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"title": "NASA Hopes to Find Direct Evidence of Past Life on Mars With 2021 Landing",
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"content": "\u003cp>For the first time in over 40 years, NASA plans to search for Martians — not living ones but the very long dead remains of life forms that may have thrived on a watery planet 3.5 billion years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[pullquote]If the ancient shoreline of a now-dry lake bed harbors the fossilized remains of Martian life, then the long-anticipated moment when life beyond Earth is discovered may be only a few years away. Imagine that…[/pullquote]Call it a fossil hunt. \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7539\">NASA plans to send\u003c/a> its soon-to-launch Mars 2020 rover to a spot researchers hope will yield direct evidence of past life there. It may turn up in the form of mineral residues of once-living creatures, or possibly in physical formations, like stromatolites — \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7541&utm_source=iContact&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=nasajpl&utm_content=daily-20191115-1\">rocks formed by the activity of ancient microbes\u003c/a> that thrived in shallow, sun-drenched water. On Earth, stromatolites are among the oldest extant remnants of the earliest terrestrial life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950963\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950963\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-800x618.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"618\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-800x618.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-160x124.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-768x593.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs.jpg 840w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Color map of the Isidis Basin and the location of Jezero Crater on Mars. Colors indicate altitude, where red is higher elevations and violet the lowest. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL/USGS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Jezero Crater: Fossil-hunting Site?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars 2020’s target of interest is the 30-mile-wide \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8387/nasa-announces-landing-site-for-mars-2020-rover/\">Jezero Crater\u003c/a>, an impact feature at the edge of Isidis Basin. Through measurements and images the \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/mro/\">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter \u003c/a>took from orbit, Jezero has shown great promise in the search for signs of past life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950961\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950961\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-800x641.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"641\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-800x641.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-160x128.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-768x616.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-1020x818.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-1200x962.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL.jpg 1865w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Composite image of the section of Jezero Crater that NASA’s Mars 2020 rover will begin exploring in 2021. Center in this image is a fan of material washed in from a river inlet (left) and deposited on the floor of an ancient lake. Mineral measurements of the materials in this delta deposit show the presence of clay and carbonates, possible evidence of past Martian life. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/JHU-APL)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>About 3.5 billion years ago, when a more Earth-like environment existed on Mars, Jezero Crater was probably flooded with water. A fanning complex of delta-like deposits sprouting from a likely river inlet promises to be a repository of sediments washed down from higher ground.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And, maybe most tantalizing of all, researchers have discovered a \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencealert.com/the-next-mars-rover-is-set-to-checkout-the-perfect-place-for-preserving-fossils\">layer of carbonate minerals\u003c/a> ringing what once upon a time would have been a shoreline of the ancient lake, like a chalk outline of a body of water that has dried up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Earth, geologists find calcium carbonate in the fossils of ancient seashells, coral and stromatolite formations, as well as layers of sedimentary limestone that form over time from accumulations of these remains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950962\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950962\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concept of ancient lake waters filling Jezero Crater, showing the river inlet (top) and the fan of water-deposited sediments (underwater in this illustration) that have been captured in images by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/Arizona State University)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So, imagine astrobiologists’ excitement at finding concentrations of carbonates tracing the shoreline of an ancient lake, where sunny, shallow waters may have once provided a life-nurturing environment. Accordingly, Mars 2020 plans to visit this vestige of shoreline during its exploration of Jezero Crater.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Mars 2020\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scheduled for launch in 2020 and a landing on Feb. 18, 2021, Mars 2020 is the first spacecraft NASA has designed to search for signs of Martian life since the twin Vikings landed 43 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Vikings tested scoops of Martian soil for the chemical signatures of biological respiration, signs of microscopic organisms alive on Mars today. The \u003ca href=\"https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/im-convinced-we-found-evidence-of-life-on-mars-in-the-1970s/\">results remain controversial \u003c/a>and inconclusive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars 2020 is equipped with an instrument called \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/instruments/sherloc/\">SHERLOC\u003c/a> (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals), mounted at the end of its robotic arm. With a magnifying camera to examine fine-scale mineralogical features, and an ultraviolet laser and spectrometer for detecting and classifying minerals, SHERLOC will get up close and personal with the rocks in Jezero Crater to look for shapes and chemicals ancient life may have left behind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the layer of carbonates lining the ancient shoreline of Jezero Crater’s now-dry lake bed harbors chemical residues or mineral structures that are the fossilized remains of Martians, then the long anticipated moment when life beyond Earth is discovered may be only a few years away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine that.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"excerpt": "NASA plans to search for the remains of life that may have existed on Mars 3.5 billion years ago.",
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"title": "NASA Hopes to Find Direct Evidence of Past Life on Mars With 2021 Landing | KQED",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>For the first time in over 40 years, NASA plans to search for Martians — not living ones but the very long dead remains of life forms that may have thrived on a watery planet 3.5 billion years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "If the ancient shoreline of a now-dry lake bed harbors the fossilized remains of Martian life, then the long-anticipated moment when life beyond Earth is discovered may be only a few years away. Imagine that…",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>Call it a fossil hunt. \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7539\">NASA plans to send\u003c/a> its soon-to-launch Mars 2020 rover to a spot researchers hope will yield direct evidence of past life there. It may turn up in the form of mineral residues of once-living creatures, or possibly in physical formations, like stromatolites — \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7541&utm_source=iContact&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=nasajpl&utm_content=daily-20191115-1\">rocks formed by the activity of ancient microbes\u003c/a> that thrived in shallow, sun-drenched water. On Earth, stromatolites are among the oldest extant remnants of the earliest terrestrial life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950963\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950963\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-800x618.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"618\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-800x618.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-160x124.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs-768x593.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Jezero_crater-Isidis_basin-nasajplusgs.jpg 840w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Color map of the Isidis Basin and the location of Jezero Crater on Mars. Colors indicate altitude, where red is higher elevations and violet the lowest. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL/USGS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Jezero Crater: Fossil-hunting Site?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars 2020’s target of interest is the 30-mile-wide \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8387/nasa-announces-landing-site-for-mars-2020-rover/\">Jezero Crater\u003c/a>, an impact feature at the edge of Isidis Basin. Through measurements and images the \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/mro/\">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter \u003c/a>took from orbit, Jezero has shown great promise in the search for signs of past life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950961\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950961\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-800x641.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"641\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-800x641.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-160x128.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-768x616.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-1020x818.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL-1200x962.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/22475_PIA23239-NASAJPL-CaltechMSSSJHU-APL.jpg 1865w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Composite image of the section of Jezero Crater that NASA’s Mars 2020 rover will begin exploring in 2021. Center in this image is a fan of material washed in from a river inlet (left) and deposited on the floor of an ancient lake. Mineral measurements of the materials in this delta deposit show the presence of clay and carbonates, possible evidence of past Martian life. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/JHU-APL)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>About 3.5 billion years ago, when a more Earth-like environment existed on Mars, Jezero Crater was probably flooded with water. A fanning complex of delta-like deposits sprouting from a likely river inlet promises to be a repository of sediments washed down from higher ground.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And, maybe most tantalizing of all, researchers have discovered a \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencealert.com/the-next-mars-rover-is-set-to-checkout-the-perfect-place-for-preserving-fossils\">layer of carbonate minerals\u003c/a> ringing what once upon a time would have been a shoreline of the ancient lake, like a chalk outline of a body of water that has dried up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Earth, geologists find calcium carbonate in the fossils of ancient seashells, coral and stromatolite formations, as well as layers of sedimentary limestone that form over time from accumulations of these remains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950962\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950962\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213-NASA-JPL-Caltech-University-of-Arizona.jpg 1000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concept of ancient lake waters filling Jezero Crater, showing the river inlet (top) and the fan of water-deposited sediments (underwater in this illustration) that have been captured in images by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/Arizona State University)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So, imagine astrobiologists’ excitement at finding concentrations of carbonates tracing the shoreline of an ancient lake, where sunny, shallow waters may have once provided a life-nurturing environment. Accordingly, Mars 2020 plans to visit this vestige of shoreline during its exploration of Jezero Crater.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Mars 2020\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scheduled for launch in 2020 and a landing on Feb. 18, 2021, Mars 2020 is the first spacecraft NASA has designed to search for signs of Martian life since the twin Vikings landed 43 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Vikings tested scoops of Martian soil for the chemical signatures of biological respiration, signs of microscopic organisms alive on Mars today. The \u003ca href=\"https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/im-convinced-we-found-evidence-of-life-on-mars-in-the-1970s/\">results remain controversial \u003c/a>and inconclusive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars 2020 is equipped with an instrument called \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/instruments/sherloc/\">SHERLOC\u003c/a> (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals), mounted at the end of its robotic arm. With a magnifying camera to examine fine-scale mineralogical features, and an ultraviolet laser and spectrometer for detecting and classifying minerals, SHERLOC will get up close and personal with the rocks in Jezero Crater to look for shapes and chemicals ancient life may have left behind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the layer of carbonates lining the ancient shoreline of Jezero Crater’s now-dry lake bed harbors chemical residues or mineral structures that are the fossilized remains of Martians, then the long anticipated moment when life beyond Earth is discovered may be only a few years away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine that.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "How, Where and When to Watch the Transit of Mercury in the Bay Area",
"headTitle": "How, Where and When to Watch the Transit of Mercury in the Bay Area | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>On Nov. 11, a rare and awe-inspiring astronomical event will take place in our skies: The planet Mercury will cross directly between Earth and the sun, appearing in \u003ca href=\"https://youtu.be/MHhuyEzxv-U\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">silhouette against the sun’s bright face.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950637\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950637\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"A false color image of the planet Mercury captured by NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft. The colors represent differences in chemical and mineralogical composition on Mercury's surface. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full.jpg 1041w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A false color image of the planet Mercury captured by NASA’s MESSENGER spacecraft. The colors represent differences in chemical and mineralogical composition on Mercury’s surface. \u003ccite>(NASA/JHUAPL/Carnegie Institution of Washington)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Remember Mercury? That elusive, scarcely seen, rarely talked about and smallest of planets in the solar system? The \u003ca href=\"http://www.eclipsewise.com/oh/tm2019.html\">Nov. 11 event\u003c/a> will place the tiny planet in the spotlight for several hours and give us all something to talk about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The event, called a \u003ca href=\"https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/transit.html\">Transit\u003c/a> of Mercury, occurs at intervals measured in years and decades. On average, the planet transits only 13 times a century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last one happened on May 9, 2016. The next isn’t until Nov. 13, 2032—and that one won’t be visible from North America. The next one that people in the San Francisco Bay Area can see won’t take place until 2049.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950634\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950634\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"A composite image showing the progress of Mercury across the sun's face during the November 2006 Transit of Mercury. Images captured by the ESA's SOHO spacecraft.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A composite image showing the progress of Mercury across the sun’s face during the November 2006 Transit of Mercury. Images captured by the ESA’s SOHO spacecraft. \u003ccite>(ESA/NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>When to Observe\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year’s event begins on Monday Nov. 11 at 4:35 a.m. PST, when Mercury makes first contact with the sun’s limb and begins its crossing. Technically, there are two moments of contact between Mercury and the sun at the beginning of the transit. Contact I happens when the leading edge of Mercury’s disk first coincides with the limb of the sun. Contact II is the moment Mercury’s trailing edge crosses the solar limb and the planet’s silhouette becomes a complete circle against the sun’s backdrop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The midpoint of transit is at 7:20 a.m. PST. On the Nov. 11 transit, Mercury’s path slices almost directly through the middle of the sun’s disk, so at midtransit it’ll be possible to find the planet at almost dead center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Transit ends at 10:04 a.m. PST when Mercury departs the sun and returns to the backdrop of space. The discrete moments that Mercury’s disk begins and ends its crossing of the solar limb are called Contact III and Contact IV.