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"bio": "\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> has been a staff astronomer at Chabot Space & Science Center since July 1999. He graduated from Sonoma State University in 1985 with a bachelor’s degree in physics (and minor in astronomy), after which he signed on for a two-year stint in the Peace Corps, where he taught physics and mathematics in the African nation of Cameroon. From 1989-96 he served on the crew of NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory at Ames Research Center in Mountain View, CA. From 1996-99, he was Head Observer at the Naval Prototype Optical Interferometer program at Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, AZ.\r\n\r\nRead his \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/author/ben-burress/\">previous contributions\u003c/a> to \u003ca href=\"http://science.kqed.org/quest/\">QUEST\u003c/a>, a project dedicated to exploring the Science of Sustainability.",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_17134\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/05/earthandmars.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-17134\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-17134\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/05/earthandmars.jpg\" alt=\"Earth and Mars montage\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Earth and Mars / NASA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Mars has been a prominent figure in the lens of human awareness, imagination, and sense of adventure for centuries. It’s a fiery spark in the night, a celestial laser-pointer dot drawing our cat-like curiosity into space. But could our neighboring planet’s value to us exceed our wildest imaginings?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is it a source of rich resources that could fuel voyages to even farther-out destinations? Is it a key to answering the age old question, “Are we alone”? Could it even be our best insurance policy for the survival of our species? Food for thought.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scarcely a century since fiction writers began imagining a \u003ca title=\"Across the Zodiac\" href=\"http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/10165/pg10165.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">trip to Mars\u003c/a> and only 50 years after we sent the \u003ca title=\"Mariner 4\" href=\"http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1964-077A\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">first robotic probe\u003c/a>, we have sent dozens of spacecraft, a handful of landers and still have the wheels of two rovers turning in those rusty soils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The rovers \u003ca title=\"NASA's rover Opportunity\" href=\"http://marsrover.nasa.gov/home/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Opportunity\u003c/a> and \u003ca title=\"NASA's rover Curiosity\" href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Curiosity \u003c/a>are drilling into rocks and scooping up dirt to look for signs of past water and life-friendly environments and have found such evidence in abundance in the composition of \u003ca title=\"Gray hematite on Mars\" href=\"http://marsrover.nasa.gov/spotlight/hematite01.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">mineral deposits\u003c/a> and \u003ca title=\"Curiosity find old riverbed on Mars\" href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2012-305\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">structures of rock\u003c/a> formations. Orbital spacecraft like the \u003ca title=\"NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\" href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\u003c/a> may even have detected the action of sporadic \u003ca title=\"NASA MRO may have detected liquid outflows on Mars\" href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/MRO/news/mro20110804.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">liquid outbursts\u003c/a> in present times. That Mars once had a warmer, wetter, probably much Earthier environment in the past is a speculation supported by mounting evidence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sending humans to Mars has been an on-again/off-again shuffle over the years. Back in the Apollo era when our country was spending a lavish 4% of the federal budget to put humans on the moon, there was optimism that this wind in the sails of the spirit of exploration would propel us not only to the moon’s surface, but carry astronauts to Mars, and ultimately beyond.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the winds of public opinion and federal spending shifted and Apollo was cancelled, and as the story goes we haven’t been back there since.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the George W. Bush era, the “\u003ca title=\"Moon, Mars and Beyond\" href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/home/#.U2K2FYFdV8E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Moon, Mars and Beyond\u003c/a>” initiative challenged us to return to an outward path in the solar system by returning to the moon to establish a permanent base, and turn our sights again to Mars as the next destination of human exploration.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently, NASA Administrator \u003ca title=\"NASA Administrator Charles Bolden lays out plan for humans on Mars\" href=\"http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/nasa-chief-tells-critics-exploration-plan-get-over-it-n86666\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Charles Bolden rephrased\u003c/a> the M-M-B mission plan to better align the steps toward Mars with budgetary realities and to balance human space programs with more cost-effective robotic missions. The more measured pace in the plan Bolden outlined would place humans on Mars sometime in the 2030s, and include an intermediary program to capture, move into lunar orbit, and explore an asteroid–largely for proving that we are ready for the considerably longer mission to Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Critics of NASA’s plan, some in Congress, want NASA to pursue a more direct route and quicker pace to the surface of Mars—and while Bolden has signaled openness to input and “tweaking” of the plan, he states the shorter 10-year horizon some are pushing for is not financially “in the cards.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars is in many ways a logical next step for humans in space. We can return to the moon, to study it further, to exploit its resources, and to further practice our set of skills for existing remotely beyond the Earth. The moon is an “easy” step outward since it is so close.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Mars is the next step upward. \u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Mars is the next step upward\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>As a subject of scientific interest, Mars could prove to be the site where we find evidence that life on Earth is not unique in the universe –a defining moment in history if there ever will be one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a subject of human interest, Mars may be where we take the first stab at ensuring our survival as a species in the cosmos.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some see Mars as a principle factor in the equation of the long-term survival of the human race. They posit that as long as we, as a species, live dependently on the Earth, a single planet, we are vulnerable to extinction by events of global devastation like a major asteroid impact, mega-volcanic cataclysm, or fatal self-inflicted mayhem like nuclear holocaust or runaway environmental collapse. With an established self-sufficient presence on Mars, should the Earth experience devastation then humans living on Mars could carry on the torch of humanity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I hope to see the day when the first humans set foot on Mars—though I think a report of finding evidence for life there would be the more exciting news. Personally, I’m rooting for both within my lifetime.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the winds of public opinion and federal spending shifted and Apollo was cancelled, and as the story goes we haven’t been back there since.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the George W. Bush era, the “\u003ca title=\"Moon, Mars and Beyond\" href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/home/#.U2K2FYFdV8E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Moon, Mars and Beyond\u003c/a>” initiative challenged us to return to an outward path in the solar system by returning to the moon to establish a permanent base, and turn our sights again to Mars as the next destination of human exploration.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently, NASA Administrator \u003ca title=\"NASA Administrator Charles Bolden lays out plan for humans on Mars\" href=\"http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/nasa-chief-tells-critics-exploration-plan-get-over-it-n86666\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Charles Bolden rephrased\u003c/a> the M-M-B mission plan to better align the steps toward Mars with budgetary realities and to balance human space programs with more cost-effective robotic missions. The more measured pace in the plan Bolden outlined would place humans on Mars sometime in the 2030s, and include an intermediary program to capture, move into lunar orbit, and explore an asteroid–largely for proving that we are ready for the considerably longer mission to Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Critics of NASA’s plan, some in Congress, want NASA to pursue a more direct route and quicker pace to the surface of Mars—and while Bolden has signaled openness to input and “tweaking” of the plan, he states the shorter 10-year horizon some are pushing for is not financially “in the cards.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars is in many ways a logical next step for humans in space. We can return to the moon, to study it further, to exploit its resources, and to further practice our set of skills for existing remotely beyond the Earth. The moon is an “easy” step outward since it is so close.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Mars is the next step upward. \u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Mars is the next step upward\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>As a subject of scientific interest, Mars could prove to be the site where we find evidence that life on Earth is not unique in the universe –a defining moment in history if there ever will be one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a subject of human interest, Mars may be where we take the first stab at ensuring our survival as a species in the cosmos.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some see Mars as a principle factor in the equation of the long-term survival of the human race. They posit that as long as we, as a species, live dependently on the Earth, a single planet, we are vulnerable to extinction by events of global devastation like a major asteroid impact, mega-volcanic cataclysm, or fatal self-inflicted mayhem like nuclear holocaust or runaway environmental collapse. With an established self-sufficient presence on Mars, should the Earth experience devastation then humans living on Mars could carry on the torch of humanity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I hope to see the day when the first humans set foot on Mars—though I think a report of finding evidence for life there would be the more exciting news. Personally, I’m rooting for both within my lifetime.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Update:\u003c/strong> The launch was successful and the Dragon spacecraft has entered orbit. It will take a couple days to get to the International Space Station. Once it arrives, it will remain there for about a month. More details about the mission are on \u003ca href=\"http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/spacexcrs-3_presskit_042014.pdf\">SpaceX’s mission overview\u003c/a> document (PDF). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Original Story:\u003c/strong> SpaceX, a private space company, is planning again on Friday to \u003ca href=\"http://www.spacex.com/webcast/\">launch its Dragon spacecraft\u003c/a> to the International Space Station. Its first attempt to launch this mission was scratched on Monday because of a helium leak.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The live webcast begins at 11:45 PST and the launch itself is scheduled for 12:25, though SpaceX notes that the weather isn’t ideal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/index.html#.U0ww1lcXJfQ\">NASA TV\u003c/a> is streaming coverage:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" style=\"border: 0px none transparent\" src=\"http://www.ustream.tv/embed/10414700?v=3&wmode=direct\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" width=\"640\" height=\"392\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca style=\"padding: 2px 0px 4px;width: 400px;background: #ffffff;color: #000000;font-weight: normal;font-size: 10px;text-decoration: underline;text-align: center\" href=\"http://www.ustream.tv/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Live streaming video by Ustream\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The unmanned mission is delivering cargo to the ISS, including \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/audio/nasa-sends-fruit-flies-to-space-to-prep-for-mars-missions/\">scientific experiments from NASA’s Ames Research Center\u003c/a> in Silicon Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>SpaceX is owned by Tesla Motors CEO Elon Musk. You can learn more about private space exploration in our TV special, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/video/silicon-valley-goes-to-space/\">Silicon Valley Goes to Space\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://www.youtube.com/embed/D9oTeQ2FC84?rel=0\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Update:\u003c/strong> The launch was successful and the Dragon spacecraft has entered orbit. It will take a couple days to get to the International Space Station. Once it arrives, it will remain there for about a month. More details about the mission are on \u003ca href=\"http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/spacexcrs-3_presskit_042014.pdf\">SpaceX’s mission overview\u003c/a> document (PDF). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Original Story:\u003c/strong> SpaceX, a private space company, is planning again on Friday to \u003ca href=\"http://www.spacex.com/webcast/\">launch its Dragon spacecraft\u003c/a> to the International Space Station. Its first attempt to launch this mission was scratched on Monday because of a helium leak.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The live webcast begins at 11:45 PST and the launch itself is scheduled for 12:25, though SpaceX notes that the weather isn’t ideal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/index.html#.U0ww1lcXJfQ\">NASA TV\u003c/a> is streaming coverage:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" style=\"border: 0px none transparent\" src=\"http://www.ustream.tv/embed/10414700?v=3&wmode=direct\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" width=\"640\" height=\"392\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "NASA's Cassini Divines Hidden Waters of Saturn's Moon Enceladus",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16644\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/enceladus-ocean-cassini.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16644\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16644\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/enceladus-ocean-cassini.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concepts of interior of Enceladus and NASA's Cassini spacecraft. (NASA)\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concepts of interior of Enceladus and NASA’s Cassini spacecraft. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Over 500 years since Vasco Nunez de Balboa “discovered” the Pacific Ocean (never mind that the Chinese, Japanese, and Pacific Islanders already lived along or within it), modern explorers have found yet another previously unknown ocean–on Saturn’s moon \u003ca title=\"Enceladus\" href=\"http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Enceladus\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Enceladus\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The discovery was made by \u003ca title=\"NASA Cassini Spacecraft Discovers Ocean in Enceladus\" href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/april/nasa-space-assets-detect-ocean-inside-saturn-moon/#.U1AlA1VdV8E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NASA’s Cassini spacecraft\u003c/a> over the course of 19 flybys of Enceladus. And while Cassini is not equipped with instrumentation designed to look within an object and see what’s there, NASA was able to take advantage of Cassini’s communications gear to infer the ocean’s presence.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Is Cassini a high-tech divining rod?\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>The concept is straightforward, even if it may seem like using a divining rod to find water. As the Cassini spacecraft flew by Enceladus, beaming a radio communications signal back at Earth as it went, its trajectory was altered slightly by gravitational “bumps,” or “potholes,” in its path. The “potholes” are variations in the strength of Enceladus’ gravity caused by differences in mass density on and under its surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cruising through areas of weaker and stronger gravity as it passed over regions of lesser and greater density, Cassini’s flight path dithered up and down like an airplane flying through pockets of air turbulence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By measuring minute shifts in the frequency of Cassini’s radio transmissions caused by the \u003ca title=\"The Doppler Effect\" href=\"http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/The-Doppler-Effect\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Doppler effect\u003c/a> (the same phenomenon that enables a highway patrol officer with a radar gun to catch you speeding), the variations in speed toward and away from Earth were calculated. Velocity variations as low as 1 foot per hour can be measured in this way. (If the highway patrol’s radar guns were of NASA caliber, they’d be able to tell the difference between 55 and 55.0002 mph. Just saying.