, rainfall, and carbon dioxide. In the last 20 years, the complexity of models has vastly increased. They now include ocean dynamics, glaciers, sea ice and the exchange of carbon dioxide between the ocean and the land, known as the carbon cycle. All of that has required an immense increase in computing power.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Climate models today simulate the atmosphere and carbon cycle by breaking up the planet into a grid and running the calculations in those segments, right?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right, in modern climate models, we simulate the weather every two to five minutes and then average that to see how the climate is going to change across that grid. We simulate the weather in segments that are 25 kilometers wide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our goal is model something the size of San Francisco County, which is about 10 kilometers wide. Once we get to that scale, we're going to be able to provide local projections of climate change. We're honing in, but we're not there yet. We need bigger computers to get there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other reason is we'd like a higher resolution is that we're having to make educated guesses about certain things, like clouds. And those educated guesses are a source of uncertainty. Cloud systems can be very large or very small. We don't know how they work at the large scale, but we do know how they work at the small scale. So the trick is to simulate them at the small scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What role do clouds play in the climate?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clouds stabilize the climate. They reflect sunlight, so they act like a sun shield. But they also trap heat from the Earth. They both heat and cool, but their net effect is to cool the planet. So the question is, what happens if climate change makes the cloud cover decrease or increase? Understanding how clouds will be affected by climate change has become a critical question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where clouds form in the atmosphere makes all the difference. High clouds reflect sunlight, but they're mostly very efficient blankets. Clouds low in the atmosphere aren't very good blankets. They act as a big sunscreen, reflecting energy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do climate models today treat clouds?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Models today represent clouds throughout statistical methods over large areas. That models their effect, but not really how they work. And you don't want to assume how they work now is how they'll work in the future. We want to get to a level of physical modeling of clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To do that, we need to be able to resolve them at a small scale. The current \u003ca href=\"http://www.ipcc.ch/\">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/a> projections use a 50 kilometer grid, but that's still not good enough. The scale we need to get to is about 10km or so. So once supercomputers can get us there, we'll be on a much more solid footing to predict how clouds might be affected by climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we tried to run climate models at that resolution now, it would simply take too long. The rule of thumb is that we'd like to simulate the climate a thousand times faster than it happens. So simulating three years in a day is our rule of thumb. If we increase our resolution from 50 kilometers down to 10 kilometers, that increases the computation demand by a factor of 125. At that point, you're doing 9 days in a day. We can't afford to do that and make the kind of projections that policymakers need in the next century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ClimateCA1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Climate model resolution of California. Source: LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What will we learn about California with better climate models?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Temperature changes are happening faster in the mountains than in the valley. So climate change in California is locally specific. A big questions is how much snowfall we'll get in the future. That's going to hinge on what the temperature is at the peaks of the Sierras. So knowing how fast the temperature change is going to happen at the peaks is going to make a big difference to our water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Local climate predications are really important for state and local policymakers. How should building codes be changed? How will local areas adapt? We need accuracy at the state and local level to pull off that planning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I\u003cstrong>f you can resolve clouds better in the future, will that change overall projections about climate change?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'd be shocked if they did. The physics of climate change is really basic. We're not going to get out of global warming. We know based on the projections that we've had in hand for the last 20 years that the time to act is now. The longer we wait, the harder the solutions are to avoid dangerous levels of climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What better resolution of clouds is likely to give us is a better idea of changes in rainfall. That's really important to our water supply, our forests, and our crops. Higher resolution will also give us better predictions of climate change extremes, like when droughts happen or the impact of downpours on rivers and dams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We want to know about climate change that goes bump in the night. We're concerned about abrupt climate change - the type that occurs quickly over a large region, like the melting of the permafrost. We're also worried about extreme climate change - intense, highly-localized changes like heat waves, hurricanes and tornadoes. Both of those are stressors on society and the environment. They've been difficult to simulate since we haven't had the computing power. 