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From the San Francisco Bay Area, the transit will already be in progress when the sun rises at 6:45 a.m. PST. The sun may not be immediately visible if there are buildings, trees or hills on your eastern horizon, but don’t worry. When the sun finally rises above all easterly obstructions, Mercury should still not have reached midtransit, and you’ll have a good three hours to enjoy the show.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where to Observe\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Finding Mercury during the transit couldn’t be easier. Just find the sun. By definition, Mercury will be located somewhere on the sun’s disk throughout the event.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But if you’re not properly equipped to observe the transit and need some seasoned assistance from people who are, you might check on any observing parties scheduled in your area. Sidewalk astronomers and other amateur enthusiast groups who set up observing camps and invite the public to join them will be equipped with special telescopes, viewing filters, and other methods for sighting Mercury’s solar silhouette.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950639\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 700px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1950639\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/crowd-at-chabot-watching-2012-eclipse.jpg\" alt=\"Public solar event viewing at Chabot Space & Science Center. \" width=\"700\" height=\"525\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/crowd-at-chabot-watching-2012-eclipse.jpg 700w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/crowd-at-chabot-watching-2012-eclipse-160x120.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 700px) 100vw, 700px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Public solar event viewing at Chabot Space & Science Center. \u003ccite>(Chabot Space & Science Center)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the East Bay, Chabot Space & Science Center will open the gates to its observatory complex at 6:30 a.m. PST. You can find \u003ca href=\"https://chabotspace.org/calendar/transit-of-mercury/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">details of the event on the Chabot website\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How to Observe\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When talking about how to observe the Transit of Mercury, the best place to start is how \u003cem>not\u003c/em> to.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Do not\u003c/strong> look directly at the sun, not even if you’re wearing sunglasses. \u003cem>This point cannot be stressed strongly enough\u003c/em>. Looking directly at the sun without proper eye protection or a specialized sun-viewing instrument is dangerous and can damage your eyes, possibly permanently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may safely look at the sun if you have the right kind of filter, such as industrial grade \u003ca href=\"https://www.amazon.com/Welders-Glass-Solar-Eclipse-Viewer-Pleasing/dp/B007O10Z80/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=shade+14+welders+glass&qid=1572895521&sr=8-1\">welder’s mask glass (#14)\u003c/a>, or other \u003ca href=\"https://www.rainbowsymphonystore.com/products/eclipse-glasses?variant=11648770441263¤cy=USD&gclid=Cj0KCQiAtf_tBRDtARIsAIbAKe2Brpn6laXjpHcQwkilqx9vCy2YpcrEwSuDou4lvTxqehQrq0qJKTwaAlrZEALw_wcB\">sun-safe-rated eyewear\u003c/a>. Both are specialty items designed to limit direct sunlight exposure to your eyes to safe levels in ways ordinary sunglasses do not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even with filters, it’ll be a challenge to see the tiny spot of Mercury’s silhouette without magnification.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950640\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950640\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-800x600.jpg\" alt='Magnified images of the sun may be projected onto a white surface, either with a small telescope or a specially designed sun-projecting instrument, such as the \"Sunspotter\" depicted in this image. ' width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Magnified images of the sun may be projected onto a white surface, either with a small telescope or a specially designed sun-projecting instrument, such as the “Sunspotter” depicted in this image. \u003ccite>(Chabot Space & Science Center)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Mercury’s angular size will be less than three-thousandths of a degree. That’s equivalent to the size of a nickel seen from a thousand feet away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, finding someone who has a telescope equipped with special filters is really the best way to see the Transit of Mercury.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Can We Learn From Transiting Planets?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Planetary transits are not merely breathtaking spectacles of nature. They are also events of great scientific value that have aided us in exploring the universe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the 17th and 18th Centuries, astronomers used observations of transits of the planet Venus to geometrically triangulate the distances to Venus and the sun. Because those scientists already knew the relative proportions of the solar system, this observation revealed the actual distances to all the planets. A \u003ca href=\"https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2019/10/10/how-far-away-is-the-sun-next-month-citizen-scientists-will-use-a-transit-of-mercury-to-check/#12f0b6aa5c35\">Mercury transit may also be used\u003c/a> to make this calculation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950641\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1950641\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_Jupiter-sized_planet.jpg\" alt='Artist illustration of a \"Hot Jupiter\" extrasolar planet transiting its star. ' width=\"600\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Artist’s_impression_of_a_Jupiter-sized_planet.jpg 600w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Artist’s_impression_of_a_Jupiter-sized_planet-160x128.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist illustration of a “Hot Jupiter” extrasolar planet transiting its star. \u003ccite>(NASA/ESA/G. Bacon (StSCI))\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>By 1992, technology had advanced enough for astronomers to detect transiting planets in other star systems. To date, over 4,000 extra-solar planets, or exoplanets, have been detected and confirmed in more than 3,000 star systems in our neighborhood of the Milky Way galaxy. Transit observations led scientists to discover most of these exoplanets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"excerpt": "On Monday morning, a rare and awe-inspiring astronomical event will take place in our skies: The planet Mercury will cross directly between Earth and the sun, appearing in silhouette against the sun's bright face.",
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"description": "On Monday morning, a rare and awe-inspiring astronomical event will take place in our skies: The planet Mercury will cross directly between Earth and the sun, appearing in silhouette against the sun's bright face.",
"title": "How, Where and When to Watch the Transit of Mercury in the Bay Area | KQED",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>On Nov. 11, a rare and awe-inspiring astronomical event will take place in our skies: The planet Mercury will cross directly between Earth and the sun, appearing in \u003ca href=\"https://youtu.be/MHhuyEzxv-U\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">silhouette against the sun’s bright face.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950637\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950637\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"A false color image of the planet Mercury captured by NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft. The colors represent differences in chemical and mineralogical composition on Mercury's surface. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/729223main_728322main_messenger_orbit_image20130218_2_full_full_full.jpg 1041w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A false color image of the planet Mercury captured by NASA’s MESSENGER spacecraft. The colors represent differences in chemical and mineralogical composition on Mercury’s surface. \u003ccite>(NASA/JHUAPL/Carnegie Institution of Washington)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Remember Mercury? That elusive, scarcely seen, rarely talked about and smallest of planets in the solar system? The \u003ca href=\"http://www.eclipsewise.com/oh/tm2019.html\">Nov. 11 event\u003c/a> will place the tiny planet in the spotlight for several hours and give us all something to talk about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The event, called a \u003ca href=\"https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/transit.html\">Transit\u003c/a> of Mercury, occurs at intervals measured in years and decades. On average, the planet transits only 13 times a century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last one happened on May 9, 2016. The next isn’t until Nov. 13, 2032—and that one won’t be visible from North America. The next one that people in the San Francisco Bay Area can see won’t take place until 2049.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950634\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950634\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"A composite image showing the progress of Mercury across the sun's face during the November 2006 Transit of Mercury. Images captured by the ESA's SOHO spacecraft.\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/m16-050.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A composite image showing the progress of Mercury across the sun’s face during the November 2006 Transit of Mercury. Images captured by the ESA’s SOHO spacecraft. \u003ccite>(ESA/NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>When to Observe\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year’s event begins on Monday Nov. 11 at 4:35 a.m. PST, when Mercury makes first contact with the sun’s limb and begins its crossing. Technically, there are two moments of contact between Mercury and the sun at the beginning of the transit. Contact I happens when the leading edge of Mercury’s disk first coincides with the limb of the sun. Contact II is the moment Mercury’s trailing edge crosses the solar limb and the planet’s silhouette becomes a complete circle against the sun’s backdrop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The midpoint of transit is at 7:20 a.m. PST. On the Nov. 11 transit, Mercury’s path slices almost directly through the middle of the sun’s disk, so at midtransit it’ll be possible to find the planet at almost dead center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Transit ends at 10:04 a.m. PST when Mercury departs the sun and returns to the backdrop of space. The discrete moments that Mercury’s disk begins and ends its crossing of the solar limb are called Contact III and Contact IV.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From the San Francisco Bay Area, the transit will already be in progress when the sun rises at 6:45 a.m. PST. The sun may not be immediately visible if there are buildings, trees or hills on your eastern horizon, but don’t worry. When the sun finally rises above all easterly obstructions, Mercury should still not have reached midtransit, and you’ll have a good three hours to enjoy the show.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where to Observe\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Finding Mercury during the transit couldn’t be easier. Just find the sun. By definition, Mercury will be located somewhere on the sun’s disk throughout the event.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But if you’re not properly equipped to observe the transit and need some seasoned assistance from people who are, you might check on any observing parties scheduled in your area. Sidewalk astronomers and other amateur enthusiast groups who set up observing camps and invite the public to join them will be equipped with special telescopes, viewing filters, and other methods for sighting Mercury’s solar silhouette.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950639\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 700px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1950639\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/crowd-at-chabot-watching-2012-eclipse.jpg\" alt=\"Public solar event viewing at Chabot Space & Science Center. \" width=\"700\" height=\"525\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/crowd-at-chabot-watching-2012-eclipse.jpg 700w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/crowd-at-chabot-watching-2012-eclipse-160x120.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 700px) 100vw, 700px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Public solar event viewing at Chabot Space & Science Center. \u003ccite>(Chabot Space & Science Center)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the East Bay, Chabot Space & Science Center will open the gates to its observatory complex at 6:30 a.m. PST. You can find \u003ca href=\"https://chabotspace.org/calendar/transit-of-mercury/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">details of the event on the Chabot website\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How to Observe\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When talking about how to observe the Transit of Mercury, the best place to start is how \u003cem>not\u003c/em> to.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Do not\u003c/strong> look directly at the sun, not even if you’re wearing sunglasses. \u003cem>This point cannot be stressed strongly enough\u003c/em>. Looking directly at the sun without proper eye protection or a specialized sun-viewing instrument is dangerous and can damage your eyes, possibly permanently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may safely look at the sun if you have the right kind of filter, such as industrial grade \u003ca href=\"https://www.amazon.com/Welders-Glass-Solar-Eclipse-Viewer-Pleasing/dp/B007O10Z80/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=shade+14+welders+glass&qid=1572895521&sr=8-1\">welder’s mask glass (#14)\u003c/a>, or other \u003ca href=\"https://www.rainbowsymphonystore.com/products/eclipse-glasses?variant=11648770441263¤cy=USD&gclid=Cj0KCQiAtf_tBRDtARIsAIbAKe2Brpn6laXjpHcQwkilqx9vCy2YpcrEwSuDou4lvTxqehQrq0qJKTwaAlrZEALw_wcB\">sun-safe-rated eyewear\u003c/a>. Both are specialty items designed to limit direct sunlight exposure to your eyes to safe levels in ways ordinary sunglasses do not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even with filters, it’ll be a challenge to see the tiny spot of Mercury’s silhouette without magnification.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950640\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1950640\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-800x600.jpg\" alt='Magnified images of the sun may be projected onto a white surface, either with a small telescope or a specially designed sun-projecting instrument, such as the \"Sunspotter\" depicted in this image. ' width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/DSCF0004a.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Magnified images of the sun may be projected onto a white surface, either with a small telescope or a specially designed sun-projecting instrument, such as the “Sunspotter” depicted in this image. \u003ccite>(Chabot Space & Science Center)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Mercury’s angular size will be less than three-thousandths of a degree. That’s equivalent to the size of a nickel seen from a thousand feet away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, finding someone who has a telescope equipped with special filters is really the best way to see the Transit of Mercury.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Can We Learn From Transiting Planets?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Planetary transits are not merely breathtaking spectacles of nature. They are also events of great scientific value that have aided us in exploring the universe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the 17th and 18th Centuries, astronomers used observations of transits of the planet Venus to geometrically triangulate the distances to Venus and the sun. Because those scientists already knew the relative proportions of the solar system, this observation revealed the actual distances to all the planets. A \u003ca href=\"https://www.forbes.com/sites/jamiecartereurope/2019/10/10/how-far-away-is-the-sun-next-month-citizen-scientists-will-use-a-transit-of-mercury-to-check/#12f0b6aa5c35\">Mercury transit may also be used\u003c/a> to make this calculation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950641\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1950641\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Artist%E2%80%99s_impression_of_a_Jupiter-sized_planet.jpg\" alt='Artist illustration of a \"Hot Jupiter\" extrasolar planet transiting its star. ' width=\"600\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Artist’s_impression_of_a_Jupiter-sized_planet.jpg 600w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/11/Artist’s_impression_of_a_Jupiter-sized_planet-160x128.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist illustration of a “Hot Jupiter” extrasolar planet transiting its star. \u003ccite>(NASA/ESA/G. Bacon (StSCI))\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>By 1992, technology had advanced enough for astronomers to detect transiting planets in other star systems. To date, over 4,000 extra-solar planets, or exoplanets, have been detected and confirmed in more than 3,000 star systems in our neighborhood of the Milky Way galaxy. Transit observations led scientists to discover most of these exoplanets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Curiosity Rover Finds Clues to a Watery Past on Mars",