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thus, a map of structures on and below Enceladus’ surface was made, and after multiple flybys a picture developed, inferring the existence of a regional ocean of liquid water up to six miles deep and located 19 to 25 miles beneath the moon’s icy crust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve known of the presence of subsurface liquid water in Enceladus for ten years, since Cassini first captured images and measured the composition of plumes of water spewing from long crevasses in its surface. A system of tidally heated geyser chambers was speculated to explain the plumes—and the idea still holds water even with the detection of the deep ocean below, which may or may not be connected directly with the plume eruptions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In any case this further indication of copious amounts of water in this tiny moon puts it on a favored list of places in our solar system that may harbor life-friendly environments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, Enceladus’ ocean is the third “exo-ocean” we may have discovered in our solar system. We’ve long suspected the presence of a deep global ocean beneath the icy crust of Jupiter’s moon Europa, based on patterns of surface fracturing imaged by the Galileo spacecraft. Saturn’s large moon Titan is also suspected to possess a deep liquid water ocean far below its frigid surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gravity is an amazing tool, and this isn’t the first time it’s been used to divine the presence of unseen things. Even here at home sensitive measurements of Earth’s gravity across different geographic regions have been used to infer the existence of subterranean structures like petroleum reservoirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Hubble Space Telescope has captured images of very distance galaxies and quasars through the “\u003ca title=\"Gravitational Lens\" href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/news/grav_lens.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">gravitational lens\u003c/a>” effect, in which a mediating massive object (like another galaxy or cluster of galaxies) between us and the distant object bends and focuses its light like a big lens—sometimes even creating double images of the same distant object.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gravitational lensing has also been used to detect much smaller objects much closer to home by measuring the gravitational bending of a star’s light by another object. In this case the object acting as the gravitational lens, which could be another star or a planet, is not merely the tool but the object of scientific interest. By measuring the effect of the intermediate object’s gravity on the more distant star’s light we can learn something about the nature of its mass.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[contextly_sidebar id=”b4c2cd763f9e243ed7fb0f5714ba678d”]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently this gravitational “microlensing” technique revealed the possible detection of an “\u003ca title=\"Possible exomoon detected\" href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-109\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">exomoon\u003c/a>:” a moon in orbit around an extrasolar planet. The brightening of the distant star by the microlensing effect revealed the presence of two objects, one with about 2000 times the mass of the other. This could mean a star with a planet, or a planet with a moon—though we can’t be sure which. And there is no hope of a repeat observation to verify these particular objects’ existence: their passage between us and the distant star was a one-time event. But the observation is encouraging to scientists looking for other exomoons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s been said that all of the easy astronomy has been done—the kind you can do with a conventional telescope. To coax out the far more subtle mysteries in nature scientists are having to resort to some highly unorthodox tricks, like finding hidden oceans with big radar guns and spotting serendipitous alignments between distant stars, exoplanets, and exomoons.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Modern explorers have found a previously unknown ocean -- but this one's on Saturn's moon Enceladus. Learn more from Chabot Space & Science Center's Ben Burress at KQED Science. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16644\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/enceladus-ocean-cassini.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16644\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16644\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/enceladus-ocean-cassini.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concepts of interior of Enceladus and NASA's Cassini spacecraft. (NASA)\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concepts of interior of Enceladus and NASA’s Cassini spacecraft. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Over 500 years since Vasco Nunez de Balboa “discovered” the Pacific Ocean (never mind that the Chinese, Japanese, and Pacific Islanders already lived along or within it), modern explorers have found yet another previously unknown ocean–on Saturn’s moon \u003ca title=\"Enceladus\" href=\"http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Enceladus\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Enceladus\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The discovery was made by \u003ca title=\"NASA Cassini Spacecraft Discovers Ocean in Enceladus\" href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/april/nasa-space-assets-detect-ocean-inside-saturn-moon/#.U1AlA1VdV8E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NASA’s Cassini spacecraft\u003c/a> over the course of 19 flybys of Enceladus. And while Cassini is not equipped with instrumentation designed to look within an object and see what’s there, NASA was able to take advantage of Cassini’s communications gear to infer the ocean’s presence.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Is Cassini a high-tech divining rod?\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>The concept is straightforward, even if it may seem like using a divining rod to find water. As the Cassini spacecraft flew by Enceladus, beaming a radio communications signal back at Earth as it went, its trajectory was altered slightly by gravitational “bumps,” or “potholes,” in its path. The “potholes” are variations in the strength of Enceladus’ gravity caused by differences in mass density on and under its surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cruising through areas of weaker and stronger gravity as it passed over regions of lesser and greater density, Cassini’s flight path dithered up and down like an airplane flying through pockets of air turbulence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By measuring minute shifts in the frequency of Cassini’s radio transmissions caused by the \u003ca title=\"The Doppler Effect\" href=\"http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/The-Doppler-Effect\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Doppler effect\u003c/a> (the same phenomenon that enables a highway patrol officer with a radar gun to catch you speeding), the variations in speed toward and away from Earth were calculated. Velocity variations as low as 1 foot per hour can be measured in this way. (If the highway patrol’s radar guns were of NASA caliber, they’d be able to tell the difference between 55 and 55.0002 mph. Just saying.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thus, a map of structures on and below Enceladus’ surface was made, and after multiple flybys a picture developed, inferring the existence of a regional ocean of liquid water up to six miles deep and located 19 to 25 miles beneath the moon’s icy crust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ve known of the presence of subsurface liquid water in Enceladus for ten years, since Cassini first captured images and measured the composition of plumes of water spewing from long crevasses in its surface. A system of tidally heated geyser chambers was speculated to explain the plumes—and the idea still holds water even with the detection of the deep ocean below, which may or may not be connected directly with the plume eruptions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In any case this further indication of copious amounts of water in this tiny moon puts it on a favored list of places in our solar system that may harbor life-friendly environments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, Enceladus’ ocean is the third “exo-ocean” we may have discovered in our solar system. We’ve long suspected the presence of a deep global ocean beneath the icy crust of Jupiter’s moon Europa, based on patterns of surface fracturing imaged by the Galileo spacecraft. Saturn’s large moon Titan is also suspected to possess a deep liquid water ocean far below its frigid surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gravity is an amazing tool, and this isn’t the first time it’s been used to divine the presence of unseen things. Even here at home sensitive measurements of Earth’s gravity across different geographic regions have been used to infer the existence of subterranean structures like petroleum reservoirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Hubble Space Telescope has captured images of very distance galaxies and quasars through the “\u003ca title=\"Gravitational Lens\" href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/news/grav_lens.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">gravitational lens\u003c/a>” effect, in which a mediating massive object (like another galaxy or cluster of galaxies) between us and the distant object bends and focuses its light like a big lens—sometimes even creating double images of the same distant object.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gravitational lensing has also been used to detect much smaller objects much closer to home by measuring the gravitational bending of a star’s light by another object. In this case the object acting as the gravitational lens, which could be another star or a planet, is not merely the tool but the object of scientific interest. By measuring the effect of the intermediate object’s gravity on the more distant star’s light we can learn something about the nature of its mass.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently this gravitational “microlensing” technique revealed the possible detection of an “\u003ca title=\"Possible exomoon detected\" href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-109\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">exomoon\u003c/a>:” a moon in orbit around an extrasolar planet. The brightening of the distant star by the microlensing effect revealed the presence of two objects, one with about 2000 times the mass of the other. This could mean a star with a planet, or a planet with a moon—though we can’t be sure which. And there is no hope of a repeat observation to verify these particular objects’ existence: their passage between us and the distant star was a one-time event. But the observation is encouraging to scientists looking for other exomoons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s been said that all of the easy astronomy has been done—the kind you can do with a conventional telescope. To coax out the far more subtle mysteries in nature scientists are having to resort to some highly unorthodox tricks, like finding hidden oceans with big radar guns and spotting serendipitous alignments between distant stars, exoplanets, and exomoons.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Scientists Find A Planet Like Earth",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16659\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 639px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16659\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/Kepler-planet-e1397780501958.png\" alt=\"The artistic concept of Kepler-186f is the result of scientists and artists collaborating to imagine the appearance of these distant worlds.\" width=\"639\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The artistic concept of Kepler-186f is the result of scientists and artists collaborating to imagine the appearance of these distant worlds. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Bay Area scientists are among the NASA planet hunters who announced today they’ve found a planet more like Earth than any planet found before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA launched the Kepler telescope in 2009, and are now pouring over the data from the mission. Kepler has detected hundreds of planets orbiting around distant stars, but the planet identified today as Kepler 186F is close to Earth in size, and orbits its star at a distance that’s known as the habitable zone, or “Goldilocks zone.” That is, temperatures on the planet could be not too hot, and not too cold, but could be just right for life, that is, life as we here on Earth know it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is the first validated Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone of another \u003cspan style=\"font-size: 13px\">star,” says \u003c/span>Elisa Quintana, a Kepler Mission Research Scientist based at the SETI institute in Mountain View.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kepler-186f circles a red dwarf star 500 light-years from Earth. The planet is about ten percent bigger than Earth and may have liquid water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more details about the discovery of Kepler 186F, check out \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2014/04/17/303806575/scientists-spot-a-planet-that-looks-like-earths-cousin\">this story\u003c/a> from NPR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Update:\u003c/strong> Monday’s launch was \u003ca>\u003c/a>cancelled because of a helium leak. The next window for launch is this coming Friday, April 18. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Original story:\u003c/strong> SpaceX is launching a rocket this afternoon. The live webcast begins at 12:45 PST and the launch itself is scheduled for 1:58. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/index.html#.U0ww1lcXJfQ\">NASA TV\u003c/a> is streaming coverage: \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"640\" height=\"392\" src=\"http://www.ustream.tv/embed/10414700?v=3&wmode=direct\" scrolling=\"no\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border: 0px none transparent\"> \u003c/iframe>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ustream.tv/\" style=\"padding: 2px 0px 4px;width: 400px;background: #ffffff;color: #000000;font-weight: normal;font-size: 10px;text-decoration: underline;text-align: center\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Live streaming video by Ustream\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Dragon spacecraft is headed for the International Space Station. The unmanned mission is delivering cargo, including \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/audio/nasa-sends-fruit-flies-to-space-to-prep-for-mars-missions/\">scientific experiments from NASA’s Ames Research Center\u003c/a> in Silicon Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>SpaceX, owned by Tesla Motors CEO Elon Musk, is a private space company. You can learn more about private space exploration in our TV special, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/video/silicon-valley-goes-to-space/\">Silicon Valley Goes to Space\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://www.youtube.com/embed/D9oTeQ2FC84\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Update:\u003c/strong> Monday’s launch was \u003ca>\u003c/a>cancelled because of a helium leak. The next window for launch is this coming Friday, April 18. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Original story:\u003c/strong> SpaceX is launching a rocket this afternoon. The live webcast begins at 12:45 PST and the launch itself is scheduled for 1:58. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/index.html#.U0ww1lcXJfQ\">NASA TV\u003c/a> is streaming coverage: \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe loading=\"lazy\" width=\"640\" height=\"392\" src=\"http://www.ustream.tv/embed/10414700?v=3&wmode=direct\" scrolling=\"no\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border: 0px none transparent\"> \u003c/iframe>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ustream.tv/\" style=\"padding: 2px 0px 4px;width: 400px;background: #ffffff;color: #000000;font-weight: normal;font-size: 10px;text-decoration: underline;text-align: center\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Live streaming video by Ustream\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Dragon spacecraft is headed for the International Space Station. The unmanned mission is delivering cargo, including \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/audio/nasa-sends-fruit-flies-to-space-to-prep-for-mars-missions/\">scientific experiments from NASA’s Ames Research Center\u003c/a> in Silicon Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "Blood Moon: A Chance to Watch a Total Lunar Eclipse",