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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/climateglobe1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>How one climate model breaks the planet into a 10,242-cell\u003cbr>\nspherical geodesic grid. Source: Prabhat, LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-future-of-supercomputers\">my QUEST radio story this week\u003c/a>, we learn about how faster supercomputers will help scientists run climate simulations. One of the trickiest aspects of that is dealing with clouds. To find out why, I sat down with \u003ca href=\"http://esd.lbl.gov/about/staff/williamcollins/\">Bill Collins\u003c/a>, head of Climate Science Department at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How important are supercomputers to climate change science?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We understand the climate by making observations using satellites and ice sheets. But the only crystal ball we know about, short of a time machine, is the supercomputer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We started with by running simple climate models on supercomputers that included simulating the weather, rainfall, and carbon dioxide. In the last 20 years, the complexity of models has vastly increased. They now include ocean dynamics, glaciers, sea ice and the exchange of carbon dioxide between the ocean and the land, known as the carbon cycle. All of that has required an immense increase in computing power.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Climate models today simulate the atmosphere and carbon cycle by breaking up the planet into a grid and running the calculations in those segments, right?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right, in modern climate models, we simulate the weather every two to five minutes and then average that to see how the climate is going to change across that grid. We simulate the weather in segments that are 25 kilometers wide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our goal is model something the size of San Francisco County, which is about 10 kilometers wide. Once we get to that scale, we're going to be able to provide local projections of climate change. We're honing in, but we're not there yet. We need bigger computers to get there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other reason is we'd like a higher resolution is that we're having to make educated guesses about certain things, like clouds. And those educated guesses are a source of uncertainty. Cloud systems can be very large or very small. We don't know how they work at the large scale, but we do know how they work at the small scale. So the trick is to simulate them at the small scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What role do clouds play in the climate?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Clouds stabilize the climate. They reflect sunlight, so they act like a sun shield. But they also trap heat from the Earth. They both heat and cool, but their net effect is to cool the planet. So the question is, what happens if climate change makes the cloud cover decrease or increase? Understanding how clouds will be affected by climate change has become a critical question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Where clouds form in the atmosphere makes all the difference. High clouds reflect sunlight, but they're mostly very efficient blankets. Clouds low in the atmosphere aren't very good blankets. They act as a big sunscreen, reflecting energy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do climate models today treat clouds?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Models today represent clouds throughout statistical methods over large areas. That models their effect, but not really how they work. And you don't want to assume how they work now is how they'll work in the future. We want to get to a level of physical modeling of clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To do that, we need to be able to resolve them at a small scale. The current \u003ca href=\"http://www.ipcc.ch/\">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/a> projections use a 50 kilometer grid, but that's still not good enough. The scale we need to get to is about 10km or so. So once supercomputers can get us there, we'll be on a much more solid footing to predict how clouds might be affected by climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If we tried to run climate models at that resolution now, it would simply take too long. The rule of thumb is that we'd like to simulate the climate a thousand times faster than it happens. So simulating three years in a day is our rule of thumb. If we increase our resolution from 50 kilometers down to 10 kilometers, that increases the computation demand by a factor of 125. At that point, you're doing 9 days in a day. We can't afford to do that and make the kind of projections that policymakers need in the next century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ClimateCA1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Climate model resolution of California. Source: LBNL.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What will we learn about California with better climate models?