"headTitle": "Curiosity Rover Finds Clues to a Watery Past on Mars | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>In its quest to find signs of water in the sediments of Mount Sharp, \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-science-laboratory-curiosity-rover-msl/\">NASA’s rover Curiosity\u003c/a> has turned up some tantalizing clues to when and how the young, watery Mars began to dry up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images of geologic formations and measurements of mineral residues collected over two years tell a tale of a watery world caught in the process of drying up, and maybe not giving up without a fight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A four-foot-wide patch of ancient mudstone called “Old Soaker,” encountered late in 2016 within Mars’ Gale Crater, may be a snapshot of the moment Mars began its transition from a wet and possibly lively planet to the cold, dry, apparently lifeless world we know today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949964\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949964\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-800x714.jpg\" alt='Cracks in the mudstone slab called \"Old Soaker,\" whose formation dates back more than 3 billion years, may have formed in drying mud, as Mars experienced a global transition to a drying climate. ' width=\"800\" height=\"714\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-800x714.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-160x143.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-768x686.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-1020x911.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-1200x1071.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX.jpg 1344w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cracks in the mudstone slab called “Old Soaker,” whose formation dates back more than 3 billion years, may have formed in drying mud, as Mars experienced a global transition to a drying climate. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Bearing \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=pia21261\">a network of cracks\u003c/a> that may have formed in drying mud, Old Soaker shows that even as water was becoming scarce on Mars, it persisted in seeps, trickling streams and shallow desert lakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moment captured in the Old Soaker mudstone over three billion years ago is one picture in a larger album that Curiosity has been assembling since it landed in 2012. Its compendium of Martian climatic history has captivated our imaginations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Curiosity’s Quest For Water\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did liquid water ever exist on Mars? When, and how much? Was the environment ever capable of supporting life?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are the big questions Curiosity went forth to tackle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950007\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 755px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1950007\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA23378_hires-1.jpg\" alt=\"A "selfie" taken by NASA's Curiosity rover on Oct 11, 2019 at a place nicknamed Glen Etive. \" width=\"755\" height=\"1000\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA23378_hires-1.jpg 755w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA23378_hires-1-160x212.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 755px) 100vw, 755px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A “selfie” taken by NASA’s Curiosity rover on Oct 11, 2019 at a place nicknamed Glen Etive. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So far, Curiosity’s confirmed that \u003ca href=\"https://eos.org/articles/history-of-marss-water-seen-through-the-lens-of-gale-crater\">liquid water once flowed\u003c/a> into and pooled within Gale Crater, from very early in its history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagery of geologic formations Curiosity captured in its earlier travels tell a captivating story of the young Gale Crater Lake. Sedimentary layering, lakebed mudstone, and aggregations of river pebbles and stones found in the oldest, lowest formations of Mount Sharp reveal that a wide deep lake, fed by rivers and streams, may have persisted in Gale Crater for many millions of years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949972\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949972\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500-800x500.jpg\" alt=\"Simulation of what the ancient Gale Crater lake may have looked like during Mars' more Earthlike youth. \" width=\"800\" height=\"500\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500-160x100.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500-768x480.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Simulation of what the ancient Gale Crater lake may have looked like during Mars’ more Earthlike youth. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Taking Gale Crater and its ancient lake as an indicator of Mars’ global environment, we know the atmosphere had to be much warmer and thicker than it is today. It almost certainly supported a water cycle of precipitation, runoff, pooling in lakes and seas, and evaporation similar to Earth’s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Reading the Pages of Geologic History\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gale Crater is an \u003ca href=\"https://themis.asu.edu/feature/22\">ideal location to investigate Mars’s climate history\u003c/a>. Piled over three miles high within the crater is Mount Sharp, a mega-mound of sedimentary rock whose stacked layers scientists can read like the pages of geological history book.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949967\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949967\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-800x366.jpg\" alt=\"Long view looking up the slopes of Mount Sharp, the 3.5 mile tall mound of sedimentary rock sitting inside Mars' Gale Crater. \" width=\"800\" height=\"366\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-800x366.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-160x73.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-768x351.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-1020x466.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-1200x549.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-1920x878.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Long view looking up the slopes of Mount Sharp, the 3.5 mile tall mound of sedimentary rock sitting inside Mars’ Gale Crater. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The crater formed 3.8-3.5 billion years ago when an asteroid hit Mars. It gradually filled though wind and water action with layer upon layer of sediments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In more recent times after Mars dried up, wind eroded some of the infill, sculpting the \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/msl/multimedia/pia15292.html\">multi-layered mountain\u003c/a> Curiosity is doggedly crawling up today. As it visits each formation of sedimentary rock on its uphill climb, Curiosity is reading the pages of Mars’s history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Death Throes of a Drying World?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now seven years into its mission, Curiosity has climbed to higher points on Mount Sharp, analyzing layers of rock that formed at different times and under different climatic conditions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The story told by Old Soaker’s mudstone cracks may be a page in a saga of tumultuous environmental change. Mars’ environment dried up, became wet again, then swung back to dry in repeating cycles. Wetter periods preceded and followed the dry episode that formed this specimen, based on what Curiosity found at adjacent rock layers in the Mount Sharp stack.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Curiosity has also found \u003ca href=\"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/salt-lake-gale-crater-mars/\">mineralogical evidence\u003c/a> to corroborate the Old Soaker’s tale of a drying world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949973\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 537px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1949973\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/20130312_gale_crism_map_cropped_f537.jpg\" alt=\"A mineral map of the slopes of Mount Sharp being explored by NASA's Curiosity rover, made from data from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's CRISM instrument. A cross marks the original 2012 landing site of the Curiosity rover. Green indicates clay minerals that may have been deposited in the deep water's of the lake, while blue and magenta indicate sulfates formed when lake waters were drying up. \" width=\"537\" height=\"546\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/20130312_gale_crism_map_cropped_f537.jpg 537w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/20130312_gale_crism_map_cropped_f537-160x163.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 537px) 100vw, 537px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A mineral map of the slopes of Mount Sharp being explored by NASA’s Curiosity rover, made from data from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s CRISM instrument. A cross marks the original 2012 landing site of the Curiosity rover. Green indicates clay minerals that may have been deposited in the deep water’s of the lake, while blue and magenta indicate sulfates formed when lake waters were drying up. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL/JHUAPL/Ralph Milliken)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Early in its mission Curiosity detected an abundance of clay minerals in the oldest layers of lake bed sediment. They indicated that those layers were deposited when lake waters were deep and plentiful. Freshwater conditions on Earth formed similar clays.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Higher on the mountain’s slopes, the rover found chloride and sulfate salts in younger sediments, dated to about 3.5 billion years. Such mineral salts are known byproducts of bodies of water undergoing evaporation, like a lake drying up during a shift to a more arid climate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Take a Walk Through a Mars-like Past—on Earth\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’ve been to a place like \u003ca href=\"https://www.nps.gov/deva/index.htm\">Death Valley National Park\u003c/a>, you may have witnessed evidence of long-gone water in that dry and desolate landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mineral salts, once dissolved in the waters of an ancient lake that filled today’s Death Valley, now cover huge areas of the valley floor in thick, white crystalline deposits. When the drying climate east of the Sierra Nevada mountains reduced the 70-mile-long, 600-foot-deep Lake Manly to a salt-lined desert valley, it left behind the briny residue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949974\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949974\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY-800x541.jpg\" alt=\"At the lowest point in the continental US, Badwater, in Death Valley National Park, sits at the edge of a great pan of salt minerals left behind when the paleo-lake Manly, which filled the valley only 10,000 years ago, dried up under changing climate conditions. A shallow pool of briny water can be found here, maybe not unlike ponds and puddles evidence is showing existed on the drying Mars in the distant past. \" width=\"800\" height=\"541\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY-160x108.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY-768x519.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">At the lowest point in the continental US, Badwater, in Death Valley National Park, sits at the edge of a great pan of salt minerals left behind when the paleo-lake Manly, which filled the valley only 10,000 years ago, dried up under changing climate conditions. A shallow pool of briny water can be found here, maybe not unlike ponds and puddles evidence is showing existed on the drying Mars in the distant past. \u003ccite>(Jerrye and Roy Klotz, MD)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It’s still possible to see, and even walk upon, ancient shorelines carved into the side of Shoreline Butte by the action of lapping waves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some side canyons of Death Valley are mudstone formations bearing the petrified imprints of ripples formed in the lake floor mud, now preserved in stone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few briny “springs” still issue seasonal seepage and offer a watery habitat for \u003ca href=\"https://www.visitcalifornia.com/attraction/desert-pupfish\">pupfish\u003c/a>, the surviving descendants of that paleolake’s fishy inhabitants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But for all the signs of deep waters, flowing streams, and a once- thriving ecosystem, Lake Manly dried up thousands of years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Curiosity is prospecting the Martian desert and turning up similar evidence of Mars’s ancient waters. It’s looking back three or more billion years, not just a few millennia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>No Signs of Life—Yet\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of Curiosity’s mission goals is to assess Mars’ past environment to determine whether it could ever have harbored some form of life. The result, so far, appears to be yes. When it more closely resembled Earth’s conditions, Mars may have been hospitable to some form of life, if only single-celled organisms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists didn’t equip Curiosity to look for actual signs of life—just the water it might have lived in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next year, NASA plans to launch its next mission to the Red Planet, the Mars 2020 rover. It will bookend Curiosity’s mission by directly searching for the chemical residues left behind by any would-be Martian life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, get ready for the next chapter in the Martian saga.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "NASA's rover Curiosity has turned up some tantalizing clues to when and how the young, watery Mars began to dry up.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>In its quest to find signs of water in the sediments of Mount Sharp, \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-science-laboratory-curiosity-rover-msl/\">NASA’s rover Curiosity\u003c/a> has turned up some tantalizing clues to when and how the young, watery Mars began to dry up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images of geologic formations and measurements of mineral residues collected over two years tell a tale of a watery world caught in the process of drying up, and maybe not giving up without a fight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A four-foot-wide patch of ancient mudstone called “Old Soaker,” encountered late in 2016 within Mars’ Gale Crater, may be a snapshot of the moment Mars began its transition from a wet and possibly lively planet to the cold, dry, apparently lifeless world we know today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949964\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949964\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-800x714.jpg\" alt='Cracks in the mudstone slab called \"Old Soaker,\" whose formation dates back more than 3 billion years, may have formed in drying mud, as Mars experienced a global transition to a drying climate. ' width=\"800\" height=\"714\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-800x714.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-160x143.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-768x686.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-1020x911.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX-1200x1071.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/1568MR0079900010800216E01_DXXX.jpg 1344w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cracks in the mudstone slab called “Old Soaker,” whose formation dates back more than 3 billion years, may have formed in drying mud, as Mars experienced a global transition to a drying climate. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Bearing \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=pia21261\">a network of cracks\u003c/a> that may have formed in drying mud, Old Soaker shows that even as water was becoming scarce on Mars, it persisted in seeps, trickling streams and shallow desert lakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The moment captured in the Old Soaker mudstone over three billion years ago is one picture in a larger album that Curiosity has been assembling since it landed in 2012. Its compendium of Martian climatic history has captivated our imaginations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Curiosity’s Quest For Water\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did liquid water ever exist on Mars? When, and how much? Was the environment ever capable of supporting life?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are the big questions Curiosity went forth to tackle.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1950007\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 755px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1950007\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA23378_hires-1.jpg\" alt=\"A "selfie" taken by NASA's Curiosity rover on Oct 11, 2019 at a place nicknamed Glen Etive. \" width=\"755\" height=\"1000\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA23378_hires-1.jpg 755w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA23378_hires-1-160x212.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 755px) 100vw, 755px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A “selfie” taken by NASA’s Curiosity rover on Oct 11, 2019 at a place nicknamed Glen Etive. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>So far, Curiosity’s confirmed that \u003ca href=\"https://eos.org/articles/history-of-marss-water-seen-through-the-lens-of-gale-crater\">liquid water once flowed\u003c/a> into and pooled within Gale Crater, from very early in its history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagery of geologic formations Curiosity captured in its earlier travels tell a captivating story of the young Gale Crater Lake. Sedimentary layering, lakebed mudstone, and aggregations of river pebbles and stones found in the oldest, lowest formations of Mount Sharp reveal that a wide deep lake, fed by rivers and streams, may have persisted in Gale Crater for many millions of years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949972\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949972\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500-800x500.jpg\" alt=\"Simulation of what the ancient Gale Crater lake may have looked like during Mars' more Earthlike youth. \" width=\"800\" height=\"500\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500-160x100.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/PIA19080-NASA_JPL-Caltech-800x500-768x480.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Simulation of what the ancient Gale Crater lake may have looked like during Mars’ more Earthlike youth. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Taking Gale Crater and its ancient lake as an indicator of Mars’ global environment, we know the atmosphere had to be much warmer and thicker than it is today. It almost certainly supported a water cycle of precipitation, runoff, pooling in lakes and seas, and evaporation similar to Earth’s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Reading the Pages of Geologic History\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gale Crater is an \u003ca href=\"https://themis.asu.edu/feature/22\">ideal location to investigate Mars’s climate history\u003c/a>. Piled over three miles high within the crater is Mount Sharp, a mega-mound of sedimentary rock whose stacked layers scientists can read like the pages of geological history book.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949967\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949967\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-800x366.jpg\" alt=\"Long view looking up the slopes of Mount Sharp, the 3.5 mile tall mound of sedimentary rock sitting inside Mars' Gale Crater. \" width=\"800\" height=\"366\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-800x366.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-160x73.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-768x351.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-1020x466.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-1200x549.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/mtsharp-nasajplcaltechmsss2-1920x878.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Long view looking up the slopes of Mount Sharp, the 3.5 mile tall mound of sedimentary rock sitting inside Mars’ Gale Crater. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The crater formed 3.8-3.5 billion years ago when an asteroid hit Mars. It gradually filled though wind and water action with layer upon layer of sediments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In more recent times after Mars dried up, wind eroded some of the infill, sculpting the \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/msl/multimedia/pia15292.html\">multi-layered mountain\u003c/a> Curiosity is doggedly crawling up today. As it visits each formation of sedimentary rock on its uphill climb, Curiosity is reading the pages of Mars’s history.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Death Throes of a Drying World?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now seven years into its mission, Curiosity has climbed to higher points on Mount Sharp, analyzing layers of rock that formed at different times and under different climatic conditions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The story told by Old Soaker’s mudstone cracks may be a page in a saga of tumultuous environmental change. Mars’ environment dried up, became wet again, then swung back to dry in repeating cycles. Wetter periods preceded and followed the dry episode that formed this specimen, based on what Curiosity found at adjacent rock layers in the Mount Sharp stack.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Curiosity has also found \u003ca href=\"https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/salt-lake-gale-crater-mars/\">mineralogical evidence\u003c/a> to corroborate the Old Soaker’s tale of a drying world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949973\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 537px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1949973\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/20130312_gale_crism_map_cropped_f537.jpg\" alt=\"A mineral map of the slopes of Mount Sharp being explored by NASA's Curiosity rover, made from data from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's CRISM instrument. A cross marks the original 2012 landing site of the Curiosity rover. Green indicates clay minerals that may have been deposited in the deep water's of the lake, while blue and magenta indicate sulfates formed when lake waters were drying up. \" width=\"537\" height=\"546\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/20130312_gale_crism_map_cropped_f537.jpg 537w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/20130312_gale_crism_map_cropped_f537-160x163.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 537px) 100vw, 537px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A mineral map of the slopes of Mount Sharp being explored by NASA’s Curiosity rover, made from data from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s CRISM instrument. A cross marks the original 2012 landing site of the Curiosity rover. Green indicates clay minerals that may have been deposited in the deep water’s of the lake, while blue and magenta indicate sulfates formed when lake waters were drying up. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL/JHUAPL/Ralph Milliken)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Early in its mission Curiosity detected an abundance of clay minerals in the oldest layers of lake bed sediment. They indicated that those layers were deposited when lake waters were deep and plentiful. Freshwater conditions on Earth formed similar clays.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Higher on the mountain’s slopes, the rover found chloride and sulfate salts in younger sediments, dated to about 3.5 billion years. Such mineral salts are known byproducts of bodies of water undergoing evaporation, like a lake drying up during a shift to a more arid climate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Take a Walk Through a Mars-like Past—on Earth\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’ve been to a place like \u003ca href=\"https://www.nps.gov/deva/index.htm\">Death Valley National Park\u003c/a>, you may have witnessed evidence of long-gone water in that dry and desolate landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mineral salts, once dissolved in the waters of an ancient lake that filled today’s Death Valley, now cover huge areas of the valley floor in thick, white crystalline deposits. When the drying climate east of the Sierra Nevada mountains reduced the 70-mile-long, 600-foot-deep Lake Manly to a salt-lined desert valley, it left behind the briny residue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1949974\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1949974\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY-800x541.jpg\" alt=\"At the lowest point in the continental US, Badwater, in Death Valley National Park, sits at the edge of a great pan of salt minerals left behind when the paleo-lake Manly, which filled the valley only 10,000 years ago, dried up under changing climate conditions. A shallow pool of briny water can be found here, maybe not unlike ponds and puddles evidence is showing existed on the drying Mars in the distant past. \" width=\"800\" height=\"541\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY-160x108.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/800px-BADWATER_DEATH_VALLEY-768x519.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">At the lowest point in the continental US, Badwater, in Death Valley National Park, sits at the edge of a great pan of salt minerals left behind when the paleo-lake Manly, which filled the valley only 10,000 years ago, dried up under changing climate conditions. A shallow pool of briny water can be found here, maybe not unlike ponds and puddles evidence is showing existed on the drying Mars in the distant past. \u003ccite>(Jerrye and Roy Klotz, MD)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It’s still possible to see, and even walk upon, ancient shorelines carved into the side of Shoreline Butte by the action of lapping waves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some side canyons of Death Valley are mudstone formations bearing the petrified imprints of ripples formed in the lake floor mud, now preserved in stone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few briny “springs” still issue seasonal seepage and offer a watery habitat for \u003ca href=\"https://www.visitcalifornia.com/attraction/desert-pupfish\">pupfish\u003c/a>, the surviving descendants of that paleolake’s fishy inhabitants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But for all the signs of deep waters, flowing streams, and a once- thriving ecosystem, Lake Manly dried up thousands of years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Curiosity is prospecting the Martian desert and turning up similar evidence of Mars’s ancient waters. It’s looking back three or more billion years, not just a few millennia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>No Signs of Life—Yet\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of Curiosity’s mission goals is to assess Mars’ past environment to determine whether it could ever have harbored some form of life. The result, so far, appears to be yes. When it more closely resembled Earth’s conditions, Mars may have been hospitable to some form of life, if only single-celled organisms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists didn’t equip Curiosity to look for actual signs of life—just the water it might have lived in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next year, NASA plans to launch its next mission to the Red Planet, the Mars 2020 rover. It will bookend Curiosity’s mission by directly searching for the chemical residues left behind by any would-be Martian life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, get ready for the next chapter in the Martian saga.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "NASA Wants to Send Shapeshifting Robots to Saturn Moon",
"headTitle": "NASA Wants to Send Shapeshifting Robots to Saturn Moon | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>As they conceive a new generation of robotic “rovers,” NASA engineers are challenging themselves to think outside the box.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The contraptions they envision bear little resemblance to the car-like, six-wheeled cruisers we’ve followed during rolling adventures on Mars. Future space exploration robots may resemble “Transformers.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s because a robot operating semi-autonomously on very alien turf must be able to negotiate a broad range of terrains and environmental conditions, the likes of which may not exist on Earth. So, how to design – and prepare the rover – for situations engineers may not even anticipate?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Shapeshifter\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To handle one of the more distant and fascinating objects in our solar system – \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/saturn-moons/titan/overview/\">Saturn’s moon Titan\u003c/a> – NASA engineers have come up with \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7505\">Shapeshifter\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Concept drawings and working models of this robot resemble farm equipment- some kind of rolling grain harvester or threshing machine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But it helps to see past Shapeshifter’s prototype and imagine how engineers might take apart its components and put them back together in different forms to suit different needs, like Lego toys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To demonstrate this concept, they built the Shapeshifter mockup from two separate and complementary assemblies: a pair of flight-capable drones housed within their own halves of a pipe-frame cylinder structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Combined, the prototype can roll like a barrel to easily traverse stretches of flat or mounded terrain. Separately, one half can ascend skyward on propellers, using the other half as a launch pad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More advanced visions for the Shapeshifter stick with the paradigm of smaller robots working together – “co-bots” – that form different configurations, but involve greater numbers of base robot units.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1948600\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1948600\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-800x451.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"451\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-800x451.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-768x433.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2.jpg 900w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A more advanced concept of the multiple “co-bot” team whose elements can fly like drones, or assemble into configurations optimized for swimming through liquid or rolling or tumbling across a landscape. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These simplified future co-bots may combine into forms that can swim through a sea of liquid, fly together to lift and carry other equipment, such as a larger “mothership” lander, or roll around almost any terrain by reassembling into a sphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Bizarre Environments Call For Bizarre Robots\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2005, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft dropped the European “\u003ca href=\"https://sci.esa.int/web/cassini-huygens/-/55221-huygens-titan-science-highlights\">Huygens\u003c/a>” probe onto the surface of Saturn’s mysterious, cloud-shrouded moon Titan. With a simple plan to descend through the thick nitrogen atmosphere on a parachute and set down on any available surface, hopefully with enough battery power for a few minutes of picture-taking, Huygens offered a brief flash of insight into Titan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1948601\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-800x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-1920x1440.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full.jpg 2000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA scored with that touchdown. Huygens, and further investigations by Cassini from space, demonstrated that Titan is a world like no other in the solar system, worthy of further exploration. Scientists also learned what a challenging physical environment Titan presents, and recognized the need for a new, super-flexible roving machine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike Earth’s quiescent airless moon, Titan has a thick, dynamic and extremely cold atmosphere. Unlike the dry desert plains and mountains of Mars, Titan has a liquid cycle, similar to Earth’s water cycle. Titan’s rain, rivers, \u003ca href=\"https://earthsky.org/space/scientists-find-new-surprises-about-titans-lakes\">lakes and seas\u003c/a>, however, are freezing cold liquid methane – a material that exists as a gas on Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1948620\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-800x720.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concept of the surface of Titan, its high and rugged mountains, surface liquid methane, atmosphere, and Saturn in the hazy sky above.\" width=\"800\" height=\"720\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-800x720.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-160x144.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-768x691.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-1020x918.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-1200x1080.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Titan’s landscapes include vast plains of dunes, high and steep-walled mountains peppered with deep alpine lakes, complex networks of river-carved canyons, and several wide seas of liquid methane.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some respects, Titan’s physical environment will make it easier for a co-botic transforming Shapeshifter craft to move about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Its surface gravity is about one-seventh that of Earth. Titan is also the only moon in the solar system with a thick atmosphere – thicker than Earth’s – so engineers don’t have to reinvent the helicopter propeller to make their Titanian co-bots fly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science Fiction Leading the Way?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Transformers” isn’t the only example of \u003ca href=\"https://www.hackster.io/news/superball-v2-is-a-huge-tensegrity-robot-that-can-absorb-substantial-impacts-956e025368b5\">unconventional robot designs\u003c/a> in the realm of science fiction that have played with ideas like shapeshifting and flexible configurations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The robots TARS and CASE in the movie “Interstellar” looked like awkward rectangular blocks of plastic or metal, but their designers gave them the ability to articulate smaller building-block components into different configurations to walk, run, climb, lift, and even pinwheel through a shallow extraterrestrial sea as the situation demanded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I won’t go into the liquid-metal polymorphing robot from “Terminator 2,” but who knows? Engineers are giving shape and motion to blobs of “ferrofluid” with magnetic fields, so it’s not inconceivable that they may one day deploy a fluid “Explorinator” morphing around the surfaces of distant worlds.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>As they conceive a new generation of robotic “rovers,” NASA engineers are challenging themselves to think outside the box.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The contraptions they envision bear little resemblance to the car-like, six-wheeled cruisers we’ve followed during rolling adventures on Mars. Future space exploration robots may resemble “Transformers.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s because a robot operating semi-autonomously on very alien turf must be able to negotiate a broad range of terrains and environmental conditions, the likes of which may not exist on Earth. So, how to design – and prepare the rover – for situations engineers may not even anticipate?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Shapeshifter\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To handle one of the more distant and fascinating objects in our solar system – \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/saturn-moons/titan/overview/\">Saturn’s moon Titan\u003c/a> – NASA engineers have come up with \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7505\">Shapeshifter\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Concept drawings and working models of this robot resemble farm equipment- some kind of rolling grain harvester or threshing machine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But it helps to see past Shapeshifter’s prototype and imagine how engineers might take apart its components and put them back together in different forms to suit different needs, like Lego toys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To demonstrate this concept, they built the Shapeshifter mockup from two separate and complementary assemblies: a pair of flight-capable drones housed within their own halves of a pipe-frame cylinder structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Combined, the prototype can roll like a barrel to easily traverse stretches of flat or mounded terrain. Separately, one half can ascend skyward on propellers, using the other half as a launch pad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More advanced visions for the Shapeshifter stick with the paradigm of smaller robots working together – “co-bots” – that form different configurations, but involve greater numbers of base robot units.