"headTitle": "Blood Moon: A Chance to Watch a Total Lunar Eclipse | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16212\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16212\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/Lunar-Eclipse-08-28-07-composite-8bt-small.jpg\" alt=\"Total lunar eclipse August, 28th, 2007. Credit: Conrad Jung\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Total lunar eclipse on August 28th, 2007. (Conrad Jung/Chabot Space and Science Center)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Bay Area residents will be able to watch one of the moon’s most remarkable displays \u003ca href=\"http://www.timeanddate.com/eclipse/lunar/2014-april-15\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">late on the night of April 14 and early, early on the morning of April 15\u003c/a> when the shadow of Earth crosses the moon in a total lunar eclipse. A cosmic dance between Earth, sun and moon, this total lunar eclipse will be the first in three years to be visible here, weather permitting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Is a Total Lunar Eclipse?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>When to watch:\u003c/strong> The eclipse starts at 10:58 p.m. PST. At 12:07 a.m. the total eclipse phase begins. Earth will block the sun completely until 1:25 a.m., and then the moon travels through the semi-shadow until 2:33 a.m.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>Where to watch:\u003c/strong> Just go outside. You can see the eclipse from wherever you can usually see the moon.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp> During a total lunar eclipse, Earth passes exactly between the full moon and the sun. As the celestial bodies move, the full moon enters Earth’s shadow until it is completely covered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may wonder, since the moon is constantly orbiting around the Earth, why there isn’t a lunar eclipse every month.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It turns out the orbit of the moon is tilted relative to the orbit of the Earth around the sun so it doesn’t happen regularly,” says Andrew Fraknoi, Astronomy Department Chair at Foothill College. “Only when the two orbits cross—the orbit of the moon around the Earth and the orbit of the Earth around the sun—can you have an eclipse.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For a visualization of what will be happening in space, check out this animated video from NASA, explaining the movements of celestial bodies during the total lunar eclipse on June 15, 2011.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuhNZejHeBg\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where and When Can I Watch It?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Late on the night of April 14, the moon will have risen far above the horizon line when it enters Earth’s shadow, so the timing of this eclipse will make it remarkably accessible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If it’s clear Monday evening and Tuesday morning,” Fraknoi says, “there should be a spectacular eclipse, pretty high in the sky so that anyone with a good view of the sky can see it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’d like to join a large watching party, you can grab at ticket for the viewing event at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org/calendar.htm?date=4-14-2014&p=1439355\">Chabot Space and Science Center\u003c/a> or perhaps gather with neighbors on a hill near your home.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the Bay Area, the eclipse will start at 10:58 p.m., when the moon enters the penumbra of Earth, or the semi-shadow. Then at 12:07 a.m., the moon enters Earth’s umbra, directly in line with the sun, and the total eclipse phase begins. Earth will block the sun completely until 1:25 a.m., and then the moon travels through the semi-shadow until 2:33 a.m., when it finally emerges again to reflect the sun’s light. The whole event will last 3 hours and 35 minutes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Blood Moon Effect\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moon during a total lunar eclipse is also called a “blood moon” because, rather than turning dark when Earth’s shadow passes over it, the moon turns a rusty red or brown.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That color comes from the rays of sunlight peeking around the edges of Earth, through its atmosphere. Colors with a shorter wavelength, like the blues, scatter as they hit Earth’s atmosphere, whereas colors with longer wavelengths like red, bend and reach the moon, casting a reddish glow across its surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A rich color also tells us there are a lot of particles thickening the atmosphere. “The more sooty the atmosphere,” Fraknoi says, “the better this reddening effect.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Coming Up\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s actually an eclipse season roughly every six months when it’s possible to see either a solar or a lunar eclipse. This total lunar eclipse is the first of four in a row, what astronomers call a tetrad. The other three total lunar eclipses will occur on October 8th, 2014, April 4th, 2015, and September 28th, 2015, and all will be visible in the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get your fill because after that, the next total lunar eclipse won’t occur until 2018, and we won’t see another tetrad until 2032-33.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16212\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16212\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/Lunar-Eclipse-08-28-07-composite-8bt-small.jpg\" alt=\"Total lunar eclipse August, 28th, 2007. Credit: Conrad Jung\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Total lunar eclipse on August 28th, 2007. (Conrad Jung/Chabot Space and Science Center)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Bay Area residents will be able to watch one of the moon’s most remarkable displays \u003ca href=\"http://www.timeanddate.com/eclipse/lunar/2014-april-15\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">late on the night of April 14 and early, early on the morning of April 15\u003c/a> when the shadow of Earth crosses the moon in a total lunar eclipse. A cosmic dance between Earth, sun and moon, this total lunar eclipse will be the first in three years to be visible here, weather permitting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Is a Total Lunar Eclipse?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>When to watch:\u003c/strong> The eclipse starts at 10:58 p.m. PST. At 12:07 a.m. the total eclipse phase begins. Earth will block the sun completely until 1:25 a.m., and then the moon travels through the semi-shadow until 2:33 a.m.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>Where to watch:\u003c/strong> Just go outside. You can see the eclipse from wherever you can usually see the moon.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp> During a total lunar eclipse, Earth passes exactly between the full moon and the sun. As the celestial bodies move, the full moon enters Earth’s shadow until it is completely covered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may wonder, since the moon is constantly orbiting around the Earth, why there isn’t a lunar eclipse every month.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It turns out the orbit of the moon is tilted relative to the orbit of the Earth around the sun so it doesn’t happen regularly,” says Andrew Fraknoi, Astronomy Department Chair at Foothill College. “Only when the two orbits cross—the orbit of the moon around the Earth and the orbit of the Earth around the sun—can you have an eclipse.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For a visualization of what will be happening in space, check out this animated video from NASA, explaining the movements of celestial bodies during the total lunar eclipse on June 15, 2011.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/wuhNZejHeBg'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/wuhNZejHeBg'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where and When Can I Watch It?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Late on the night of April 14, the moon will have risen far above the horizon line when it enters Earth’s shadow, so the timing of this eclipse will make it remarkably accessible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If it’s clear Monday evening and Tuesday morning,” Fraknoi says, “there should be a spectacular eclipse, pretty high in the sky so that anyone with a good view of the sky can see it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’d like to join a large watching party, you can grab at ticket for the viewing event at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org/calendar.htm?date=4-14-2014&p=1439355\">Chabot Space and Science Center\u003c/a> or perhaps gather with neighbors on a hill near your home.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the Bay Area, the eclipse will start at 10:58 p.m., when the moon enters the penumbra of Earth, or the semi-shadow. Then at 12:07 a.m., the moon enters Earth’s umbra, directly in line with the sun, and the total eclipse phase begins. Earth will block the sun completely until 1:25 a.m., and then the moon travels through the semi-shadow until 2:33 a.m., when it finally emerges again to reflect the sun’s light. The whole event will last 3 hours and 35 minutes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Blood Moon Effect\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moon during a total lunar eclipse is also called a “blood moon” because, rather than turning dark when Earth’s shadow passes over it, the moon turns a rusty red or brown.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That color comes from the rays of sunlight peeking around the edges of Earth, through its atmosphere. Colors with a shorter wavelength, like the blues, scatter as they hit Earth’s atmosphere, whereas colors with longer wavelengths like red, bend and reach the moon, casting a reddish glow across its surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A rich color also tells us there are a lot of particles thickening the atmosphere. “The more sooty the atmosphere,” Fraknoi says, “the better this reddening effect.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Coming Up\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s actually an eclipse season roughly every six months when it’s possible to see either a solar or a lunar eclipse. This total lunar eclipse is the first of four in a row, what astronomers call a tetrad. The other three total lunar eclipses will occur on October 8th, 2014, April 4th, 2015, and September 28th, 2015, and all will be visible in the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get your fill because after that, the next total lunar eclipse won’t occur until 2018, and we won’t see another tetrad until 2032-33.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"headTitle": "NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope Shows Us Something New: A Disintegrating Asteroid | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16112\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/hst_p2013r3.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16112\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16112\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/hst_p2013r3.jpg\" alt=\"Hubble Space Telescope image of asteroid P/2013 R3 break-up. (STScI/NASA)\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hubble Space Telescope image of asteroid P/2013 R3 break-up. (STScI/NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Upholding a long-standing tradition of showing us things in space that we have never seen before, the Hubble Space Telescope \u003ca title=\"Hubble Space Telescope witnesses breakup of an asteroid\" href=\"http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1405a/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">recently witnessed the break-up\u003c/a> of an asteroid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Asteroid P/2013 R3 was discovered in the Catalina and PanSTARRS sky survey data on September 15th last year. When follow-up observations were made by the giant \u003ca title=\"Keck Observatory\" href=\"http://www.keckobservatory.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Keck telescope\u003c/a> in Hawaii, three separate objects traveling together within a cloud of dust the size of Earth were revealed. This elevated the level of interest in the object to warrant a look at it through Hubble.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through the looking glass of Hubble’s optics, things grew curiouser and curiouser….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hubble’s perceptive eye made out not three, but 10 distinct objects moving in a pack, the four largest chunks as big as 400 meters across. Also, the fragments are separating from each other at a stately one mile per hour. This could only mean one thing: the small mountain of rock was caught in the act of disintegrating, an event that we had previously only observed in the more fragile and heat-sensitive objects we classify as comets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[contextly_sidebar id=”1adde2713924ab8b3f162f1d59794f07″]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once upon a time, our rudimentary ideal of \u003ca title=\"Asteroids: Formation, Discovery and Exploration\" href=\"http://www.space.com/51-asteroids-formation-discovery-and-exploration.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">asteroids \u003c/a>was of giant rocks wheeling through space, ranging from house-sized bits to megaliths hundreds of miles across. Most of them are found in the Asteroid Belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, though many have been found roving outside of those bounds and even interloping on Earth’s orbit. Over time we have discovered many thousands, and expect their actual numbers to be in the millions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we think of giant rocks, we tend to imagine singularly solid objects, maybe like El Capitan or Half Dome in Yosemite: robust geological titans that stand up to time, gravity, and the forces of weathering with enduring strength.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But time, and lots of observations by spacecraft like Hubble, robotic probes and ground-based telescopes, have taught us that asteroids, like many things, are usually more nuanced, complicated and just plain interesting than our initial simplistic ideals. We already knew about an asteroid named \u003ca title=\"3200 Phaethon\" href=\"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2013/27nov_rockcomet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">3200 Phaethon\u003c/a> that exudes a trail of dust as comets do, earning it the moniker “rock comet.” Another asteroid, P/2013 P5, was recently observed to\u003ca title=\"Asteroid sprouts six tails\" href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/space-telescope-spots-unprecedented-asteroid-with-six-tails/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> spout six comet-like tails\u003c/a>!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Spewing out dust and comet-esque tails is unusual behavior for asteroids, but what happened to P/2013 R3 to cause it to completely break apart?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did it collide with another asteroid? Not likely. Though asteroids do occasionally collide with each other, the fragments of P/2013 R3 should be flying apart much faster if a violent collision were the culprit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did internal forces pry it to pieces? On Earth weathering, the action of water, wind, and expanding ice, will gradually disintegrate a big rock like Half Dome or El Capitan. And, the \u003ca title=\"Regolith of small asteroids are formed by thermal fatigue\" href=\"http://zeenews.india.com/news/space/regolith-of-small-asteroids-are-formed-by-thermal-fatigue_922023.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">heating and vaporizing of ices\u003c/a> within an asteroid may be a mechanism related to the dust outbursts from 3200 Phaethon or the tail-growing behavior of P/2013 P5. But the complete crumbling of an asteroid by the expansion of internal vapor is also thought to be unlikely in this case.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What does that leave, short of a scenario out of science fiction?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Would you believe sunlight?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s the nutshell of this idea: Uneven sunlight pressure gradually accelerates an asteroid’s rotation to the point where stresses from centripetal forces cause it to “gently” fly apart, especially if the asteroid’s structure was already weakened, perhaps due to a collision with another object sometime in the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’ve ever seen one of those sunlight-driven propellers (“radiometers”) with the black and white colored sides then you’ve seen how an imbalance of solar radiance can make something move. “Solar sail” spacecraft have been envisioned that take advantage of sunlight pressure for propulsion, and even existing spacecraft (\u003ca title=\"Mariner 10\" href=\"http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1973-085A\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Mariner 10\u003c/a> for one) have employed the technique to turn. NASA may also use sunlight pressure to stabilize the attitude of the broken \u003ca title=\"Kepler\" href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/kepler/a-sunny-outlook-for-nasa-keplers-second-light/#.Uz25MahdV8E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kepler spacecraft\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’re not sure that this is what happened to P/2013 R3, but it’s a plausible scenario that matches up well with observations of the breakup. At least, Hubble didn’t spot any Death Star space stations lurking in the area.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Upholding a long-standing tradition of showing us things in space that we have never seen before, the Hubble Space Telescope recently witnessed the break-up of an asteroid. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16112\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/hst_p2013r3.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16112\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-16112\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/hst_p2013r3.jpg\" alt=\"Hubble Space Telescope image of asteroid P/2013 R3 break-up. (STScI/NASA)\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hubble Space Telescope image of asteroid P/2013 R3 break-up. (STScI/NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Upholding a long-standing tradition of showing us things in space that we have never seen before, the Hubble Space Telescope \u003ca title=\"Hubble Space Telescope witnesses breakup of an asteroid\" href=\"http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1405a/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">recently witnessed the break-up\u003c/a> of an asteroid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Asteroid P/2013 R3 was discovered in the Catalina and PanSTARRS sky survey data on September 15th last year. When follow-up observations were made by the giant \u003ca title=\"Keck Observatory\" href=\"http://www.keckobservatory.org/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Keck telescope\u003c/a> in Hawaii, three separate objects traveling together within a cloud of dust the size of Earth were revealed. This elevated the level of interest in the object to warrant a look at it through Hubble.