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Temperature changes are happening faster in the mountains than in the valley. So climate change in California is locally specific. A big questions is how much snowfall we'll get in the future. That's going to hinge on what the temperature is at the peaks of the Sierras. So knowing how fast the temperature change is going to happen at the peaks is going to make a big difference to our water supply.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Local climate predications are really important for state and local policymakers. How should building codes be changed? How will local areas adapt? We need accuracy at the state and local level to pull off that planning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I\u003cstrong>f you can resolve clouds better in the future, will that change overall projections about climate change?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'd be shocked if they did. The physics of climate change is really basic. We're not going to get out of global warming. We know based on the projections that we've had in hand for the last 20 years that the time to act is now. The longer we wait, the harder the solutions are to avoid dangerous levels of climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What better resolution of clouds is likely to give us is a better idea of changes in rainfall. That's really important to our water supply, our forests, and our crops. Higher resolution will also give us better predictions of climate change extremes, like when droughts happen or the impact of downpours on rivers and dams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We want to know about climate change that goes bump in the night. We're concerned about abrupt climate change - the type that occurs quickly over a large region, like the melting of the permafrost. We're also worried about extreme climate change - intense, highly-localized changes like heat waves, hurricanes and tornadoes. Both of those are stressors on society and the environment. They've been difficult to simulate since we haven't had the computing power. But now, thanks to advances, we're getting there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/baycheckerspot2.jpg\">\u003cem>The life history cycles of the bay checkerspot butterfly and its host plant, Plantago, don’t match up anymore. When the butterfly eggs hatch, the plant is no longer edible. Photo: \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kqedquest/447852484/\">kqedquest\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tomorrow is our summer \u003ca href=\"http://scijinks.nasa.gov/solstice\">solstice\u003c/a>—the longest day of the year here in the Northern Hemisphere. For folks in the Southern Hemisphere, tomorrow is the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year. The solstices occur thanks to the tilt of the earth. Humans have been recognizing and celebrating the solstices throughout history; \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge\">Stonehenge\u003c/a> is just one example. But we humans are not the only creatures that pay attention to day length. The life cycles of myriad plants and animals are controlled by the length of the day.\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many plants and animals are sensitive to the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoperiodism\">photoperiod\u003c/a>, or day length. As day length grows longer throughout the springtime, many species of plants begin to flower. Other plants are triggered to reproduce when the day length becomes shorter. In these plants, a protein is actually responding to the number of hours of darkness, not to the hours of light. Many animals respond to day length, too. For many bird species, a critical day length initiates their reproductive maturation and is their cue to begin migrating. Decreasing day length also prompts hibernation in many animals. In all of these examples, photoperiod is controlling organisms’ \u003ca href=\"http://www.usanpn.org/about/phenology\">phenology\u003c/a>—the timing of life events, like plant flowering and bird egg laying. Phenology is often tied to the seasons, because of organisms’ responses to day length.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phenology can also be controlled by other factors, like temperature and the amount of rainfall. As the days grow warmer because of climate change, the timing of organisms’ life cycles is shifting. Spring happens earlier than it used to, and many springtime life events are happening earlier too. In major 2003 \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6918/full/nature01286.html\">study\u003c/a> of nearly 700 species, including birds, insects, frogs, flowering plants, and trees, 62% of species’ life cycles had shifted over an average of 45 years. Birds and frogs bred earlier, migrating birds and butterflies arrived sooner, and plants flowered and buds burst earlier. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is likely leading to a widespread phenological mismatch; while some organisms are responding to earlier springtime temperatures, other organisms are still tracking day length. This means that insects emerge ready to feed on particular plants, but the plants are not yet edible. The insects don’t get their food, and the plants don’t get pollinated. Or migrating birds arrive hungry, and their food source has not yet ripened. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is difficult to know to what extent phonological mismatches are taking place. A proper study of phenology requires a lot of data—many widespread observations of when a particular plant is flowering, or when and where a particular migratory bird is present. This is where you come in. The \u003ca href=\"http://www.usanpn.org/\">National Phenology Network\u003c/a> has a \u003ca href=\"http://www.usanpn.org/participate\">citizen science program\u003c/a> that allows people across the country to record their observations of plants and animals. This crowd-sourced data will be used to determine the extent and effects of shifts in the timing of organisms’ life cycles. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/baycheckerspot2.jpg\">\u003cem>The life history cycles of the bay checkerspot butterfly and its host plant, Plantago, don’t match up anymore. When the butterfly eggs hatch, the plant is no longer edible. Photo: \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kqedquest/447852484/\">kqedquest\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tomorrow is our summer \u003ca href=\"http://scijinks.nasa.gov/solstice\">solstice\u003c/a>—the longest day of the year here in the Northern Hemisphere. For folks in the Southern Hemisphere, tomorrow is the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year. The solstices occur thanks to the tilt of the earth. Humans have been recognizing and celebrating the solstices throughout history; \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge\">Stonehenge\u003c/a> is just one example. But we humans are not the only creatures that pay attention to day length. The life cycles of myriad plants and animals are controlled by the length of the day.\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many plants and animals are sensitive to the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoperiodism\">photoperiod\u003c/a>, or day length. As day length grows longer throughout the springtime, many species of plants begin to flower. Other plants are triggered to reproduce when the day length becomes shorter. In these plants, a protein is actually responding to the number of hours of darkness, not to the hours of light. Many animals respond to day length, too. For many bird species, a critical day length initiates their reproductive maturation and is their cue to begin migrating. Decreasing day length also prompts hibernation in many animals. In all of these examples, photoperiod is controlling organisms’ \u003ca href=\"http://www.usanpn.org/about/phenology\">phenology\u003c/a>—the timing of life events, like plant flowering and bird egg laying. Phenology is often tied to the seasons, because of organisms’ responses to day length.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phenology can also be controlled by other factors, like temperature and the amount of rainfall. As the days grow warmer because of climate change, the timing of organisms’ life cycles is shifting. Spring happens earlier than it used to, and many springtime life events are happening earlier too. In major 2003 \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6918/full/nature01286.html\">study\u003c/a> of nearly 700 species, including birds, insects, frogs, flowering plants, and trees, 62% of species’ life cycles had shifted over an average of 45 years. Birds and frogs bred earlier, migrating birds and butterflies arrived sooner, and plants flowered and buds burst earlier. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is likely leading to a widespread phenological mismatch; while some organisms are responding to earlier springtime temperatures, other organisms are still tracking day length. This means that insects emerge ready to feed on particular plants, but the plants are not yet edible. The insects don’t get their food, and the plants don’t get pollinated. Or migrating birds arrive hungry, and their food source has not yet ripened. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ClimateCousinLg.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cbr>\n\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cem>Scrubby vegetation and vineyards: it may look like California, but it’s not. Photo: Jennifer Skene.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I just got back from a month-long rock climbing trip near Barcelona, Spain—and though I’d never been there before, the vegetation looked a bit familiar. Hiking around, my skin was constantly scratched by the stiff, sharp leaves of shrubby plants—similar to California’s chaparral. Lizards I almost recognized darted across dry patches of dirt. The weather was similar to California’s, too—being summer, it was hot and dry. This was no coincidence. Spain, in the Mediterranean Basin, is California’s climate cousin.\u003c!--more--> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On every continent except Antarctica, the west coasts share a similar climate, called the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_climate\">Mediterranean climate\u003c/a>. It is characterized by warm to hot summers with basically no rainfall, and winters that are short, mild, and wet. A world \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Medclim.png\">map\u003c/a> of Mediterranean climate regions shows that in addition to the Mediterranean Basin and the coast of California, the west coast of South America from Peru to Chile, the northwest part of Africa, parts of western and southern Australia, and parts of South Africa all share the Mediterranean climate. The sweet spot is at about 35 degrees latitude, both north and south. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Climate is a product of ocean currents and the up-and-down movement of air above Earth’s surface. In the northern hemisphere ocean currents swirl clockwise, and in the southern hemisphere ocean currents swirl counter-clockwise, thanks to Earth’s rotation and the resultant \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_36MiCUS1ro\">Coriolis Effect\u003c/a>. The direction of the currents means that water flowing along the west coast of all continents is cold, having recently come from the poles. Air follows the ocean currents, binging storms and precipitation in winter. In summer, the effect of the up-and-down movement of air in the atmosphere kicks in and influences climate. In summer, dry air sinks along the latitude band of about 30 degrees to 35 degrees. The dry sinking air prevents storms from moving in, and is largely responsible for Mediterranean regions’ summer droughts. Sinking and rising of air on Earth’s surface is due to the Sun’s uneven heating of Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those scratchy shrubs that plagued me throughout my vacation are the signature flora of Mediterranean climates. Drought-tolerant evergreen shrubs exist in every Mediterranean region. In fact, the word to describe California’s scrappy shrubs, chaparral, has \u003ca href=\"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chaparral\">Spanish origins\u003c/a>—chaparro (initially txapar in Basque) means dwarf evergreen oak. We now use the word chaparral to refer to the whole habitat type, not just the shrubs themselves. Elsewhere, this habitat type goes by other names. In the Mediterranean region, it is called \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_shrubland\">maquis\u003c/a>; in South Africa, it is the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fynbos\">fynbos\u003c/a>; and in Australia, it’s called \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwongan\">kwongan\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These shrubs are not phased by the fact that Mediterranean summers are bone dry. They have evolved plenty of adaptations to drought: small, light-colored leaves that reflect sunlight, rather than absorb it; leaves that often point towards the sky, to minimize the amount of sunlight (and heat) they absorb; and the ability to hang on to those leaves from year to year, rather than waste energy making a new set each spring. But by autumn, the crispy vegetation is pretty flammable. Spain appears to be prepared; it seemed like half the rock climbers I met were bomberos, or firefighters. However, climbers are probably drawn to this career not because they could potentially save their favorite climbing areas from fiery infernos, but because the hours (24 hours of work, 72 hours of weekend, repeat) facilitate frequent climbing trips.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The similarity of climates at about 35 degrees latitude is not lost to the wine industry. A \u003ca href=\"http://www.thirtyfifty.co.uk/spotlight-sun-earth-wine.asp#Part3\">map of wine producing regions of the world\u003c/a> matches up almost exactly with a map of the Mediterranean climate regions. Growers can take advantage of the perfect conditions for growing grapes. And vacationers can take advantage of these conditions, too—I returned from my vacation relaxed, suntanned, and having tasted quite a few good wines. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/ClimateCousinLg.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cbr>\n\u003cspan class=\"center\">\u003cem>Scrubby vegetation and vineyards: it may look like California, but it’s not. Photo: Jennifer Skene.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I just got back from a month-long rock climbing trip near Barcelona, Spain—and though I’d never been there before, the vegetation looked a bit familiar. Hiking around, my skin was constantly scratched by the stiff, sharp leaves of shrubby plants—similar to California’s chaparral. Lizards I almost recognized darted across dry patches of dirt. The weather was similar to California’s, too—being summer, it was hot and dry. This was no coincidence. Spain, in the Mediterranean Basin, is California’s climate cousin.\u003c!--more--> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On every continent except Antarctica, the west coasts share a similar climate, called the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_climate\">Mediterranean climate\u003c/a>. It is characterized by warm to hot summers with basically no rainfall, and winters that are short, mild, and wet. A world \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Medclim.png\">map\u003c/a> of Mediterranean climate regions shows that in addition to the Mediterranean Basin and the coast of California, the west coast of South America from Peru to Chile, the northwest part of Africa, parts of western and southern Australia, and parts of South Africa all share the Mediterranean climate. The sweet spot is at about 35 degrees latitude, both north and south. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Climate is a product of ocean currents and the up-and-down movement of air above Earth’s surface. In the northern hemisphere ocean currents swirl clockwise, and in the southern hemisphere ocean currents swirl counter-clockwise, thanks to Earth’s rotation and the resultant \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_36MiCUS1ro\">Coriolis Effect\u003c/a>. The direction of the currents means that water flowing along the west coast of all continents is cold, having recently come from the poles. Air follows the ocean currents, binging storms and precipitation in winter. In summer, the effect of the up-and-down movement of air in the atmosphere kicks in and influences climate. In summer, dry air sinks along the latitude band of about 30 degrees to 35 degrees. The dry sinking air prevents storms from moving in, and is largely responsible for Mediterranean regions’ summer droughts. Sinking and rising of air on Earth’s surface is due to the Sun’s uneven heating of Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those scratchy shrubs that plagued me throughout my vacation are the signature flora of Mediterranean climates. Drought-tolerant evergreen shrubs exist in every Mediterranean region. In fact, the word to describe California’s