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1948600\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1948600\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-800x451.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"451\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-800x451.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2-768x433.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/futureshapeshifter-nasa2.jpg 900w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A more advanced concept of the multiple “co-bot” team whose elements can fly like drones, or assemble into configurations optimized for swimming through liquid or rolling or tumbling across a landscape. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>These simplified future co-bots may combine into forms that can swim through a sea of liquid, fly together to lift and carry other equipment, such as a larger “mothership” lander, or roll around almost any terrain by reassembling into a sphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Bizarre Environments Call For Bizarre Robots\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2005, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft dropped the European “\u003ca href=\"https://sci.esa.int/web/cassini-huygens/-/55221-huygens-titan-science-highlights\">Huygens\u003c/a>” probe onto the surface of Saturn’s mysterious, cloud-shrouded moon Titan. With a simple plan to descend through the thick nitrogen atmosphere on a parachute and set down on any available surface, hopefully with enough battery power for a few minutes of picture-taking, Huygens offered a brief flash of insight into Titan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1948601\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-800x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full-1920x1440.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/432541main_titan_huygens_big_full.jpg 2000w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NASA scored with that touchdown. Huygens, and further investigations by Cassini from space, demonstrated that Titan is a world like no other in the solar system, worthy of further exploration. Scientists also learned what a challenging physical environment Titan presents, and recognized the need for a new, super-flexible roving machine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike Earth’s quiescent airless moon, Titan has a thick, dynamic and extremely cold atmosphere. Unlike the dry desert plains and mountains of Mars, Titan has a liquid cycle, similar to Earth’s water cycle. Titan’s rain, rivers, \u003ca href=\"https://earthsky.org/space/scientists-find-new-surprises-about-titans-lakes\">lakes and seas\u003c/a>, however, are freezing cold liquid methane – a material that exists as a gas on Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1948620\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-800x720.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concept of the surface of Titan, its high and rugged mountains, surface liquid methane, atmosphere, and Saturn in the hazy sky above.\" width=\"800\" height=\"720\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-800x720.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-160x144.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-768x691.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-1020x918.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600-1200x1080.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/10/17704_Titan_Backdrop_1600.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Titan’s landscapes include vast plains of dunes, high and steep-walled mountains peppered with deep alpine lakes, complex networks of river-carved canyons, and several wide seas of liquid methane.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some respects, Titan’s physical environment will make it easier for a co-botic transforming Shapeshifter craft to move about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Its surface gravity is about one-seventh that of Earth. Titan is also the only moon in the solar system with a thick atmosphere – thicker than Earth’s – so engineers don’t have to reinvent the helicopter propeller to make their Titanian co-bots fly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science Fiction Leading the Way?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Transformers” isn’t the only example of \u003ca href=\"https://www.hackster.io/news/superball-v2-is-a-huge-tensegrity-robot-that-can-absorb-substantial-impacts-956e025368b5\">unconventional robot designs\u003c/a> in the realm of science fiction that have played with ideas like shapeshifting and flexible configurations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The robots TARS and CASE in the movie “Interstellar” looked like awkward rectangular blocks of plastic or metal, but their designers gave them the ability to articulate smaller building-block components into different configurations to walk, run, climb, lift, and even pinwheel through a shallow extraterrestrial sea as the situation demanded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I won’t go into the liquid-metal polymorphing robot from “Terminator 2,” but who knows? Engineers are giving shape and motion to blobs of “ferrofluid” with magnetic fields, so it’s not inconceivable that they may one day deploy a fluid “Explorinator” morphing around the surfaces of distant worlds.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Your Kid Could Name the Mars 2020 Rover",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">NASA plans soon to send another robotic rover to Mars. The only problem is, the agency needs a good name for it. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">That’s where young minds come in. If you’re in kindergarten to 12th grade, you may be able to help out. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Instead of sitting around a conference room table and brainstorming a list of cute, nerdy acronyms, NASA is \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-invites-students-to-name-next-mars-rover\">holding a contest\u003c/a> for students in the U.S. to name the Mars 2020 Rover under construction at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947938\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947938\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Engineers testing Mars 2020’s robotic arm in a clean room at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The car-sized, six-wheeled, robot-arm-wielding explorer will hunt for signs of past Martian life. It’ll carry a small experimental helicopter drone that will be the first machine ever to fly on Mars, or on any planet. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If you have a great name idea and can write a short, inspiring essay to sell it, you could claim the credit. Imagine that. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u003ca href=\"https://www.futureengineers.org/nametherover\">Essays must be submitted\u003c/a> by Nov. 1\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">st. Make sure they’re\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> no more than 150 words long. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If you need further inspiration for your winning name and essay, you can discover more amazing facts about this Martian-seeking robot at NASA’s \u003ca href=\"https://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mars2020/\">Mars 2020 website\u003c/a>. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Mars 2020 Rover\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mars 2020 launches next summer, headed for a February 2021 landing in Jezero Crater on Mars. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947939\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947939\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-800x683.png\" alt=\"False-colored elevation map of the region surrounding Jezero Crater (center) on Mars. Blue shows the northwestern corner of Isidris Planitia.\" width=\"800\" height=\"683\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-800x683.png 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-160x137.png 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-768x656.png 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater.png 864w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">False-colored elevation map of the region surrounding Jezero Crater (center) on Mars. Blue shows the northwestern corner of Isidris Planitia. \u003ccite>(USGS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Jezero Crater may be a great place to look for the chemical and mineral signs left behind by ancient Martian organisms. Researchers believe the crater used to be flooded with water. Today it possesses river-delta-like fans of clay deposits. What upstream materials did river waters wash along and deposit there in the ancient past? We don’t know, yet — but Mars 2020 is determined to find out. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947940\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947940\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-800x641.jpg\" alt=\"Image of an ancient river delta deposit at the edge of Jezero Crater, captured by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. \" width=\"800\" height=\"641\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-800x641.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-160x128.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-768x616.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-1020x818.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-1200x962.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University.jpg 1865w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image of an ancient river delta deposit at the edge of Jezero Crater, captured by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The robot is physically very similar to NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory rover, \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/msl/index.html\">Curiosity\u003c/a>. Right now it’s exploring the layers of sedimentary rock on Mount Sharp, in Gale Crater, studying Mars’ past climates and the role liquid water played throughout the planet’s history. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Teams have designed Mars 2020 to look for evidence of past life on Mars, not just water. No Mars mission has been equipped to look for Martians since the Viking landers in 1976. They carried biochemistry experiments to test soil samples for activity of present-day life processes. The results were inconclusive. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947942\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947942\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Mars 2020 will carry with it an experimental drone helicopter to test concepts such as aerial reconnaissance and remote exploration. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mars 2020 will carry with it an experimental drone helicopter to test concepts such as aerial reconnaissance and remote exploration. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Other Mars Robots Named By Students\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">From the first Mars rover, Sojourner in 1997, Earth’s youngest space enthusiasts have been naming these machines. The 23-pound robot for the Pathfinder mission got its name after a year-long, international contest in which NASA challenged students up to 18 years old to submit essays of their personal heroines and their historical accomplishments.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Twelve-year-old \u003ca href=\"https://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/rover/name.html\">Valerie Ambrose\u003c/a> of Bridgeport, Connecticut wrote an essay about Sojourner Truth, a 19th Century African-American abolitionist who championed women’s rights and traveled “up and down the land” in pursuit of her cause. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">“Sojourner” means “traveler.” Although the tiny rover traveled no more than 330 feet, it was the very first ground an explorer from Earth traversed on Mars. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Seven years after Sojourner, nine-year-old \u003ca href=\"http://www.planetary.org/explore/space-topics/space-missions/mer-updates/msl/rover-wisdom/sofi-collis.html\">Sofi Collis\u003c/a> of Scottsdale, Arizona named the twin Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity. Sofi’s essay described how she arrived in America from an orphanage in Siberia, and how coming here could make her dreams come true. “Thank you for the ‘Spirit’ and the ‘Opportunity’,” she wrote in her essay.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947946\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 426px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1947946\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/426px-Clara_Ma_and_the_Curiosity_Rover.jpg\" alt=\"Clara Ma wrote the winning essay that named Curiosity, the predecessor of the Mars 2020 rover. \" width=\"426\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/426px-Clara_Ma_and_the_Curiosity_Rover.jpg 426w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/426px-Clara_Ma_and_the_Curiosity_Rover-160x225.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 426px) 100vw, 426px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Clara Ma wrote the winning essay that named Curiosity, the predecessor of the Mars 2020 rover. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Twelve-year-old \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/namerover/WinnerAnnouncedEssay/\">Clara Ma\u003c/a> of Lenexa, Kansas wrote the essay that named the next Mars rover, six years after Spirit and Opportunity landed. Her essay, “Curiosity,” about the flame of wonder burning in everyone’s minds, apparently resonated with NASA’s passion for exploring Mars, and so Curiosity became the given name of the Mars Science Laboratory rover. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Out of This World Competition\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">So, the count stands at four Mars rovers named by three pre-teen girls. That’s pretty steep competition, but the contest to name the Mars 2020 rover is open to all U.S. students from kindergarten to 12\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">th\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> grade. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If you think you have a winning name, start writing that winning essay. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">NASA plans soon to send another robotic rover to Mars. The only problem is, the agency needs a good name for it. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">That’s where young minds come in. If you’re in kindergarten to 12th grade, you may be able to help out. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Instead of sitting around a conference room table and brainstorming a list of cute, nerdy acronyms, NASA is \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-invites-students-to-name-next-mars-rover\">holding a contest\u003c/a> for students in the U.S. to name the Mars 2020 Rover under construction at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947938\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947938\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22738_PIA23212-web.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Engineers testing Mars 2020’s robotic arm in a clean room at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The car-sized, six-wheeled, robot-arm-wielding explorer will hunt for signs of past Martian life. It’ll carry a small experimental helicopter drone that will be the first machine ever to fly on Mars, or on any planet. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If you have a great name idea and can write a short, inspiring essay to sell it, you could claim the credit. Imagine that. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">\u003ca href=\"https://www.futureengineers.org/nametherover\">Essays must be submitted\u003c/a> by Nov. 1\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">st. Make sure they’re\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> no more than 150 words long. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If you need further inspiration for your winning name and essay, you can discover more amazing facts about this Martian-seeking robot at NASA’s \u003ca href=\"https://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mars2020/\">Mars 2020 website\u003c/a>. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Mars 2020 Rover\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Mars 2020 launches next summer, headed for a February 2021 landing in Jezero Crater on Mars. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947939\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947939\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-800x683.png\" alt=\"False-colored elevation map of the region surrounding Jezero Crater (center) on Mars. Blue shows the northwestern corner of Isidris Planitia.\" width=\"800\" height=\"683\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-800x683.png 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-160x137.png 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater-768x656.png 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater.png 864w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">False-colored elevation map of the region surrounding Jezero Crater (center) on Mars. Blue shows the northwestern corner of Isidris Planitia. \u003ccite>(USGS)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Jezero Crater may be a great place to look for the chemical and mineral signs left behind by ancient Martian organisms. Researchers believe the crater used to be flooded with water. Today it possesses river-delta-like fans of clay deposits. What upstream materials did river waters wash along and deposit there in the ancient past? We don’t know, yet — but Mars 2020 is determined to find out. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947940\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947940\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-800x641.jpg\" alt=\"Image of an ancient river delta deposit at the edge of Jezero Crater, captured by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. \" width=\"800\" height=\"641\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-800x641.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-160x128.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-768x616.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-1020x818.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University-1200x962.