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Through the looking glass of Hubble’s optics, things grew curiouser and curiouser….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hubble’s perceptive eye made out not three, but 10 distinct objects moving in a pack, the four largest chunks as big as 400 meters across. Also, the fragments are separating from each other at a stately one mile per hour. This could only mean one thing: the small mountain of rock was caught in the act of disintegrating, an event that we had previously only observed in the more fragile and heat-sensitive objects we classify as comets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Once upon a time, our rudimentary ideal of \u003ca title=\"Asteroids: Formation, Discovery and Exploration\" href=\"http://www.space.com/51-asteroids-formation-discovery-and-exploration.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">asteroids \u003c/a>was of giant rocks wheeling through space, ranging from house-sized bits to megaliths hundreds of miles across. Most of them are found in the Asteroid Belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, though many have been found roving outside of those bounds and even interloping on Earth’s orbit. Over time we have discovered many thousands, and expect their actual numbers to be in the millions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we think of giant rocks, we tend to imagine singularly solid objects, maybe like El Capitan or Half Dome in Yosemite: robust geological titans that stand up to time, gravity, and the forces of weathering with enduring strength.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But time, and lots of observations by spacecraft like Hubble, robotic probes and ground-based telescopes, have taught us that asteroids, like many things, are usually more nuanced, complicated and just plain interesting than our initial simplistic ideals. We already knew about an asteroid named \u003ca title=\"3200 Phaethon\" href=\"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2013/27nov_rockcomet/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">3200 Phaethon\u003c/a> that exudes a trail of dust as comets do, earning it the moniker “rock comet.” Another asteroid, P/2013 P5, was recently observed to\u003ca title=\"Asteroid sprouts six tails\" href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/space-telescope-spots-unprecedented-asteroid-with-six-tails/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> spout six comet-like tails\u003c/a>!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Spewing out dust and comet-esque tails is unusual behavior for asteroids, but what happened to P/2013 R3 to cause it to completely break apart?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did it collide with another asteroid? Not likely. Though asteroids do occasionally collide with each other, the fragments of P/2013 R3 should be flying apart much faster if a violent collision were the culprit.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did internal forces pry it to pieces? On Earth weathering, the action of water, wind, and expanding ice, will gradually disintegrate a big rock like Half Dome or El Capitan. And, the \u003ca title=\"Regolith of small asteroids are formed by thermal fatigue\" href=\"http://zeenews.india.com/news/space/regolith-of-small-asteroids-are-formed-by-thermal-fatigue_922023.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">heating and vaporizing of ices\u003c/a> within an asteroid may be a mechanism related to the dust outbursts from 3200 Phaethon or the tail-growing behavior of P/2013 P5. But the complete crumbling of an asteroid by the expansion of internal vapor is also thought to be unlikely in this case.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What does that leave, short of a scenario out of science fiction?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Would you believe sunlight?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s the nutshell of this idea: Uneven sunlight pressure gradually accelerates an asteroid’s rotation to the point where stresses from centripetal forces cause it to “gently” fly apart, especially if the asteroid’s structure was already weakened, perhaps due to a collision with another object sometime in the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’ve ever seen one of those sunlight-driven propellers (“radiometers”) with the black and white colored sides then you’ve seen how an imbalance of solar radiance can make something move. “Solar sail” spacecraft have been envisioned that take advantage of sunlight pressure for propulsion, and even existing spacecraft (\u003ca title=\"Mariner 10\" href=\"http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1973-085A\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Mariner 10\u003c/a> for one) have employed the technique to turn. NASA may also use sunlight pressure to stabilize the attitude of the broken \u003ca title=\"Kepler\" href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/kepler/a-sunny-outlook-for-nasa-keplers-second-light/#.Uz25MahdV8E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kepler spacecraft\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’re not sure that this is what happened to P/2013 R3, but it’s a plausible scenario that matches up well with observations of the breakup. At least, Hubble didn’t spot any Death Star space stations lurking in the area.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "NASA's LADEE Spacecraft Set to Crash Land on the Moon",
"headTitle": "NASA’s LADEE Spacecraft Set to Crash Land on the Moon | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16134\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 717px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/LADEE.Artist-1024x768.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16134\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-16134 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/LADEE.Artist-1024x768.png\" alt=\"An artist's depiction of LADEE in orbit around the moon. (Dana Berry/NASA Ames)\" width=\"717\" height=\"538\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An artist’s depiction of LADEE in orbit around the moon. (Dana Berry/NASA Ames)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A NASA mission designed here in the Bay Area has solved a 42-year-old mystery.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The LADEE mission – whose launch \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/09/03/new-nasa-moon-mission-aims-to-solve-a-40-year-old-mystery/\">we covered\u003c/a> back in September – was designed at NASA Ames in Mountain View to explain the mysterious colorful streaks that astronaut Eugene Cernan spotted from the window of Apollo 17 in 1972.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(You can read more about that, and see Cernan’s sketches of those mysterious “streamers,” \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/09/03/new-nasa-moon-mission-aims-to-solve-a-40-year-old-mystery/\">here\u003c/a>. And while you’re at it, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2014/02/13/nasas-ladee-spacecraft-sends-back-new-moon-images/\">take a look\u003c/a> at some of the moon pictures LADEE sent back from its travels.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>LADEE (that’s LAD-ee, not “lady”) stands for \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ladee/main/#.Uz3qC_ldV8E\">Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Launched on September 6 from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, the spacecraft spent 100 days orbiting the moon, taking sips of lunar atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“A dust veil enshrouds the moon perpetually.”\u003cbr>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Those sips, NASA reported today, contained traces of magnesium, aluminum, neon, titanium – particles that are kicked up every time a meteorite slips through the moon’s thin atmosphere and crashes onto the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Every time a meteorite comes to the surface of the moon, it creates this ejecta-cloud,” explains NASA Ames space scientist Rick Elphic. “These particles are sent up from the surface, as if by an explosion.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This dust “veil” Elphic explained, “enshrouds the moon perpetually.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thankfully, here on Earth, our robust atmosphere protects us from that fate. The LADEE findings hint at the conditions on other planets with thin atmospheres, like Mercury or the planet-formerly-known-as-Pluto.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16129\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 662px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/lro_view_of_ladee_labeled_0_0.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16129\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-16129 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/lro_view_of_ladee_labeled_0_0.jpg\" alt=\"That little sliver is the LADEE spacecraft, designed in Mountain View and photographed by another NASA mission, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. (NASA/ Goddard/Arizona State University)\" width=\"662\" height=\"662\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">That little sliver is the LADEE spacecraft, designed in Mountain View and photographed by another NASA mission, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. (NASA/ Goddard/Arizona State University)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>LADEE’s observations also provided reassurance that future human missions to the moon’s surface will face no hazard from the dust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we’ve seen means clear sailing for any future missions around there,” said Elphic.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">The findings mean “clear sailing” for future human missions to the moon.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Having completed its mission, LADEE is now on a planned demolition course.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On April 14th, LADEE will fly through a lunar eclipse. That experience could freeze the instruments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Or LADEE could keep on collecting scientific data all the way until April 21st \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/content/take-the-plunge-ladee-impact-challenge/#.Uz3q8PldV8E\">or thereabouts\u003c/a>, when the spacecraft is expected to collide with the moon at over 3,500 miles per hour.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s fast enough, say scientists, to instantly “vaporize” the $280 million spacecraft.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Having solved a 42-year-old mystery about lunar \"streamers,\" the $280 million LADEE spacecraft is set to vaporize when it collides with the moon around April 21st. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16134\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 717px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/LADEE.Artist-1024x768.png\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16134\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-16134 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/LADEE.Artist-1024x768.png\" alt=\"An artist's depiction of LADEE in orbit around the moon. (Dana Berry/NASA Ames)\" width=\"717\" height=\"538\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An artist’s depiction of LADEE in orbit around the moon. (Dana Berry/NASA Ames)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A NASA mission designed here in the Bay Area has solved a 42-year-old mystery.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The LADEE mission – whose launch \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/09/03/new-nasa-moon-mission-aims-to-solve-a-40-year-old-mystery/\">we covered\u003c/a> back in September – was designed at NASA Ames in Mountain View to explain the mysterious colorful streaks that astronaut Eugene Cernan spotted from the window of Apollo 17 in 1972.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(You can read more about that, and see Cernan’s sketches of those mysterious “streamers,” \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2013/09/03/new-nasa-moon-mission-aims-to-solve-a-40-year-old-mystery/\">here\u003c/a>. And while you’re at it, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/2014/02/13/nasas-ladee-spacecraft-sends-back-new-moon-images/\">take a look\u003c/a> at some of the moon pictures LADEE sent back from its travels.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>LADEE (that’s LAD-ee, not “lady”) stands for \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ladee/main/#.Uz3qC_ldV8E\">Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Launched on September 6 from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, the spacecraft spent 100 days orbiting the moon, taking sips of lunar atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“A dust veil enshrouds the moon perpetually.”\u003cbr>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Those sips, NASA reported today, contained traces of magnesium, aluminum, neon, titanium – particles that are kicked up every time a meteorite slips through the moon’s thin atmosphere and crashes onto the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Every time a meteorite comes to the surface of the moon, it creates this ejecta-cloud,” explains NASA Ames space scientist Rick Elphic. “These particles are sent up from the surface, as if by an explosion.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This dust “veil” Elphic explained, “enshrouds the moon perpetually.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thankfully, here on Earth, our robust atmosphere protects us from that fate. The LADEE findings hint at the conditions on other planets with thin atmospheres, like Mercury or the planet-formerly-known-as-Pluto.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_16129\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 662px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/lro_view_of_ladee_labeled_0_0.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-16129\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-16129 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/04/lro_view_of_ladee_labeled_0_0.jpg\" alt=\"That little sliver is the LADEE spacecraft, designed in Mountain View and photographed by another NASA mission, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. (NASA/ Goddard/Arizona State University)\" width=\"662\" height=\"662\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">That little sliver is the LADEE spacecraft, designed in Mountain View and photographed by another NASA mission, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. (NASA/ Goddard/Arizona State University)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>LADEE’s observations also provided reassurance that future human missions to the moon’s surface will face no hazard from the dust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we’ve seen means clear sailing for any future missions around there,” said Elphic.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">The findings mean “clear sailing” for future human missions to the moon.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Having completed its mission, LADEE is now on a planned demolition course.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On April 14th, LADEE will fly through a lunar eclipse. That experience could freeze the instruments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Or LADEE could keep on collecting scientific data all the way until April 21st \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/content/take-the-plunge-ladee-impact-challenge/#.Uz3q8PldV8E\">or thereabouts\u003c/a>, when the spacecraft is expected to collide with the moon at over 3,500 miles per hour.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s fast enough, say scientists, to instantly “vaporize” the $280 million spacecraft.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "NASA Sends Fruit Flies to Space to Prep for Mars Missions",
"headTitle": "NASA Sends Fruit Flies to Space to Prep for Mars Missions | KQED",