scrappy shrubs, chaparral, has \u003ca href=\"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chaparral\">Spanish origins\u003c/a>—chaparro (initially txapar in Basque) means dwarf evergreen oak. We now use the word chaparral to refer to the whole habitat type, not just the shrubs themselves. Elsewhere, this habitat type goes by other names. In the Mediterranean region, it is called \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquis_shrubland\">maquis\u003c/a>; in South Africa, it is the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fynbos\">fynbos\u003c/a>; and in Australia, it’s called \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwongan\">kwongan\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These shrubs are not phased by the fact that Mediterranean summers are bone dry. They have evolved plenty of adaptations to drought: small, light-colored leaves that reflect sunlight, rather than absorb it; leaves that often point towards the sky, to minimize the amount of sunlight (and heat) they absorb; and the ability to hang on to those leaves from year to year, rather than waste energy making a new set each spring. But by autumn, the crispy vegetation is pretty flammable. Spain appears to be prepared; it seemed like half the rock climbers I met were bomberos, or firefighters. However, climbers are probably drawn to this career not because they could potentially save their favorite climbing areas from fiery infernos, but because the hours (24 hours of work, 72 hours of weekend, repeat) facilitate frequent climbing trips.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The similarity of climates at about 35 degrees latitude is not lost to the wine industry. A \u003ca href=\"http://www.thirtyfifty.co.uk/spotlight-sun-earth-wine.asp#Part3\">map of wine producing regions of the world\u003c/a> matches up almost exactly with a map of the Mediterranean climate regions. Growers can take advantage of the perfect conditions for growing grapes. And vacationers can take advantage of these conditions, too—I returned from my vacation relaxed, suntanned, and having tasted quite a few good wines. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Mount Diablo Views",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablo300.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo\" class=\"alignleft size-full\">\u003cem>\u003csup>Mount Diablo is seen with its foothills from Wildcat Canyon Road near Inspiration Point in the Berkeley Hills. Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/hortulus_aptus/\">Seán O'Hara\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative commons license. Photos by Andrew Alden unless otherwise indicated.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mount Diablo, in the heart of the East Bay, is an interesting mountain in many ways. It has fossils. It has a lot of serpentinite in it, with the accompanying \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/16/home-sweet-serpentine/\">serpentine plant community\u003c/a>. It's been mined for mercury and other metals. It's an exceptional structure even in a region of crazy-complicated tectonic structures. But I expect to get into the geological details some other time. Because first of all, Mount Diablo is just \u003ci>there\u003c/i>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mount Diablo was always a landmark, so widely visible around the Bay and central California that in 1851 its peak was named the base line for land divisions. Around here and across the majority of California and all of Nevada, every \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/maps/ig/township-range/\">township and section\u003c/a> is numbered in relation to the north-south Mt. Diablo Meridian and the east-west Mt. Diablo Base Line. (Full details are given by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.mdshs.org/\">Mount Diablo Surveyors Historical Society\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today few of us have any awareness of land division, and we can simply enjoy the peak's prominence as we drive Bay Area roads or hike the hills. Around the Bay proper, Mount Diablo peeks over the Berkeley Hills as seen from Corona Heights in San Francisco . . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosf.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo san francisco\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>. . . or from the hills above Marin City, where the \"devil's mountain\" overlooks Angel Island.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiabloangel.jpg\" alt=\"angel island\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To see the peak's full extent we need to cross the hills of the East Bay, or at least climb them. Here the mountain is seen from the Los Buellis Hills, east of San Jose, looking up the valley formed by the Calaveras fault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosanjose.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo san jose\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once over the hills, your every vista centers around Diablo whether it's the view from Oakland . . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosiesta.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo siesta valley\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>. . . or from the Tassajara Valley . . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablotassa.jpg\" alt=\"tassajara valley\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>. . . or from the Delta:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosjv.jpg\" alt=\"delta\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003ci>Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/philosophygeek/\">Mark Johnson\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license\u003c/i>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Interstate 5, Mount Diablo can be spotted from the Dunnigan Hills in the north to near Patterson in the south. From state route 99 it's visible from a much longer stretch, but only if the conditions are right. In fact, instead of driving everywhere to determine Mount Diablo's viewshed, it's more efficient to visit the peak itself on a perfect day and look outward. There's a handy sign pointing out what's possible on a perfect day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosign.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo sign\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003ci>Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/allaboutgeorge/\">George Kelly\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license\u003c/i>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've been up there on a perfect day, and while it's not geometrically possible, atmospheric refraction has allowed me to spot Mount Shasta. An example of a typical excellent (not perfect) day shows Pyramid Peak in the central Sierra Nevada.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosierra.jpg\" alt=\"sierra nevada\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003ci>Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/people/14657061@N00/\">advencap\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license\u003c/i>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Such days were once more common. A. J. McCall, standing at the Sierra's crest on September 7, 1849, recorded \"a picture of wonderful grandeur and magnificence\":\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\n\u003cp>\"Below were a succession of innumerable pine-covered mountain peaks, growing less and less until they disappeared in a broad, yellow valley sweeping north and south until lost to view, and beyond another range of mountains. This was the far-famed Sacramento Valley, nearly a hundred miles distant. The purity of the atmosphere rendered vision almost illimitable, showing every line and shadow distinctly.\" (\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2010/03/19/hard-road-west-by-keith-meldahl.htm\">source\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>Today the activities of ten million modern Californians make such purity almost unattainable—especially around Labor Day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a common belief that when pioneer scout Kit Carson guided the Fremont Expedition over the Sierra in the winter of 1844 (at today's Carson Pass), he recognized his position by spotting Mount Diablo: \"There is the little mountain—it is 15 years since I saw it; but I am just as sure as if I had seen it yesterday.\" But \u003ca href=\"http://www.longcamp.com/little_mountain.html\">Bob Graham and Peter Lathrop argue convincingly\u003c/a> that it was not Diablo, but the whole Coast Range that Carson meant. That's too bad; it was a good story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8817 -121.9146\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Mount Diablo, in the heart of the East Bay, is an interesting mountain in many ways. But first of all, Mount Diablo is just \u003ci>there\u003c/i>.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablo300.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo\" class=\"alignleft size-full\">\u003cem>\u003csup>Mount Diablo is seen with its foothills from Wildcat Canyon Road near Inspiration Point in the Berkeley Hills. Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/hortulus_aptus/\">Seán O'Hara\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative commons license. Photos by Andrew Alden unless otherwise indicated.\u003c/sup>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mount Diablo, in the heart of the East Bay, is an interesting mountain in many ways. It has fossils. It has a lot of serpentinite in it, with the accompanying \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/16/home-sweet-serpentine/\">serpentine plant community\u003c/a>. It's been mined for mercury and other metals. It's an exceptional structure even in a region of crazy-complicated tectonic structures. But I expect to get into the geological details some other time. Because first of all, Mount Diablo is just \u003ci>there\u003c/i>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mount Diablo was always a landmark, so widely visible around the Bay and central California that in 1851 its peak was named the base line for land divisions. Around here and across the majority of California and all of Nevada, every \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/maps/ig/township-range/\">township and section\u003c/a> is numbered in relation to the north-south Mt. Diablo Meridian and the east-west Mt. Diablo Base Line. (Full details are given by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.mdshs.org/\">Mount Diablo Surveyors Historical Society\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today few of us have any awareness of land division, and we can simply enjoy the peak's prominence as we drive Bay Area roads or hike the hills. Around the Bay proper, Mount Diablo peeks over the Berkeley Hills as seen from Corona Heights in San Francisco . . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosf.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo san francisco\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>. . . or from the hills above Marin City, where the \"devil's mountain\" overlooks Angel Island.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiabloangel.jpg\" alt=\"angel island\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To see the peak's full extent we need to cross the hills of the East Bay, or at least climb them. Here the mountain is seen from the Los Buellis Hills, east of San Jose, looking up the valley formed by the Calaveras fault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosanjose.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo san jose\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once over the hills, your every vista centers around Diablo whether it's the view from Oakland . . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosiesta.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo siesta valley\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>. . . or from the Tassajara Valley . . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablotassa.jpg\" alt=\"tassajara valley\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>. . . or from the Delta:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosjv.jpg\" alt=\"delta\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003ci>Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/philosophygeek/\">Mark Johnson\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license\u003c/i>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Interstate 5, Mount Diablo can be spotted from the Dunnigan Hills in the north to near Patterson in the south. From state route 99 it's visible from a much longer stretch, but only if the conditions are right. In fact, instead of driving everywhere to determine Mount Diablo's viewshed, it's more efficient to visit the peak itself on a perfect day and look outward. There's a handy sign pointing out what's possible on a perfect day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosign.jpg\" alt=\"mount diablo sign\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003ci>Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/allaboutgeorge/\">George Kelly\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license\u003c/i>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've been up there on a perfect day, and while it's not geometrically possible, atmospheric refraction has allowed me to spot Mount Shasta. An example of a typical excellent (not perfect) day shows Pyramid Peak in the central Sierra Nevada.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/06/mtdiablosierra.jpg\" alt=\"sierra nevada\">\u003cbr>\n\u003csub>\u003ci>Photo courtesy \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/people/14657061@N00/\">advencap\u003c/a> of Flickr under Creative Commons license\u003c/i>\u003c/sub>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Such days were once more common. A. J. McCall, standing at the Sierra's crest on September 7, 1849, recorded \"a picture of wonderful grandeur and magnificence\":\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\n\u003cp>\"Below were a succession of innumerable pine-covered mountain peaks, growing less and less until they disappeared in a broad, yellow valley sweeping north and south until lost to view, and beyond another range of mountains. This was the far-famed Sacramento Valley, nearly a hundred miles distant. The purity of the atmosphere rendered vision almost illimitable, showing every line and shadow distinctly.\" (\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2010/03/19/hard-road-west-by-keith-meldahl.htm\">source\u003c/a>)\u003c/p>\n\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>Today the activities of ten million modern Californians make such purity almost unattainable—especially around Labor Day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a common belief that when pioneer scout Kit Carson guided the Fremont Expedition over the Sierra in the winter of 1844 (at today's Carson Pass), he recognized his position by spotting Mount Diablo: \"There is the little mountain—it is 15 years since I saw it; but I am just as sure as if I had seen it yesterday.\" But \u003ca href=\"http://www.longcamp.com/little_mountain.html\">Bob Graham and Peter Lathrop argue convincingly\u003c/a> that it was not Diablo, but the whole Coast Range that Carson meant. That's too bad; it was a good story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8817 -121.9146\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
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"possible": {
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"title": "Possible",
"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"radiolab": {
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},
"rightnowish": {
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"tagline": "Art is where you find it",
"info": "Rightnowish digs into life in the Bay Area right now… ish. Journalist Pendarvis Harshaw takes us to galleries painted on the sides of liquor stores in West Oakland. We'll dance in warehouses in the Bayview, make smoothies with kids in South Berkeley, and listen to classical music in a 1984 Cutlass Supreme in Richmond. Every week, Pen talks to movers and shakers about how the Bay Area shapes what they create, and how they shape the place we call home.",
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"tagline": "Real stories with killer beats",
"info": "The Snap Judgment radio show and podcast mixes real stories with killer beats to produce cinematic, dramatic radio. Snap's musical brand of storytelling dares listeners to see the world through the eyes of another. This is storytelling... with a BEAT!! Snap first aired on public radio stations nationwide in July 2010. Today, Snap Judgment airs on over 450 public radio stations and is brought to the airwaves by KQED & PRX.",
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"soldout": {
"id": "soldout",
"title": "SOLD OUT: Rethinking Housing in America",
"tagline": "A new future for housing",
"info": "Sold Out: Rethinking Housing in America",
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