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full-NASAJPLJHU-APLMSSSBrown-University.jpg 1865w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image of an ancient river delta deposit at the edge of Jezero Crater, captured by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">The robot is physically very similar to NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory rover, \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/msl/index.html\">Curiosity\u003c/a>. Right now it’s exploring the layers of sedimentary rock on Mount Sharp, in Gale Crater, studying Mars’ past climates and the role liquid water played throughout the planet’s history. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Teams have designed Mars 2020 to look for evidence of past life on Mars, not just water. No Mars mission has been equipped to look for Martians since the Viking landers in 1976. They carried biochemistry experiments to test soil samples for activity of present-day life processes. The results were inconclusive. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947942\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1947942\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Mars 2020 will carry with it an experimental drone helicopter to test concepts such as aerial reconnaissance and remote exploration. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/22365_PIA23151-16.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mars 2020 will carry with it an experimental drone helicopter to test concepts such as aerial reconnaissance and remote exploration. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Other Mars Robots Named By Students\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">From the first Mars rover, Sojourner in 1997, Earth’s youngest space enthusiasts have been naming these machines. The 23-pound robot for the Pathfinder mission got its name after a year-long, international contest in which NASA challenged students up to 18 years old to submit essays of their personal heroines and their historical accomplishments.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Twelve-year-old \u003ca href=\"https://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/rover/name.html\">Valerie Ambrose\u003c/a> of Bridgeport, Connecticut wrote an essay about Sojourner Truth, a 19th Century African-American abolitionist who championed women’s rights and traveled “up and down the land” in pursuit of her cause. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">“Sojourner” means “traveler.” Although the tiny rover traveled no more than 330 feet, it was the very first ground an explorer from Earth traversed on Mars. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Seven years after Sojourner, nine-year-old \u003ca href=\"http://www.planetary.org/explore/space-topics/space-missions/mer-updates/msl/rover-wisdom/sofi-collis.html\">Sofi Collis\u003c/a> of Scottsdale, Arizona named the twin Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity. Sofi’s essay described how she arrived in America from an orphanage in Siberia, and how coming here could make her dreams come true. “Thank you for the ‘Spirit’ and the ‘Opportunity’,” she wrote in her essay.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1947946\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 426px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1947946\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/426px-Clara_Ma_and_the_Curiosity_Rover.jpg\" alt=\"Clara Ma wrote the winning essay that named Curiosity, the predecessor of the Mars 2020 rover. \" width=\"426\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/426px-Clara_Ma_and_the_Curiosity_Rover.jpg 426w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/09/426px-Clara_Ma_and_the_Curiosity_Rover-160x225.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 426px) 100vw, 426px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Clara Ma wrote the winning essay that named Curiosity, the predecessor of the Mars 2020 rover. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">Twelve-year-old \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/namerover/WinnerAnnouncedEssay/\">Clara Ma\u003c/a> of Lenexa, Kansas wrote the essay that named the next Mars rover, six years after Spirit and Opportunity landed. Her essay, “Curiosity,” about the flame of wonder burning in everyone’s minds, apparently resonated with NASA’s passion for exploring Mars, and so Curiosity became the given name of the Mars Science Laboratory rover. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Out of This World Competition\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">So, the count stands at four Mars rovers named by three pre-teen girls. That’s pretty steep competition, but the contest to name the Mars 2020 rover is open to all U.S. students from kindergarten to 12\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">th\u003c/span>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\"> grade. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400;\">If you think you have a winning name, start writing that winning essay. \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "The Fall Equinox Is Upon Us. So Here's What That Is",
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"content": "\u003cp>It’s time to savor the first few moments of official fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The autumnal equinox is upon us, marking one of two days a year when the amount of daylight matches that of night. (The other is the vernal or spring equinox)\u003cb>. \u003c/b>The word equinox comes from the Latin “aequus,” meaning equal, and “nox,” meaning night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year, the equinox was today at 12:50 a.m. Pacific Time. Depending on your latitude, you may not receive exactly 12 hours of light and dark. Today, for example, daylight in San Francisco will last roughly 10 seconds longer than in L.A. You can check \u003ca href=\"http://timeanddate.com/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">TimeAndDate.com\u003c/a> to calculate the day length for your location.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s Happening in Space\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you drew a line across Earth’s equator, the equinox occurs when the Sun’s path would be right in the middle. On Earth that translates into the sunset appearing due West. During spring and summer, the sun sets to the north of that point (for those in the Northern Hemisphere). In fall and winter, the sun will set to the south of that point.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why Do the Seasons Change Anyway?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earth’s rotational axis has a tilt as it orbits the Sun. During fall and winter in the Northern Hemisphere, we have more dark than light, meaning less heat\u003cb> \u003c/b>from the sun. At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere receives more hours of daylight than night, meaning longer days and more heating. On the equator, the length of days and seasons stays pretty much the same.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>It’s time to savor the first few moments of official fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The autumnal equinox is upon us, marking one of two days a year when the amount of daylight matches that of night. (The other is the vernal or spring equinox)\u003cb>. \u003c/b>The word equinox comes from the Latin “aequus,” meaning equal, and “nox,” meaning night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year, the equinox was today at 12:50 a.m. Pacific Time. Depending on your latitude, you may not receive exactly 12 hours of light and dark. Today, for example, daylight in San Francisco will last roughly 10 seconds longer than in L.A. You can check \u003ca href=\"http://timeanddate.com/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">TimeAndDate.com\u003c/a> to calculate the day length for your location.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s Happening in Space\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you drew a line across Earth’s equator, the equinox occurs when the Sun’s path would be right in the middle. On Earth that translates into the sunset appearing due West. During spring and summer, the sun sets to the north of that point (for those in the Northern Hemisphere). In fall and winter, the sun will set to the south of that point.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why Do the Seasons Change Anyway?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earth’s rotational axis has a tilt as it orbits the Sun. During fall and winter in the Northern Hemisphere, we have more dark than light, meaning less heat\u003cb> \u003c/b>from the sun. At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere receives more hours of daylight than night, meaning longer days and more heating. On the equator, the length of days and seasons stays pretty much the same.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "NASA's Europa Clipper Is a Go",
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"content": "\u003cp>NASA has taken a big step closer to testing the waters of the ocean hiding under the icy crust of Europa, Jupiter’s most enigmatic moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-clipper/\">Europa Clipper mission\u003c/a>, in development at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, has just been approved for its final design and construction phase. It’s on track for a 2025 launch.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Clipper” is the culmination of decades of dreaming and years of conceptual and preliminary design. It is only the second mission NASA has dedicated to exploring a moon in the solar system—our own moon was the first. The target, Jupiter’s icy \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/europa/in-depth/\">Europa\u003c/a>, is very different from Earth’s moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946853\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946853\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-800x515.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concept of a view from Europa's icy surface, looking out upon Jupiter.\" width=\"800\" height=\"515\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-800x515.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-160x103.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-768x494.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-1020x657.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-1200x773.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concept of a view from Europa’s icy surface, looking out upon Jupiter. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Believed to possess a heated rocky core and mantle surrounded by an ice-topped ocean of liquid water up to 100 miles deep, Europa is arguably the best place in our solar system to look for life beyond Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why Are We Interested in this Icy Jovian Moon?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/\">Astrobiologists\u003c/a>‘ mouths water at the prospect of an ocean of liquid water — particularly a salty one — in contact with a rocky ocean floor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They theorize that heat from within Europa’s rocky interior, generated by \u003ca href=\"https://tidal-heating.weebly.com/jupiters-moons.html\">tidal forces of Jupiter’s gravity,\u003c/a> powers eruptions of hot, mineral-laden water on Europa’s ocean floor. Such “hydrothermal vents” could supply all the ingredients necessary to sustain some form of life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946849\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946849\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-800x796.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concept of Europa's ice-topped ocean, showing hydrothermal vents injecting heat and chemicals into the waters.\" width=\"800\" height=\"796\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-800x796.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-160x159.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-768x764.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll.jpg 955w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concept of Europa’s ice-topped ocean, showing hydrothermal vents injecting heat and chemicals into the waters. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL/Michael Carroll)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/vents.html\">Hydrothermal vents\u003c/a> dot Earth’s own oceans in volcanically active areas. Since their discovery, researchers have found communities of life forms that thrive around hydrothermal vents, subsisting entirely on thermal and chemical energy emerging from Earth’s interior.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How life arrived at these deep ocean oases is still open to scientific debate. One theory poses the idea that life on Earth could have gotten its start at hydrothermal vents and migrated later to the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Challenge of Exploring a Concealed Ocean Half a Billion Miles Away\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You might wonder, if there’s a saltwater ocean on Europa, and the strong possibility of a life-friendly environment, why don’t we already have robot submarines in the water sending us images of beautiful bioluminescent jellyfish, or something?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Easier said than done. Even landing a robot on Europa’s unexplored surface would be a great engineering challenge. Designing a mission capable of boring through miles of ice and descending through a hundred miles of water to reach the ocean floor, and still able to communicate with us back on Earth, is presently an adventure of science fiction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/05/without-champion-europa-lander-falls-nasa-s-back-burner\">earlier mission concepts\u003c/a> flirted with dropping robots onto Europa’s surface, the Clipper mission won’t do that. It won’t even orbit Europa.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That moon resides within \u003ca href=\"https://www.popsci.com/how-juno-spacecraft-will-survive-jupiters-devastating-radiation/\">bands of intense radiation\u003c/a> that surround Jupiter, an environment where even a radiation-hardened spacecraft might survive only a few weeks. Such a short visit wouldn’t allow much time to explore, let alone transmit the huge volumes of collected scientific data back to Earth before a fatal failure brought an end to the mission.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, Clipper will follow a looping trajectory around Jupiter that will send it careening past Europa on 45 close flybys. Some will pass as close as 16 miles near the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946854\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 673px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1946854\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/EuropaClipper.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram showing NASA's strategy of close flybys of Europa on different trajectories, a plan designed to give Europa Clipper's observations global coverage. \" width=\"673\" height=\"622\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/EuropaClipper.jpg 673w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/EuropaClipper-160x148.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 673px) 100vw, 673px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diagram showing NASA’s strategy of close flybys of Europa on different trajectories, a plan designed to give Europa Clipper’s observations global coverage. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Between flybys the spacecraft will retreat to the far end of its elongated orbit, away from Jupiter and into safer climates beyond the deadly radiation zone. The longer mission time and extended orbits will ultimately let Clipper collect and send home up to three times as much data as a Europa-orbiting spacecraft could.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Europa Clipper Will See Under Europa’s Skin\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa Clipper will carry \u003ca href=\"https://europa.nasa.gov/about-clipper/instruments/\">nine scientific instruments\u003c/a> designed to offer a detailed look at the moon, particularly the vast ocean lurking beneath its icy crust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Apart from the usual cameras and spectrometers that will take high-resolution pictures and analyze the composition of Europa’s surface, Clipper will carry instruments to investigate what lies below that surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An ice-penetrating radar will probe the frozen crust to determine its thickness and map its structure. Scientists will look for any subsurface lakes in chambers closer to the surface, which may be sources of water plumes detected by the Hubble Space Telescope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A magnetometer will measure the disturbance of Jupiter’s magnetic field by Europa’s salty ocean, divining its salinity and depth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Two different instruments will analyze particles “sniffed” during very close flybys. The composition of particles and gases in Europa’s tenuous atmosphere and possibly plumes of water and chemicals erupting from its surface could help explain what Europa’s ocean is made of, if those plumes originate from the ocean’s waters.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How Long Have We Known About Europa’s Ocean?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We caught our \u003ca href=\"https://europa.nasa.gov/about-europa/ocean/\">first scent of Europa’s ocean\u003c/a> in 1979 when the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft flew through the Jupiter system. The spacecraft captured images of Europa’s fractured surface. Its patterns of cracks and fissures were best explained by a thin icy crust floating on a body of liquid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946847\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 732px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1946847\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/jupitersmoon-nasajpl.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"732\" height=\"541\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/jupitersmoon-nasajpl.jpg 732w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/jupitersmoon-nasajpl-160x118.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 732px) 100vw, 732px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image of the cracked icy surface of Jupiter’s moon Europa, captured by the Galileo spacecraft durin \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Starting in 1995 the \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/galileo/overview/\">Galileo spacecraft\u003c/a> made 11 close flybys of Europa, capturing images of much higher detail and measuring Europa’s effects on Jupiter’s magnetic field. The images further confirmed the presence of the hidden ocean, and Europa’s magnetic disturbances suggested that ocean is salty.