"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"audio-wrap\">\n\u003ch2>Listen:\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/science/2014/03/20140324science.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15579\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Apollo-7-astronauts.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15579 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Apollo-7-astronauts.jpg\" alt=\"The Apollo 7 crew, from left to right: Command Module pilot, Donn F. Eisele, Commander, Walter M. Schirra Jr. and Lunar Module pilot, Walter Cunningham. (NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">In 1968, two members of the Apollo 7 crew developed head colds. Crankiness ensued. Crew members, from the left, are Command Module Pilot Donn Eisele, Commander Walter Schirra, Jr. and Lunar Module Pilot Walter Cunningham. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists at NASA’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/#.UyzQ_oXDX_k\">Ames Research Center\u003c/a> in Mountain View are sending fruit flies (among other creatures) up to the International Space Station, hoping to better predict some of the physical challenges that may befall astronauts when, sometime after 2030, NASA sends up the first human mission to Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA has already learned some of these lessons the hard way. For instance: Having a head cold in space is no picnic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15581\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 288px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/9400_transform-288x162.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-15581 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/9400_transform-288x162.jpg\" alt=\"In the first live television transmission from space, astronauts Don Eisele and Walter Schirra Jr. deliver a message to viewers. (NASA)\" width=\"288\" height=\"162\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">In the first live television transmission from space, astronauts Donn F. Eisele and Walter M. Schirra Jr. deliver a message to viewers. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The First Colds in Space\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1968, NASA needed some good press.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The year before had been a disaster. All three crew members of the Apollo 1 Mission had died in a cabin fire before the spaceship even launched.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If NASA was going to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade, it needed to win back public confidence in the program. And it would do so on live television during the Apollo 7 mission.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Apollo 7 launched on October 11, 1968, with a plan to bring three astronauts safely into Earth’s orbit, and then back home again.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first time, Americans got to see what astronauts looked like floating around in zero gravity. On live television, they watched Command Module Pilot Donn Eisele, Commander Walter Schirra, Jr. and Lunar Module Pilot Walter Cunningham eat meals, bat a lens cap around the cabin and send radio reports to ground control.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Perhaps you’ve never considered the effect of zero gravity on snot?\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Wally took one Actifed,” Cunningham reported. “He feels fine; he’s just got a little stuffy nose.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cunningham and Schirra indeed had head colds, and the stuffy noses turned out not to be such a “little” thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The astronauts had trouble sleeping. They worried about their eardrums rupturing. Their interactions with ground control became testy, particularly on the subject of whether or not they would wear helmets upon reentry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A New Policy: Quarantine\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So after Apollo 7, NASA set a new policy: Astronauts would now be quarantined before each launch to make sure they’re healthy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the quarantine isn’t a guarantee.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA astronaut \u003ca href=\"http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/barratt-mr.html\">Mike Barratt\u003c/a> caught a cold during his six-month stay on the International Space Station in 2009. “It was probably the most miserable cold I’ve ever had,” he told me.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15591\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 294px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-15591 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132-1024x652.jpg\" alt=\"The International Space Station. (NASA)\" width=\"294\" height=\"188\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The International Space Station. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Perhaps you’ve never considered the effect of zero gravity on snot? Barratt hadn’t either.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Earth, Barratt said, “where you’d have a little gravity to help you drain things, all that was absent there. Everything kind of pools where it is.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So Barratt invented a zero-gravity nose-blowing technique, involving swinging his body in an arc as his hands clasped a metal handrail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That move created a sort of artificial gravity, Barratt said, propelling mucus out of his head.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You do what you gotta do,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Finding Work-Arounds in Zero Gravity \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humans evolved with gravity. Take it away and we start looking for work-arounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of these are well known. For instance: in space, muscles atrophy, especially in the legs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“From the waist up, they look strong,” Barratt said, describing how this affects humans. “From the waist down they look more like Kermit the Frog.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So astronauts spend an enormous amount of time exercising—two or three hours a day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then there’s the eyes. No one’s quite sure why, but over the course of a mission, some astronauts report problems with both nearsightedness and distance vision.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/marshburn-th.html\">Tom Marshburn\u003c/a>, who has completed two missions to the International Space Station as a space surgeon, said he’s learned to bring multiple pairs of eyeglasses to suit his changing vision while in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15584\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 285px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Drosophila_SingleFly.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-15584 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Drosophila_SingleFly.jpg\" alt=\"A single drosophila, or fruit fly. (Dominic Hart/NASA)\" width=\"285\" height=\"241\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A single drosophila, or fruit fly. (Dominic Hart/NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“It’s the only solution we have right now,” Marshburn said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Mars Mission Brings Higher Stakes\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is minor stuff on the International Space Station, a mere two-day trip from Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But consider that by 2030, NASA wants to start sending people to Mars and back—a mission that could last five years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Anticipating the ensuing physical problems of such a mission is the job of scientists like \u003ca href=\"http://women.nasa.gov/sharmila-bhattacharya-2/\">Sharmila Bhattacharya\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Battacharya is a scientist at NASA’s Ames Research Center, where she runs a lab in the Space Biosciences Division.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her research focuses on fruit flies—Drosophila melanogaster—and is part of a major NASA effort to send bugs (including beetles, worms, bees and spiders) up to the International Space Station to see how space affects their biology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next week, Bhattacharya plans to travel to Florida to watch the lift-off for the first of 2014’s three scheduled fruit fly missions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15586\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 301px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/ACD14-0023-028-1024x982.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-15586 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/ACD14-0023-028-1024x982.jpg\" alt=\"Ames researchers Curran Reddy and Sharmila Bhattacharya are studying the effects of zero gravity on fruit flies' cardiovascular systems. (Dominic Hart/NASA)\" width=\"301\" height=\"288\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ames researchers Curran Reddy and Sharmila Bhattacharya are studying cardiovascular health on fruit flies in space.(Dominic Hart/NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Since the demise of the NASA’s space shuttle program, the agency has relied on private contractors—specifically Tesla founder Elon Musk’s company SpaceX—to carry astronauts and science experiments to the International Space Station.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bhattacharya’s launch, \u003ca href=\"http://www.spacex.com/news/2014/03/11/upcoming-mission-falcon-9-and-dragon-launching-space-station\">scheduled for March 30 or April 2\u003c/a>, will be the first effort to see how zero gravity affects the structure and function of the drosophila’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/ames/research/space-biosciences/heart-flies-spacex-3/\">cardiovascular system\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Weaker Flies, Stronger Microbes\u003c/strong>\u003cstrong>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bhattacharya says one of the most \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3019151/\">intriguing discoveries\u003c/a> so far has to do with the flies’ white blood cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"size-medium wp-image-15586\">“There are changes in the distribution of blood cells,” says Bhattacharya. “And, of course, blood cells are critical to immune function.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While the flies’ immune systems appear to become weaker in space, certain microbes—the kinds that might make a fruit fly sick—actually get stronger. Bhattacharya says it’s potentially a deadly combination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Couple increased virulence of a pathogen with the decremented immune system of the host,” she said, “and that could be a problem for long-term space flight.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Battacharya will test that theory in fruit flies on a mission next fall. She says she expects to have results by late 2015.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA astronauts I talked to said they believe all these problems can be overcome with a little ingenuity.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">\nAt some point on the mission to Mars the view of Earth will disappear, and it will be ‘just the blackness of space and stars outside the window.’\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>But there are some challenges that cannot be researched in advance. Take, for example, the psychological challenge of humanity’s longest expedition.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The View Back Home \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Marshburn said when astronauts have free time on the International Space Station, they tend to congregate in the cupola, a place that offers unparalleled views of Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a huge boost to look out the window at our planet while we orbit the space station,” he said. “To see it in all its glory and its beauty.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This view is a big reason astronauts go into space in the first place. And at some point during that trip to Mars, it will disappear.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first time in our two million-plus years of existence, humans will lose that visual tether to the place we all come from. A period of time when, Marshburn said, the view will be “just the blackness of space and stars outside the window.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It will be thrilling, says Marshburn. It could also be deeply disconcerting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>His advice to those lucky astronauts? Stay busy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://youtu.be/8SfyE9qsG8k\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Getting sick in space is no picnic. So scientists are sending bugs to the International Space Station, hoping to better predict some of the physical challenges that may befall astronauts when NASA eventually sends the first human mission to Mars.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/div>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15579\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Apollo-7-astronauts.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15579 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Apollo-7-astronauts.jpg\" alt=\"The Apollo 7 crew, from left to right: Command Module pilot, Donn F. Eisele, Commander, Walter M. Schirra Jr. and Lunar Module pilot, Walter Cunningham. (NASA)\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">In 1968, two members of the Apollo 7 crew developed head colds. Crankiness ensued. Crew members, from the left, are Command Module Pilot Donn Eisele, Commander Walter Schirra, Jr. and Lunar Module Pilot Walter Cunningham. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists at NASA’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/home/#.UyzQ_oXDX_k\">Ames Research Center\u003c/a> in Mountain View are sending fruit flies (among other creatures) up to the International Space Station, hoping to better predict some of the physical challenges that may befall astronauts when, sometime after 2030, NASA sends up the first human mission to Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA has already learned some of these lessons the hard way. For instance: Having a head cold in space is no picnic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15581\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 288px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/9400_transform-288x162.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-15581 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/9400_transform-288x162.jpg\" alt=\"In the first live television transmission from space, astronauts Don Eisele and Walter Schirra Jr. deliver a message to viewers. (NASA)\" width=\"288\" height=\"162\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">In the first live television transmission from space, astronauts Donn F. Eisele and Walter M. Schirra Jr. deliver a message to viewers. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The First Colds in Space\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1968, NASA needed some good press.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The year before had been a disaster. All three crew members of the Apollo 1 Mission had died in a cabin fire before the spaceship even launched.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If NASA was going to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade, it needed to win back public confidence in the program. And it would do so on live television during the Apollo 7 mission.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Apollo 7 launched on October 11, 1968, with a plan to bring three astronauts safely into Earth’s orbit, and then back home again.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first time, Americans got to see what astronauts looked like floating around in zero gravity. On live television, they watched Command Module Pilot Donn Eisele, Commander Walter Schirra, Jr. and Lunar Module Pilot Walter Cunningham eat meals, bat a lens cap around the cabin and send radio reports to ground control.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Perhaps you’ve never considered the effect of zero gravity on snot?\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>“Wally took one Actifed,” Cunningham reported. “He feels fine; he’s just got a little stuffy nose.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cunningham and Schirra indeed had head colds, and the stuffy noses turned out not to be such a “little” thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The astronauts had trouble sleeping. They worried about their eardrums rupturing. Their interactions with ground control became testy, particularly on the subject of whether or not they would wear helmets upon reentry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A New Policy: Quarantine\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So after Apollo 7, NASA set a new policy: Astronauts would now be quarantined before each launch to make sure they’re healthy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the quarantine isn’t a guarantee.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA astronaut \u003ca href=\"http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/barratt-mr.html\">Mike Barratt\u003c/a> caught a cold during his six-month stay on the International Space Station in 2009. “It was probably the most miserable cold I’ve ever had,” he told me.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15591\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 294px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-15591 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132-1024x652.jpg\" alt=\"The International Space Station. (NASA)\" width=\"294\" height=\"188\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The International Space Station. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Perhaps you’ve never considered the effect of zero gravity on snot? Barratt hadn’t either.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Earth, Barratt said, “where you’d have a little gravity to help you drain things, all that was absent there. Everything kind of pools where it is.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So Barratt invented a zero-gravity nose-blowing technique, involving swinging his body in an arc as his hands clasped a metal handrail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That move created a sort of artificial gravity, Barratt said, propelling mucus out of his head.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You do what you gotta do,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Finding Work-Arounds in Zero Gravity \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humans evolved with gravity. Take it away and we start looking for work-arounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of these are well known. For instance: in space, muscles atrophy, especially in the legs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“From the waist up, they look strong,” Barratt said, describing how this affects humans. “From the waist down they look more like Kermit the Frog.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So astronauts spend an enormous amount of time exercising—two or three hours a day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then there’s the eyes. No one’s quite sure why, but over the course of a mission, some astronauts report problems with both nearsightedness and distance vision.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/marshburn-th.html\">Tom Marshburn\u003c/a>, who has completed two missions to the International Space Station as a space surgeon, said he’s learned to bring multiple pairs of eyeglasses to suit his changing vision while in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15584\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 285px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Drosophila_SingleFly.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-15584 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/Drosophila_SingleFly.jpg\" alt=\"A single drosophila, or fruit fly. (Dominic Hart/NASA)\" width=\"285\" height=\"241\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A single drosophila, or fruit fly. (Dominic Hart/NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“It’s the only solution we have right now,” Marshburn said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Mars Mission Brings Higher Stakes\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is minor stuff on the International Space Station, a mere two-day trip from Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But consider that by 2030, NASA wants to start sending people to Mars and back—a mission that could last five years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Anticipating the ensuing physical problems of such a mission is the job of scientists like \u003ca href=\"http://women.nasa.gov/sharmila-bhattacharya-2/\">Sharmila Bhattacharya\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Battacharya is a scientist at NASA’s Ames Research Center, where she runs a lab in the Space Biosciences Division.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her research focuses on fruit flies—Drosophila melanogaster—and is part of a major NASA effort to send bugs (including beetles, worms, bees and spiders) up to the International Space Station to see how space affects their biology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next week, Bhattacharya plans to travel to Florida to watch the lift-off for the first of 2014’s three scheduled fruit fly missions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15586\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 301px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/ACD14-0023-028-1024x982.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-15586 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/ACD14-0023-028-1024x982.jpg\" alt=\"Ames researchers Curran Reddy and Sharmila Bhattacharya are studying the effects of zero gravity on fruit flies' cardiovascular systems. (Dominic Hart/NASA)\" width=\"301\" height=\"288\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ames researchers Curran Reddy and Sharmila Bhattacharya are studying cardiovascular health on fruit flies in space.(Dominic Hart/NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Since the demise of the NASA’s space shuttle program, the agency has relied on private contractors—specifically Tesla founder Elon Musk’s company SpaceX—to carry astronauts and science experiments to the International Space Station.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bhattacharya’s launch, \u003ca href=\"http://www.spacex.com/news/2014/03/11/upcoming-mission-falcon-9-and-dragon-launching-space-station\">scheduled for March 30 or April 2\u003c/a>, will be the first effort to see how zero gravity affects the structure and function of the drosophila’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/ames/research/space-biosciences/heart-flies-spacex-3/\">cardiovascular system\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Weaker Flies, Stronger Microbes\u003c/strong>\u003cstrong>\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bhattacharya says one of the most \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3019151/\">intriguing discoveries\u003c/a> so far has to do with the flies’ white blood cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"size-medium wp-image-15586\">“There are changes in the distribution of blood cells,” says Bhattacharya. “And, of course, blood cells are critical to immune function.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While the flies’ immune systems appear to become weaker in space, certain microbes—the kinds that might make a fruit fly sick—actually get stronger. Bhattacharya says it’s potentially a deadly combination.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Couple increased virulence of a pathogen with the decremented immune system of the host,” she said, “and that could be a problem for long-term space flight.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Battacharya will test that theory in fruit flies on a mission next fall. She says she expects to have results by late 2015.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA astronauts I talked to said they believe all these problems can be overcome with a little ingenuity.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">\nAt some point on the mission to Mars the view of Earth will disappear, and it will be ‘just the blackness of space and stars outside the window.’\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>But there are some challenges that cannot be researched in advance. Take, for example, the psychological challenge of humanity’s longest expedition.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The View Back Home \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Marshburn said when astronauts have free time on the International Space Station, they tend to congregate in the cupola, a place that offers unparalleled views of Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a huge boost to look out the window at our planet while we orbit the space station,” he said. “To see it in all its glory and its beauty.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This view is a big reason astronauts go into space in the first place. And at some point during that trip to Mars, it will disappear.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first time in our two million-plus years of existence, humans will lose that visual tether to the place we all come from. A period of time when, Marshburn said, the view will be “just the blackness of space and stars outside the window.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It will be thrilling, says Marshburn. It could also be deeply disconcerting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>His advice to those lucky astronauts? Stay busy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "This Week's Cosmic Inflation Discovery: Five Big Questions Answered",
"headTitle": "This Week’s Cosmic Inflation Discovery: Five Big Questions Answered | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>Chances are you read a headline about the Big Bang earlier this week. Perhaps you clicked to an article about it and started reading up. But you may still have some burning what-is-this-Big-Bang-news-anyway questions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Enter a recent episode of \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/a/forum/R201403190900\">KQED Forum\u003c/a> that featured some bright minds in physics and astronomy. Here are some highlights from the show that answer not only what this Big Bang discovery is, but why it matters and what’s next for science.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15661\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 511px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/BICEP2-1024x984.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-15661 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/BICEP2-1024x984.jpg\" alt=\"A computer keyboard, a monitor, a telescope on a table.\" width=\"511\" height=\"491\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Shown here are an array of devices used to detect, gather and filter polarized light that helps prove that the universe expanded rapidly after the Big Bang.\u003cbr>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>1. What Did Astronomers Discover?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s been a theory floating around astronomy and theoretical circles for decades called “inflation theory.” It suggests the universe expanded at an extremely rapid rate in roughly the first trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second after the Big Bang. The discovery announced this week proves the theory true, that this “period of inflation” actually happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It not only confirms inflation, it says that the inflation was stronger than we previously expected,” said \u003ca href=\"https://physics.stanford.edu/people/faculty/leonard-susskind\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Leonard Susskind\u003c/a>, a professor of physics at Stanford University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Radio astronomers stationed at the South Pole, using a high-power telescope called BICEP2, \u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-082\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">announced Monday\u003c/a> that they detected the evidence of this explosive, faster-than-the-speed-of-light expansion in the form of radio waves. As \u003ca href=\"http://www.foothill.edu/ast/fraknoi.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Andrew Fraknoi\u003c/a>, chair of the Astronomy Program at Foothill College put it, they detected “the afterglow” of gravitational waves created by this rapid expansion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The afterglow “started out as a very intense and energetic radiation,” Fraknoi explained. “But as all the galaxies expanded and the universe got bigger and colder, this afterglow is now radio waves, microwaves. And these microwaves from the beginning of time are there as a kind of signal from the Big Bang.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>2. Why Is It Such a Big Deal?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’m not a person of superlatives,” Susskind said. “I don’t like hype, but boy, this is a big one.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraknoi pointed out that astronomers and physicists didn’t think they had the equipment to detect the first moments of the universe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What’s really exciting here is that we’re looking at an era of precise cosmology,” Fraknoi said. “Cosmology is the study of the entire universe. It’s a mind-blowing part of astronomy where we study the properties of everything that exists. And for a long time we could make general statements about the universe—theoretical statements—but now we’re able to measure with amazing precision the characteristics of the universe.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think about it. Here’s an event that happened 13.8 billion years ago. No one was there to document it. Earth itself wouldn’t come along for 9 billion years. Humans, with brains that ask questions like, “where did we come from,” wouldn’t come along for 13,798,000,000 years. And yet, we can actually know what happened? With a credible amount of certainty?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://physics.columbia.edu/people/profile/406\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brian Greene\u003c/a>, professor of physics and mathematics at Columbia University, said the discovery provides a “mathematical framework” that will allow scientists to “wind the cosmic film back.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Greene said it’s important to recognize that without inflation, the Big Bang theory contained an unsolved puzzle: “It wasn’t at all clear what drove the outward swelling in the first place. One of the big contributions of the inflationary theory is that it provides an answer to that.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>3. How Is it Possible for the Universe to Expand Faster than the Speed of Light?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Do not panic. This discovery confirming the theory of cosmic inflation does not conflict with \u003ca href=\"http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/anything-go-faster-than-light\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Einstein’s theory of special relativity\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Greene said when people hear of things moving faster than the speed of light they tend to reject the notion that it’s possible. “They often say ‘But, wait! Einstein taught us that nothing goes faster than the speed of light.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What Einstein actually theorized, Greene said, was “that no object can move \u003cem>through space\u003c/em> faster than the speed of light. But nothing in his ideas prevents objects from \u003cem>riding the swell of space itself\u003c/em>, and in that way, moving apart faster than the speed of light.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As Susskind elaborated, if the entirety of space is being swept away from you like the tide going out, then “then ripples on space very, very far away from you can appear to be going faster than the speed of light” because all of space is being swept along with the tide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And, no,” Susskind said, “there is no conflict about things very, very far away from you moving away from you faster than the speed of light. There would be a conflict if we saw a light ray going right by our nose faster than the speed of light.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>4. \u003cstrong>What Does this Discovery Say about the Multiverse?\u003c/strong> Does it Prove String Theory?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Slow down a little bit here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“To take the leap and to try to use this as something that confirms\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/kYAdwS5MFjQ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> string theory\u003c/a>, that is jumping off the deep end,” Greene said. “That would be jumping the gun. By a huge amount.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when asked whether proof of rapid expansion occurring after the Big Bang offers clues about whether ours is the only universe, or whether there are multiple universes, an idea known as the \u003ca href=\"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140318-multiverse-inflation-big-bang-science-space/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">multiverse\u003c/a>, Leonard Susskind was more optimistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s something going on in that data that’s not so easy to see. And what it’s suggesting is—it’s a vague suggestion—what it’s suggesting is that there’s an event that took place even before inflation. Even before this trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second,” said Susskind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Susskind what’s going on in that data looks consistent with what is called “‘bubble nucleation’ – the creation of the universe out of a multiverse.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But given the decades of research likely needed to prove that, Susskind cautioned against the leap: “We don’t know, we can’t tell. That may be stretching a point a little bit too far.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>5. Where Does Science Go from Here?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For Greene, the proof of inflation is powerful in part because it allows theorists and experimentalists to refocus their work. He pointed out that inflation is an umbrella concept similar to democracy that can be constructed in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Inflation is a paradigm that suggests that the universe underwent incredibly rapid stretching in its earliest moments,” he said, “but there are many detailed theories that differ in the way they implement the paradigm.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we can begin to do with this data is to winnow down the versions of the inflationary paradigm that are worth still considering, Greene continued. “That allows us to really home in on our equations and our ideas.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Susskind said one area he’d like to see explored is the curvature of space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The data gathered by \u003ca href=\"https://physics.stanford.edu/people/faculty/chao-lin-kuo\">Chao-Lin Kuo\u003c/a> and his collaborators “adds a little bit of weight to the idea that we can detect the curvature of space,” said Susskind. “That would be huge. This experiment doesn’t do it, but I think it adds to the fuel that we should go out and try to measure the curvature of space.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraknoi said it’s too early to predict the practical implications of the data but he’s optimistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Every time we have looked at these fundamental rules of how the universe works,” Fraknoi said, “all kinds of amazing applications have come.” He cited Global Positioning Systems, or GPS, as one such application. “As we uncover these rules, and these behaviors about the universe, amazing things may flow from them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can listen to Forum’s complete discussion of the topic below:\u003cbr>\n[soundcloud url=”https://api.soundcloud.com/tracks/140409733″ params=”color=ff5500&auto_play=false&hide_related=false&show_artwork=true” width=”100%” height=”166″ iframe=”true” /]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Chances are you read a headline about the Big Bang earlier this week. Perhaps you clicked to an article about it and started reading up. But you may still have some burning what-is-this-Big-Bang-news-anyway questions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Enter a recent episode of \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/a/forum/R201403190900\">KQED Forum\u003c/a> that featured some bright minds in physics and astronomy. Here are some highlights from the show that answer not only what this Big Bang discovery is, but why it matters and what’s next for science.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15661\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 511px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/BICEP2-1024x984.jpg\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\" wp-image-15661 \" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/BICEP2-1024x984.jpg\" alt=\"A computer keyboard, a monitor, a telescope on a table.\" width=\"511\" height=\"491\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Shown here are an array of devices used to detect, gather and filter polarized light that helps prove that the universe expanded rapidly after the Big Bang.\u003cbr>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>1. What Did Astronomers Discover?