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the past few years, observations by the Hubble Space Telescope have \u003ca href=\"https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo1717a/\">tentatively detected what may be plumes of water vapor\u003c/a> emanating from Europa’s southern polar region, further whetting scientists’ appetites to explore the exo-ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ll have to wait a few more years before getting our next taste of Europa’s ocean waters, but at least we know that Europa Clipper is on the way.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>NASA has taken a big step closer to testing the waters of the ocean hiding under the icy crust of Europa, Jupiter’s most enigmatic moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-clipper/\">Europa Clipper mission\u003c/a>, in development at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, has just been approved for its final design and construction phase. It’s on track for a 2025 launch.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Clipper” is the culmination of decades of dreaming and years of conceptual and preliminary design. It is only the second mission NASA has dedicated to exploring a moon in the solar system—our own moon was the first. The target, Jupiter’s icy \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/europa/in-depth/\">Europa\u003c/a>, is very different from Earth’s moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946853\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946853\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-800x515.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concept of a view from Europa's icy surface, looking out upon Jupiter.\" width=\"800\" height=\"515\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-800x515.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-160x103.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-768x494.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-1020x657.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper-1200x773.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/image_2927e-Europa-Clipper.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concept of a view from Europa’s icy surface, looking out upon Jupiter. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Believed to possess a heated rocky core and mantle surrounded by an ice-topped ocean of liquid water up to 100 miles deep, Europa is arguably the best place in our solar system to look for life beyond Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why Are We Interested in this Icy Jovian Moon?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/\">Astrobiologists\u003c/a>‘ mouths water at the prospect of an ocean of liquid water — particularly a salty one — in contact with a rocky ocean floor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They theorize that heat from within Europa’s rocky interior, generated by \u003ca href=\"https://tidal-heating.weebly.com/jupiters-moons.html\">tidal forces of Jupiter’s gravity,\u003c/a> powers eruptions of hot, mineral-laden water on Europa’s ocean floor. Such “hydrothermal vents” could supply all the ingredients necessary to sustain some form of life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946849\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946849\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-800x796.jpg\" alt=\"Artist concept of Europa's ice-topped ocean, showing hydrothermal vents injecting heat and chemicals into the waters.\" width=\"800\" height=\"796\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-800x796.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-160x159.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll-768x764.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/36_PIA10131-nasajplMichael-Carroll.jpg 955w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist concept of Europa’s ice-topped ocean, showing hydrothermal vents injecting heat and chemicals into the waters. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL/Michael Carroll)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/vents.html\">Hydrothermal vents\u003c/a> dot Earth’s own oceans in volcanically active areas. Since their discovery, researchers have found communities of life forms that thrive around hydrothermal vents, subsisting entirely on thermal and chemical energy emerging from Earth’s interior.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How life arrived at these deep ocean oases is still open to scientific debate. One theory poses the idea that life on Earth could have gotten its start at hydrothermal vents and migrated later to the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Challenge of Exploring a Concealed Ocean Half a Billion Miles Away\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You might wonder, if there’s a saltwater ocean on Europa, and the strong possibility of a life-friendly environment, why don’t we already have robot submarines in the water sending us images of beautiful bioluminescent jellyfish, or something?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Easier said than done. Even landing a robot on Europa’s unexplored surface would be a great engineering challenge. Designing a mission capable of boring through miles of ice and descending through a hundred miles of water to reach the ocean floor, and still able to communicate with us back on Earth, is presently an adventure of science fiction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/05/without-champion-europa-lander-falls-nasa-s-back-burner\">earlier mission concepts\u003c/a> flirted with dropping robots onto Europa’s surface, the Clipper mission won’t do that. It won’t even orbit Europa.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That moon resides within \u003ca href=\"https://www.popsci.com/how-juno-spacecraft-will-survive-jupiters-devastating-radiation/\">bands of intense radiation\u003c/a> that surround Jupiter, an environment where even a radiation-hardened spacecraft might survive only a few weeks. Such a short visit wouldn’t allow much time to explore, let alone transmit the huge volumes of collected scientific data back to Earth before a fatal failure brought an end to the mission.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, Clipper will follow a looping trajectory around Jupiter that will send it careening past Europa on 45 close flybys. Some will pass as close as 16 miles near the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946854\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 673px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1946854\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/EuropaClipper.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram showing NASA's strategy of close flybys of Europa on different trajectories, a plan designed to give Europa Clipper's observations global coverage. \" width=\"673\" height=\"622\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/EuropaClipper.jpg 673w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/EuropaClipper-160x148.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 673px) 100vw, 673px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diagram showing NASA’s strategy of close flybys of Europa on different trajectories, a plan designed to give Europa Clipper’s observations global coverage. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Between flybys the spacecraft will retreat to the far end of its elongated orbit, away from Jupiter and into safer climates beyond the deadly radiation zone. The longer mission time and extended orbits will ultimately let Clipper collect and send home up to three times as much data as a Europa-orbiting spacecraft could.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Europa Clipper Will See Under Europa’s Skin\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa Clipper will carry \u003ca href=\"https://europa.nasa.gov/about-clipper/instruments/\">nine scientific instruments\u003c/a> designed to offer a detailed look at the moon, particularly the vast ocean lurking beneath its icy crust.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Apart from the usual cameras and spectrometers that will take high-resolution pictures and analyze the composition of Europa’s surface, Clipper will carry instruments to investigate what lies below that surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An ice-penetrating radar will probe the frozen crust to determine its thickness and map its structure. Scientists will look for any subsurface lakes in chambers closer to the surface, which may be sources of water plumes detected by the Hubble Space Telescope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A magnetometer will measure the disturbance of Jupiter’s magnetic field by Europa’s salty ocean, divining its salinity and depth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Two different instruments will analyze particles “sniffed” during very close flybys. The composition of particles and gases in Europa’s tenuous atmosphere and possibly plumes of water and chemicals erupting from its surface could help explain what Europa’s ocean is made of, if those plumes originate from the ocean’s waters.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How Long Have We Known About Europa’s Ocean?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We caught our \u003ca href=\"https://europa.nasa.gov/about-europa/ocean/\">first scent of Europa’s ocean\u003c/a> in 1979 when the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft flew through the Jupiter system. The spacecraft captured images of Europa’s fractured surface. Its patterns of cracks and fissures were best explained by a thin icy crust floating on a body of liquid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946847\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 732px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1946847\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/jupitersmoon-nasajpl.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"732\" height=\"541\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/jupitersmoon-nasajpl.jpg 732w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/jupitersmoon-nasajpl-160x118.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 732px) 100vw, 732px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image of the cracked icy surface of Jupiter’s moon Europa, captured by the Galileo spacecraft durin \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Starting in 1995 the \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/galileo/overview/\">Galileo spacecraft\u003c/a> made 11 close flybys of Europa, capturing images of much higher detail and measuring Europa’s effects on Jupiter’s magnetic field. The images further confirmed the presence of the hidden ocean, and Europa’s magnetic disturbances suggested that ocean is salty.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the past few years, observations by the Hubble Space Telescope have \u003ca href=\"https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo1717a/\">tentatively detected what may be plumes of water vapor\u003c/a> emanating from Europa’s southern polar region, further whetting scientists’ appetites to explore the exo-ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We’ll have to wait a few more years before getting our next taste of Europa’s ocean waters, but at least we know that Europa Clipper is on the way.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>An unusual glow lights Charlize and Dayleen Sánchez’s faces. They brighten from cyan blue to red to green, and back again. Big sister Charlize, 12, and Dayleen, 9, are turning knobs to brighten or dim the lights, trying to create the color brown.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They’re mixing primary colors inside a light cube at San Francisco’s bayside science museum, the Exploratorium. As they experiment, they come up with a new shade – a brilliant magenta. Their mother, Brenda Tovar, gives her daughters’ luminous creation a smile of approval.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s refreshing to get them to be excited about learning,” Tovar says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The girls’ grandmother Julia Jimenez, stands next to \u003cem>her\u003c/em> mother, Virginia Sayes, explaining in Spanish what the girls are doing. Sayes sits in her wheelchair looking cozy and happy, like Mama Coco from the Disney film.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The spirit of inquiry illuminates four generations of this family.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Science-Minded Household\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">[pullquote size='medium' align='right' citation='Catherine Lee']‘Watching the toilet flush- that is science.’[/pullquote]\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tovar – like other parents I spoke with during a summer weekday at the Exploratorium – hopes her children will continue to nurture this spirit. Kids are born to wonder. Parents who wish to foster curiosity and exploration in their children can do plenty to encourage their kids to think critically, explain their reasoning, and solve problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Visiting museums like the Exploratorium is a step in that direction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science in the Toilet?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nate Miller, 8, can’t believe what he is seeing. With one eye, he looks straight at his hand. With the other eye, he sees his 11-year-old brother, Sam, who sits in front of him. As Nate moves his hand to reveal a cat on the wall, he sees a cat’s face with his brother’s smile. Their mom Catherine Lee watches this experiment in sight perception at the Exploratorium. She explains to Nate that his eyes saw two very different views, so his brain combined the two views to create a single image.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946639\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946639\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-800x565.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"565\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-800x565.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-160x113.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-768x542.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-1020x720.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-1200x848.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sam, 11, smiles at his brother, Nate, 8, while he looks through a mirror at him while in the Exploratorium on Thursday August 1, 2019. (Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At home, Lee looks for opportunities to talk about science with her sons. “Watching the toilet flush- that is science,” Lee says, adding that she’d ask her kids about where the water ends up. “How does it swirl as it goes down the bowl?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(In theory, the Coriolis Effect would cause water to spin on a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In practice, the direction depends on the design of the toilet bowl.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lee calls this an example of science in basic things we often ignore. Her son Sam agrees. He plays the violin and seems as drawn to the math of music as to the melody.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“My teacher,” he says, “is doing this math science thing with the violin, with sound waves and scales.” To encourage his interests, Sam’s parents hired a music teacher who incorporates science into his lessons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Paint a Picture of What’s Possible\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ellen Ochoa’s journey to nearly 1,000 hours in space began with her realization that she could push beyond limits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a child she wanted to be a lawyer or the President of the United States, because those were the only careers she knew about. “I didn’t really know about what careers were really like in [science] subjects, I did not know anybody to talk to,” Ochoa says. “I just couldn’t picture it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Only after she enrolled at San Diego State did she express interest in a math-related degree. Ochoa spoke with a physics professor who encouraged her to pursue a degree and a career in that field.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From there, she earned graduate degrees at Stanford, became the first Latina astronaut and eventually ran NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">[aside label='Create science exhibits at home using the Exploratorium’s Science Snacks ' link1='https://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/']\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her example is a reminder that children can’t imagine what they can’t see around them. Parents can arrange for their children to meet or job-shadow local science professionals. Ochoa, who’s also a research engineer, continues to encourage young people to study science, technology, engineering and math. “STEM fields are about solving problems and making new discoveries,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Julia Jimenez – Charlize and Dayleen Sánchez’s grandmother – was inspired to become a nurse after a group of nurses visited her classroom to talk about their careers. After that talk, she recalls,“I said ‘I am going to apply and see if I qualify,’ I did and I liked it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Engage with your Child’s School Culture\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jimenez’ daughter Brenda Tovar doesn’t leave her daughters’ education to chance. “Being active and participating in their school work, going to their open houses and having them show me their projects, the things that they are learning,” she says, is key to encouraging children to learn more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946643\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946643\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-800x589.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"589\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-800x589.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-160x118.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-768x565.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-1020x751.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-1200x883.