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s been a theory floating around astronomy and theoretical circles for decades called “inflation theory.” It suggests the universe expanded at an extremely rapid rate in roughly the first trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second after the Big Bang. The discovery announced this week proves the theory true, that this “period of inflation” actually happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It not only confirms inflation, it says that the inflation was stronger than we previously expected,” said \u003ca href=\"https://physics.stanford.edu/people/faculty/leonard-susskind\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Leonard Susskind\u003c/a>, a professor of physics at Stanford University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Radio astronomers stationed at the South Pole, using a high-power telescope called BICEP2, \u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-082\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">announced Monday\u003c/a> that they detected the evidence of this explosive, faster-than-the-speed-of-light expansion in the form of radio waves. As \u003ca href=\"http://www.foothill.edu/ast/fraknoi.php\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Andrew Fraknoi\u003c/a>, chair of the Astronomy Program at Foothill College put it, they detected “the afterglow” of gravitational waves created by this rapid expansion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The afterglow “started out as a very intense and energetic radiation,” Fraknoi explained. “But as all the galaxies expanded and the universe got bigger and colder, this afterglow is now radio waves, microwaves. And these microwaves from the beginning of time are there as a kind of signal from the Big Bang.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>2. Why Is It Such a Big Deal?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’m not a person of superlatives,” Susskind said. “I don’t like hype, but boy, this is a big one.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraknoi pointed out that astronomers and physicists didn’t think they had the equipment to detect the first moments of the universe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What’s really exciting here is that we’re looking at an era of precise cosmology,” Fraknoi said. “Cosmology is the study of the entire universe. It’s a mind-blowing part of astronomy where we study the properties of everything that exists. And for a long time we could make general statements about the universe—theoretical statements—but now we’re able to measure with amazing precision the characteristics of the universe.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think about it. Here’s an event that happened 13.8 billion years ago. No one was there to document it. Earth itself wouldn’t come along for 9 billion years. Humans, with brains that ask questions like, “where did we come from,” wouldn’t come along for 13,798,000,000 years. And yet, we can actually know what happened? With a credible amount of certainty?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://physics.columbia.edu/people/profile/406\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brian Greene\u003c/a>, professor of physics and mathematics at Columbia University, said the discovery provides a “mathematical framework” that will allow scientists to “wind the cosmic film back.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Greene said it’s important to recognize that without inflation, the Big Bang theory contained an unsolved puzzle: “It wasn’t at all clear what drove the outward swelling in the first place. One of the big contributions of the inflationary theory is that it provides an answer to that.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>3. How Is it Possible for the Universe to Expand Faster than the Speed of Light?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Do not panic. This discovery confirming the theory of cosmic inflation does not conflict with \u003ca href=\"http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/anything-go-faster-than-light\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Einstein’s theory of special relativity\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Greene said when people hear of things moving faster than the speed of light they tend to reject the notion that it’s possible. “They often say ‘But, wait! Einstein taught us that nothing goes faster than the speed of light.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What Einstein actually theorized, Greene said, was “that no object can move \u003cem>through space\u003c/em> faster than the speed of light. But nothing in his ideas prevents objects from \u003cem>riding the swell of space itself\u003c/em>, and in that way, moving apart faster than the speed of light.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As Susskind elaborated, if the entirety of space is being swept away from you like the tide going out, then “then ripples on space very, very far away from you can appear to be going faster than the speed of light” because all of space is being swept along with the tide.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And, no,” Susskind said, “there is no conflict about things very, very far away from you moving away from you faster than the speed of light. There would be a conflict if we saw a light ray going right by our nose faster than the speed of light.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>4. \u003cstrong>What Does this Discovery Say about the Multiverse?\u003c/strong> Does it Prove String Theory?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Slow down a little bit here.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“To take the leap and to try to use this as something that confirms\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/kYAdwS5MFjQ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> string theory\u003c/a>, that is jumping off the deep end,” Greene said. “That would be jumping the gun. By a huge amount.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when asked whether proof of rapid expansion occurring after the Big Bang offers clues about whether ours is the only universe, or whether there are multiple universes, an idea known as the \u003ca href=\"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140318-multiverse-inflation-big-bang-science-space/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">multiverse\u003c/a>, Leonard Susskind was more optimistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s something going on in that data that’s not so easy to see. And what it’s suggesting is—it’s a vague suggestion—what it’s suggesting is that there’s an event that took place even before inflation. Even before this trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second,” said Susskind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Susskind what’s going on in that data looks consistent with what is called “‘bubble nucleation’ – the creation of the universe out of a multiverse.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But given the decades of research likely needed to prove that, Susskind cautioned against the leap: “We don’t know, we can’t tell. That may be stretching a point a little bit too far.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>5. Where Does Science Go from Here?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For Greene, the proof of inflation is powerful in part because it allows theorists and experimentalists to refocus their work. He pointed out that inflation is an umbrella concept similar to democracy that can be constructed in many different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Inflation is a paradigm that suggests that the universe underwent incredibly rapid stretching in its earliest moments,” he said, “but there are many detailed theories that differ in the way they implement the paradigm.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we can begin to do with this data is to winnow down the versions of the inflationary paradigm that are worth still considering, Greene continued. “That allows us to really home in on our equations and our ideas.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Susskind said one area he’d like to see explored is the curvature of space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The data gathered by \u003ca href=\"https://physics.stanford.edu/people/faculty/chao-lin-kuo\">Chao-Lin Kuo\u003c/a> and his collaborators “adds a little bit of weight to the idea that we can detect the curvature of space,” said Susskind. “That would be huge. This experiment doesn’t do it, but I think it adds to the fuel that we should go out and try to measure the curvature of space.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fraknoi said it’s too early to predict the practical implications of the data but he’s optimistic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Every time we have looked at these fundamental rules of how the universe works,” Fraknoi said, “all kinds of amazing applications have come.” He cited Global Positioning Systems, or GPS, as one such application. “As we uncover these rules, and these behaviors about the universe, amazing things may flow from them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can listen to Forum’s complete discussion of the topic below:\u003cbr>\n\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cdiv class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__shortcodes__shortcodeWrapper'>\n \u003ciframe width='”100%”' height='”166″'\n scrolling='no' frameborder='no'\n src='https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=”https://api.soundcloud.com/tracks/140409733″&visual=true&”color=ff5500&auto_play=false&hide_related=false&show_artwork=true”'\n title='”https://api.soundcloud.com/tracks/140409733″'>\n \u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/div>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "NASA's WISE Mission Reports No Signs of 'Planet X'",
"headTitle": "NASA’s WISE Mission Reports No Signs of ‘Planet X’ | KQED",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15499\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/WISE-browndwarf.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-15499\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15499\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/WISE-browndwarf.jpg\" alt=\"NASA's WISE spacecraft's infrared vision sees plenty of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs (green dot), but no Planet X. (NASA)\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA’s WISE spacecraft’s infrared vision sees plenty of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs (green dot), but no Planet X. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A recent study of data collected by NASA’s \u003ca title=\"NASA's WISE Mission\" href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/wise/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Wide-Field Infrared Explorer\u003c/a> (WISE) spacecraft may have exorcised the notion of the hypothesized and sometimes fabled “Planet X,” a phantom planet that has been conjured up at various times in an attempt to explain observed phenomena in the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The hunt for this ghost has not been easy. Optical telescopes have been challenged in finding planets and planet-like objects more distant than Neptune or as small as Pluto. At those distances sunlight is simply not very bright, and any sunlight that might reflect from an object has a long way to travel back to our telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But WISE employed its sixth sense — infrared vision — to seek out emanations of heat from objects that are otherwise too small, too dark or too distant to have been detected by previous observations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With regard to Planet X, WISE observations have concluded that within our solar system there exist no planets of Saturn’s size or larger within 10,000 astronomical units (AU, where 1 AU equals about 93 million miles, the distance from the sun to the Earth), and no planets of Jupiter’s size or larger within 26,000 AU. In comparison, Pluto is about 40 AU from the sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Conjuring Planet X\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The name Planet X has been aptly (if not somewhat algebraically) created to represent a world unseen, but speculated to orbit the sun somewhere beyond the known territory of the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the early 1900s, the planet \u003ca title=\"Discovery of Neptune\" href=\"http://www.universetoday.com/21621/who-discovered-neptune/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Neptune\u003c/a>, though never referred to as Planet X, was hypothesized to exist based on perturbations in the orbital motion of Uranus—and so far this is the only instance of a “phantom planet” materializing from mathematics and becoming real.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Astronomer \u003ca title=\"Percival Lowell's Search for Planet X\" href=\"http://library.thinkquest.org/C002416/pluto/discover.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Percival Lowell commenced on a search\u003c/a> for a Planet X in the early 20th-century, a hypothetical major planet beyond the orbit of Neptune. Lowell believed that differences in the positions of Uranus and Neptune from predicted values were caused by this unseen mass. Lowell’s Planet X was not discovered, however, in the course of the search; and after his death, Pluto was. Amusingly, the discovery of Pluto—long named as a planet—would have made Planet X the tenth planet, giving double meaning to the X.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Planet X haunted us again when it was incorporated into a theory to explain some of Earth’s major mass extinction events. Also named planet “\u003ca title=\"Nemesis\" href=\"http://www.space.com/22538-nemesis-star.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Nemesis\u003c/a>,” this new ghost world’s role in theory was as a “rabble rouser of comets.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the theory went, a massive planet, or even a dim, low-mass stellar companion to our sun, orbiting slowly and at great distance far beyond Pluto and Neptune, would periodically pass through and gravitationally disturb a comet-dense belt. Not unlike kicking up a cloud of dust when going over a room with a feather duster, comets would be flung in new directions, some of them falling to the inner solar system in a sort of “comet storm,” greatly increasing the chances of an impact with planets like Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[contextly_sidebar id=”d0386a1f17c02550f70aa826e5334a8d”]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the years, astronomers have searched through different sets of observational data for a massive body at the right distance from the sun for its orbital period to correlate with mass extinction events on Earth. Nemesis also was never found, and other theories for many of the mass extinctions that do not involve celestial impacts have been explored. And now the WISE mission has placed some finality on the non-existence of this particular phantom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Did WISE Find?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Failure to perceive the long-sought after shadow planet in no way means failure of the WISE mission. Finding Planet X wasn’t what NASA set out to accomplish anyway. WISE’s goal was to make an all-sky survey of infrared emissions from previously overlooked or otherwise unseen objects.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, WISE discovered considerably more objects in our solar system’s stellar neighborhood than were previously known: dim, low-mass stars, and also brown dwarfs, a class of object larger than a gas giant planet yet less massive than the smallest nuclear-fusion-powered stars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All told, WISE discovered 3,525 low-mass stars and brown dwarfs within 500 light years of our sun, among them a star only 20 light years away and a pair of brown dwarfs only 6.5 light years from us—the closest star system discovered in nearly a century. WISE also captured images of 750 million asteroids, stars, and galaxies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And though WISE was put to sleep in 2011 at the end of its primary mission, last September the spacecraft was revived and given a new name and mission: \u003ca title=\"NASA NEOWISE\" href=\"http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/programs/neowise.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NEOWISE\u003c/a>, finder of potentially hazardous near-Earth objects (NEOs). NEOWISE will also observe previously known comets and asteroids to improve our understanding of their sizes and compositions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the phantom planet, as the song goes (sort of), if there’s something strange in your neighborhood, who you gonna call? In this case, WISE, the Planet-X-buster.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15499\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 630px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/WISE-browndwarf.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-15499\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15499\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/WISE-browndwarf.jpg\" alt=\"NASA's WISE spacecraft's infrared vision sees plenty of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs (green dot), but no Planet X. (NASA)\" width=\"630\" height=\"360\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA’s WISE spacecraft’s infrared vision sees plenty of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs (green dot), but no Planet X. (NASA)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>A recent study of data collected by NASA’s \u003ca title=\"NASA's WISE Mission\" href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/wise/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Wide-Field Infrared Explorer\u003c/a> (WISE) spacecraft may have exorcised the notion of the hypothesized and sometimes fabled “Planet X,” a phantom planet that has been conjured up at various times in an attempt to explain observed phenomena in the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The hunt for this ghost has not been easy. Optical telescopes have been challenged in finding planets and planet-like objects more distant than Neptune or as small as Pluto. At those distances sunlight is simply not very bright, and any sunlight that might reflect from an object has a long way to travel back to our telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But WISE employed its sixth sense — infrared vision — to seek out emanations of heat from objects that are otherwise too small, too dark or too distant to have been detected by previous observations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With regard to Planet X, WISE observations have concluded that within our solar system there exist no planets of Saturn’s size or larger within 10,000 astronomical units (AU, where 1 AU equals about 93 million miles, the distance from the sun to the Earth), and no planets of Jupiter’s size or larger within 26,000 AU. In comparison, Pluto is about 40 AU from the sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Conjuring Planet X\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The name Planet X has been aptly (if not somewhat algebraically) created to represent a world unseen, but speculated to orbit the sun somewhere beyond the known territory of the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the early 1900s, the planet \u003ca title=\"Discovery of Neptune\" href=\"http://www.universetoday.com/21621/who-discovered-neptune/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Neptune\u003c/a>, though never referred to as Planet X, was hypothesized to exist based on perturbations in the orbital motion of Uranus—and so far this is the only instance of a “phantom planet” materializing from mathematics and becoming real.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Astronomer \u003ca title=\"Percival Lowell's Search for Planet X\" href=\"http://library.thinkquest.org/C002416/pluto/discover.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Percival Lowell commenced on a search\u003c/a> for a Planet X in the early 20th-century, a hypothetical major planet beyond the orbit of Neptune. Lowell believed that differences in the positions of Uranus and Neptune from predicted values were caused by this unseen mass. Lowell’s Planet X was not discovered, however, in the course of the search; and after his death, Pluto was. Amusingly, the discovery of Pluto—long named as a planet—would have made Planet X the tenth planet, giving double meaning to the X.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Planet X haunted us again when it was incorporated into a theory to explain some of Earth’s major mass extinction events. Also named planet “\u003ca title=\"Nemesis\" href=\"http://www.space.com/22538-nemesis-star.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Nemesis\u003c/a>,” this new ghost world’s role in theory was as a “rabble rouser of comets.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the theory went, a massive planet, or even a dim, low-mass stellar companion to our sun, orbiting slowly and at great distance far beyond Pluto and Neptune, would periodically pass through and gravitationally disturb a comet-dense belt. Not unlike kicking up a cloud of dust when going over a room with a feather duster, comets would be flung in new directions, some of them falling to the inner solar system in a sort of “comet storm,” greatly increasing the chances of an impact with planets like Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the years, astronomers have searched through different sets of observational data for a massive body at the right distance from the sun for its orbital period to correlate with mass extinction events on Earth. Nemesis also was never found, and other theories for many of the mass extinctions that do not involve celestial impacts have been explored. And now the WISE mission has placed some finality on the non-existence of this particular phantom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Did WISE Find?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Failure to perceive the long-sought after shadow planet in no way means failure of the WISE mission. Finding Planet X wasn’t what NASA set out to accomplish anyway. WISE’s goal was to make an all-sky survey of infrared emissions from previously overlooked or otherwise unseen objects.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, WISE discovered considerably more objects in our solar system’s stellar neighborhood than were previously known: dim, low-mass stars, and also brown dwarfs, a class of object larger than a gas giant planet yet less massive than the smallest nuclear-fusion-powered stars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All told, WISE discovered 3,525 low-mass stars and brown dwarfs within 500 light years of our sun, among them a star only 20 light years away and a pair of brown dwarfs only 6.5 light years from us—the closest star system discovered in nearly a century. WISE also captured images of 750 million asteroids, stars, and galaxies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And though WISE was put to sleep in 2011 at the end of its primary mission, last September the spacecraft was revived and given a new name and mission: \u003ca title=\"NASA NEOWISE\" href=\"http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/programs/neowise.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NEOWISE\u003c/a>, finder of potentially hazardous near-Earth objects (NEOs). NEOWISE will also observe previously known comets and asteroids to improve our understanding of their sizes and compositions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the phantom planet, as the song goes (sort of), if there’s something strange in your neighborhood, who you gonna call? In this case, WISE, the Planet-X-buster.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Stanford University has released a video of three of its researchers sharing champagne and getting a little emotional.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZlfIVEy_YOA\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Physicist Chao-Lin Kuo is part of a team that announced Monday it’s found evidence to support inflation, a theory his colleague Andre Linde has also worked on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s why, if you’re the type to be moved by major scientific discoveries about the origins of our Universe, you may also get a little misty-eyed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15453\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15453\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/RS9350_RS9329_BICEP2-Twilig.jpg\" alt=\"The BICEP2 telescope at twilight in the South Pole. (Steffen Richter) \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The BICEP2 telescope at twilight in the South Pole. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.vagabondpix.com/\">Steffen Richter\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In one of the first tiny fractions of an instant after the Big Bang, the Universe expanded explosively, faster than the speed of light. That exponential expansion of, well, everything, is described by the theory of inflation. And while that theory has been in use for a while, Monday’s announcement may confirm it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What they found — though this has yet to be verified by other scientists — is evidence of gravitational waves, which I’ll let \u003ca href=\"http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2014/03/17/evidence_of_inflation_astronomers_detect_gravitational_waves_from_the_early.html\">Slate’s Bad Astronomer blog\u003c/a> explain:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>These are literally small expansions and contractions of space itself, like a wave traveling down a Slinky. We know these exist—we see their effects in astronomy, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSR_B1913+16\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">and two astronomers won a Nobel Prize in 1993 for finding an example of gravitational waves\u003c/a>—but seeing them coming from the inflationary period of the Universe is incredibly difficult.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We don’t see the waves themselves, but we can detect the effect they had on light coming from the early Universe.\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>If you feel like you need more caffeine in order to understand this, may I direct you to this New York Times graphic, which \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/science/space/detection-of-waves-in-space-buttresses-landmark-theory-of-big-bang.html?_r=0\">explains inflation and the questions it answers\u003c/a> by comparing it to a bunch of cups and a big central pot of coffee. (The article has great context and background, too.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Inflation is important because it fixes some holes in the Big Bang Theory. Until today, there was a theoretical basis to it, but not observational, as \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/blogs/13.7/2014/03/17/290862157/a-new-window-on-the-big-bang-has-been-opened\">NPR’s 13.7 blog\u003c/a> explains:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>But inflation was a contentious idea from start. No one had a firm handle on what the universe was like at such a ridiculously early point in time. The densities and temperatures of cosmic matter were so high that its physics could only be drawn in outlines. While inflation cured many problems for cosmologists, it seemed to lots of researchers like wishful thinking written in advanced math.\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>Today’s announcement fixes that. And it may do more. As the Guardian says, this discovery could also \u003ca href=\"http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/17/primordial-gravitational-wave-discovery-physics-bicep\">help link quantum mechanics and general relativity\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>Despite almost a century of effort, the world’s physicists have not been able to show how these theories work together. The primordial gravitational waves that produced the signal seen by Bicep2 were produced in interactions that took place at a trillion times the energies that can be produced in the Large Hadron Collider at Cern.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is like turning the whole universe into a particle physics experiment,” said Hiranya Peiris, a cosmologist from University College London.\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/CMB/bicep2/science.html\">BICEP2\u003c/a>, which the Guardian article references, is a telescope at the South Pole scientists used to search the cosmic background radiation for the gravitational waves.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Stanford University has released a video of three of its researchers sharing champagne and getting a little emotional.\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/ZlfIVEy_YOA'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/ZlfIVEy_YOA'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>Physicist Chao-Lin Kuo is part of a team that announced Monday it’s found evidence to support inflation, a theory his colleague Andre Linde has also worked on.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s why, if you’re the type to be moved by major scientific discoveries about the origins of our Universe, you may also get a little misty-eyed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_15453\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-15453\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2014/03/RS9350_RS9329_BICEP2-Twilig.jpg\" alt=\"The BICEP2 telescope at twilight in the South Pole. (Steffen Richter) \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The BICEP2 telescope at twilight in the South Pole. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.vagabondpix.com/\">Steffen Richter\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In one of the first tiny fractions of an instant after the Big Bang, the Universe expanded explosively, faster than the speed of light. That exponential expansion of, well, everything, is described by the theory of inflation. And while that theory has been in use for a while, Monday’s announcement may confirm it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What they found — though this has yet to be verified by other scientists — is evidence of gravitational waves, which I’ll let \u003ca href=\"http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2014/03/17/evidence_of_inflation_astronomers_detect_gravitational_waves_from_the_early.html\">Slate’s Bad Astronomer blog\u003c/a> explain:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>These are literally small expansions and contractions of space itself, like a wave traveling down a Slinky. We know these exist—we see their effects in astronomy, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSR_B1913+16\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">and two astronomers won a Nobel Prize in 1993 for finding an example of gravitational waves\u003c/a>—but seeing them coming from the inflationary period of the Universe is incredibly difficult.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We don’t see the waves themselves, but we can detect the effect they had on light coming from the early Universe.\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>If you feel like you need more caffeine in order to understand this, may I direct you to this New York Times graphic, which \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/18/science/space/detection-of-waves-in-space-buttresses-landmark-theory-of-big-bang.html?_r=0\">explains inflation and the questions it answers\u003c/a> by comparing it to a bunch of cups and a big central pot of coffee. (The article has great context and background, too.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Inflation is important because it fixes some holes in the Big Bang Theory. Until today, there was a theoretical basis to it, but not observational, as \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/blogs/13.7/2014/03/17/290862157/a-new-window-on-the-big-bang-has-been-opened\">NPR’s 13.7 blog\u003c/a> explains:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>But inflation was a contentious idea from start. No one had a firm handle on what the universe was like at such a ridiculously early point in time. The densities and temperatures of cosmic matter were so high that its physics could only be drawn in outlines. While inflation cured many problems for cosmologists, it seemed to lots of researchers like wishful thinking written in advanced math.\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>Today’s announcement fixes that. And it may do more. As the Guardian says, this discovery could also \u003ca href=\"http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/17/primordial-gravitational-wave-discovery-physics-bicep\">help link quantum mechanics and general relativity\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>Despite almost a century of effort, the world’s physicists have not been able to show how these theories work together. The primordial gravitational waves that produced the signal seen by Bicep2 were produced in interactions that took place at a trillion times the energies that can be produced in the Large Hadron Collider at Cern.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is like turning the whole universe into a particle physics experiment,” said Hiranya Peiris, a cosmologist from University College London.\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/CMB/bicep2/science.html\">BICEP2\u003c/a>, which the Guardian article references, is a telescope at the South Pole scientists used to search the cosmic background radiation for the gravitational waves.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
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"marketplace": {
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"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
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"mindshift": {
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"order": 12
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM1NzY0NjAwNDI5",
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"onourwatch": {
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"tagline": "Deeply-reported investigative journalism",
"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Our weekly podcast explores how the media 'sausage' is made, casts an incisive eye on fluctuations in the marketplace of ideas, and examines threats to the freedom of information and expression in America and abroad. For one hour a week, the show tries to lift the veil from the process of \"making media,\" especially news media, because it's through that lens that we see the world and the world sees us",
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},
"pbs-newshour": {
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},
"perspectives": {
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"info": "The economy explained. Imagine you could call up a friend and say, Meet me at the bar and tell me what's going on with the economy. Now imagine that's actually a fun evening.",
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"title": "Political Breakdown",
"tagline": "Politics from a personal perspective",
"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
"airtime": "THU 6:30pm-7pm",
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"possible": {
"id": "possible",
"title": "Possible",
"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
"airtime": "SUN 2pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Possible-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.possible.fm/",
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"source": "Possible"
},
"link": "/radio/program/possible",
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"spotify": "https://open.spotify.com/show/730YpdUSNlMyPQwNnyjp4k"
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},
"pri-the-world": {
"id": "pri-the-world",
"title": "PRI's The World: Latest Edition",
"info": "Each weekday, host Marco Werman and his team of producers bring you the world's most interesting stories in an hour of radio that reminds us just how small our planet really is.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 2pm-3pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-World-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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},
"radiolab": {
"id": "radiolab",
"title": "Radiolab",
"info": "A two-time Peabody Award-winner, Radiolab is an investigation told through sounds and stories, and centered around one big idea. In the Radiolab world, information sounds like music and science and culture collide. Hosted by Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich, the show is designed for listeners who demand skepticism, but appreciate wonder. WNYC Studios is the producer of other leading podcasts including Freakonomics Radio, Death, Sex & Money, On the Media and many more.",
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},
"reveal": {
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