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Liam Boucher, 5, and Georgie Harvey, 5, play with the fog used in an exhibit that creates a small scale tornado at the Exploratorium in San Francisco on Thursday August 1, 2019. (Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Britany Boucher, another parent at the Exploratorium, says the question, “How was your day at school?” can shut down a conversation with her 5 year-old son Liam.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was hard last year, in kindergarten, because he didn’t talk a lot about what was going on in school. It was really hard to get things out of him,” Boucher says, as she watches her son play in the museum’s tornado exhibit. “But his teacher gave us a piece of paper of what they were doing for the week or for the month that was a good way for me to bring up ideas that he would then talk to me about.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Be Science Confident\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Amanda Sadie and her children visit the museum so often they have a favorite exhibit – Morse Code. The interactive game trains your brain to communicate with a partner using dots and dashes. Sadie loves science, and when her kids ask about something she doesn’t know, she turns it into a learning opportunity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We can always ask Siri together or we go to Google together,” she says. “It’s a chance for us to read on the spot, learn in the moment, and then try to piece it together,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even better than using artificial intelligence or online searches is allowing children to investigate, hypothesize, and experiment first, says Jessica Parker, Director of Teaching and Learning at the Exploratorium – an institution designed to encourage those activities in a safe, supervised setting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">[pullquote size='medium' align='left' citation='Ellen Ochoa']‘STEM fields are about solving problems and making new discoveries.’[/pullquote]\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Boucher’s son Liam calls science “kind of hard, because I am in first grade now.” Then he scrambles up a staircase and turns himself into a gravity experiment, grabbing the handrail and hanging upside down.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Science Minded Adventure\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Charlize and Dayleen’s light experiment may or may not spark their interest in science careers. Beyond the museum, Tovar and other parents look for ways to encourage their kids’ curiosity and problem-solving skills through cooking, outdoor hikes, and science fair projects.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Making science so fun, they don’t even realize they’re learning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Tovar – like other parents I spoke with during a summer weekday at the Exploratorium – hopes her children will continue to nurture this spirit. Kids are born to wonder. Parents who wish to foster curiosity and exploration in their children can do plenty to encourage their kids to think critically, explain their reasoning, and solve problems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Visiting museums like the Exploratorium is a step in that direction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Science in the Toilet?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nate Miller, 8, can’t believe what he is seeing. With one eye, he looks straight at his hand. With the other eye, he sees his 11-year-old brother, Sam, who sits in front of him. As Nate moves his hand to reveal a cat on the wall, he sees a cat’s face with his brother’s smile. Their mom Catherine Lee watches this experiment in sight perception at the Exploratorium. She explains to Nate that his eyes saw two very different views, so his brain combined the two views to create a single image.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946639\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946639\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-800x565.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"565\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-800x565.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-160x113.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-768x542.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-1020x720.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium-1200x848.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Sam_Miller_Exploratorium.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sam, 11, smiles at his brother, Nate, 8, while he looks through a mirror at him while in the Exploratorium on Thursday August 1, 2019. (Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At home, Lee looks for opportunities to talk about science with her sons. “Watching the toilet flush- that is science,” Lee says, adding that she’d ask her kids about where the water ends up. “How does it swirl as it goes down the bowl?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(In theory, the Coriolis Effect would cause water to spin on a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In practice, the direction depends on the design of the toilet bowl.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lee calls this an example of science in basic things we often ignore. Her son Sam agrees. He plays the violin and seems as drawn to the math of music as to the melody.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“My teacher,” he says, “is doing this math science thing with the violin, with sound waves and scales.” To encourage his interests, Sam’s parents hired a music teacher who incorporates science into his lessons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Paint a Picture of What’s Possible\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ellen Ochoa’s journey to nearly 1,000 hours in space began with her realization that she could push beyond limits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a child she wanted to be a lawyer or the President of the United States, because those were the only careers she knew about. “I didn’t really know about what careers were really like in [science] subjects, I did not know anybody to talk to,” Ochoa says. “I just couldn’t picture it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Only after she enrolled at San Diego State did she express interest in a math-related degree. Ochoa spoke with a physics professor who encouraged her to pursue a degree and a career in that field.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From there, she earned graduate degrees at Stanford, became the first Latina astronaut and eventually ran NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Her example is a reminder that children can’t imagine what they can’t see around them. Parents can arrange for their children to meet or job-shadow local science professionals. Ochoa, who’s also a research engineer, continues to encourage young people to study science, technology, engineering and math. “STEM fields are about solving problems and making new discoveries,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Julia Jimenez – Charlize and Dayleen Sánchez’s grandmother – was inspired to become a nurse after a group of nurses visited her classroom to talk about their careers. After that talk, she recalls,“I said ‘I am going to apply and see if I qualify,’ I did and I liked it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Engage with your Child’s School Culture\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jimenez’ daughter Brenda Tovar doesn’t leave her daughters’ education to chance. “Being active and participating in their school work, going to their open houses and having them show me their projects, the things that they are learning,” she says, is key to encouraging children to learn more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946643\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946643\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-800x589.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"589\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-800x589.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-160x118.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-768x565.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-1020x751.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie-1200x883.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/Exploratorium_016_Liam_Gorgie.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Liam Boucher, 5, and Georgie Harvey, 5, play with the fog used in an exhibit that creates a small scale tornado at the Exploratorium in San Francisco on Thursday August 1, 2019. (Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Britany Boucher, another parent at the Exploratorium, says the question, “How was your day at school?” can shut down a conversation with her 5 year-old son Liam.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It was hard last year, in kindergarten, because he didn’t talk a lot about what was going on in school. It was really hard to get things out of him,” Boucher says, as she watches her son play in the museum’s tornado exhibit. “But his teacher gave us a piece of paper of what they were doing for the week or for the month that was a good way for me to bring up ideas that he would then talk to me about.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Be Science Confident\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Amanda Sadie and her children visit the museum so often they have a favorite exhibit – Morse Code. The interactive game trains your brain to communicate with a partner using dots and dashes. Sadie loves science, and when her kids ask about something she doesn’t know, she turns it into a learning opportunity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We can always ask Siri together or we go to Google together,” she says. “It’s a chance for us to read on the spot, learn in the moment, and then try to piece it together,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even better than using artificial intelligence or online searches is allowing children to investigate, hypothesize, and experiment first, says Jessica Parker, Director of Teaching and Learning at the Exploratorium – an institution designed to encourage those activities in a safe, supervised setting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "NASA's InSight Lander Detects its First Marsquake",
"headTitle": "NASA’s InSight Lander Detects its First Marsquake | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>Since the recent Mojave Desert and \u003ca href=\"https://www.insurancejournal.com/blogs/corelogic/2019/08/08/535205.htm\">Ridgecrest earthquakes\u003c/a>, tremors in the ground have been on people’s minds. And the approaching 30th anniversary of the \u003ca href=\"https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/events/1989lomaprieta/\">Loma Prieta earthquake \u003c/a>reminds the Bay Area that we all live on shaky ground.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists —not just those who listen to Earth’s restless rumbling crust with their global arrays of seismometers — have seismic activity on their minds, too. At NASA they’ve put their ears to the ground on the planet Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946521\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946521\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-800x800.gif\" alt=\"Picture showing the InSight lander's seismic detection instrument, SEIS, deployed on Mars' surface. \" width=\"800\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-800x800.gif 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-160x160.gif 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-768x768.gif 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-1020x1020.gif 1020w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Picture showing the InSight lander’s seismic detection instrument, SEIS, deployed on Mars’ surface. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/insight/\">NASA’s InSight\u003c/a> lander made its \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7383\">debut “marsquake” detection\u003c/a> on April 6th, with its \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/insight/spacecraft/instruments/seis/\">Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure\u003c/a> (SEIS) instrument. Like a doctor’s stethoscope, SEIS is placed against the Martian surface to listen for faint sounds from deep within the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>To Feel a Marsquake\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You would not have felt the marsquake SEIS detected even had you been standing near the lander when it happened. Like the thousands of “\u003ca href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2006/15mar_moonquakes\">moonquakes\u003c/a>” that Apollo mission seismometers detected on the moon between 1969 and 1977, the April 6 Mars-tremor was little more than a \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/22429/first-likely-marsquake-heard-by-nasas-insight/?site=insight\">faint and distant murmur\u003c/a> picked up by the highly sensitive SEIS detector.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To get a feel for the dynamics of the marsquake, experimenters at the Swiss university \u003ca href=\"https://ethz.ch/en.html\">ETH Zurich\u003c/a> ran the SEIS tremor data through a “\u003ca href=\"https://focusterra.ethz.ch/en/museum/earthquake-simulator.html\">shake room\u003c/a>,” a simulator that replicates the motion of earthquakes from recorded seismometer data. A shake room offers a more visceral quake-replay experience than you would get simply by studying tables of figures and graphs of the data.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But to make the marsquake even noticeable to people in the shake room, the experiment crew really had to crank up the volume on the SEIS signals–10 million times.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why Study Marsquakes?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The characteristic motions of quakes—the direction of shaking, the frequency of vibrations, the duration and strength of the seismic event—all tell scientists about the materials and geologic structures the seismic waves passed through on their way to the detector.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946526\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946526\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-800x491.jpg\" alt=\"Comparing the interior geologic structures of Earth, moon and Mars. Earth's interior is much better understood by virtue of decades of seismic and gravity measurements taken all over the world. With much less interior data to go on, the moon and Mars still present a lot of questions, which NASA hopes to begin answering with InSight. \" width=\"800\" height=\"491\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-800x491.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-160x98.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-768x472.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors.jpg 840w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Comparing the interior geologic structures of Earth, moon and Mars. Earth’s interior is much better understood by virtue of decades of seismic and gravity measurements taken all over the world. With much less interior data to go on, the moon and Mars still present a lot of questions, which NASA hopes to begin answering with InSight. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Varying densities in different geologic layers bend and focus the waves in different ways and directions as they bounce and echo inside a planet, and with enough data it’s possible to map these otherwise buried and \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7460\">hidden structures.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The April 6 marsquake did not contain enough information for scientists to begin mapping the planet’s internal structure, but this first-ever detection of a tremor ringing through Mars is a resounding opening bell for a new field in science, Martian Seismology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Causes Marsquakes?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The violent collision or edge-on-edge grinding of moving crustal plates driven by upwelling currents of molten magma in the hot mantle below cause most quakes on Earth. Scientists call this process \u003ca href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/plate-tectonics/\">plate tectonics\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine an over-crowded bumper-car rink, packed with vehicles trying to move in their own directions. The cars push against each other in a tense state of deadlocked traffic, but occasionally, something slips and a jerk of motion passes through the cars and riders. That’s kind of how quakes go down on Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Mars, as well as the moon, conditions are different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These masses have cooled off to the point that they no longer experience plate tectonics, if they ever did.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, as they continue to cool their interiors are \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2019/moonquakes\">gradually contracting\u003c/a>, a global “collapse” that creates stress in the hardened crust–stress that occasionally reaches a breaking point, causing it to fracture and collapse. Marsquakes are the result.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>InSight’s Insightful Mission\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists sent InSight to Mars with three \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/insight/spacecraft/instruments/summary/\">main scientific instruments\u003c/a> designed to do essentially one thing: offer a look inside Mars and develop a picture of its internal structure and composition, straight to its core.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seismic vibrations—marsquakes— allow scientists to listen for clues about the planet’s interior.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For decades on Earth, seismic listening posts located all around the globe have performed a similar function. They track the motion and qualities of shock waves that seismic events cause to develop a picture of Earth’s internal structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946527\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946527\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Artist illustration of NASA's InSight lander, with its main scientific instruments and other tools labeled. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist illustration of NASA’s InSight lander, with its main scientific instruments and other tools labeled. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>InSight’s second experiment is a string of temperature sensors buried in the top few feet of Mars’ soil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By measuring ground temperature at different depths, scientists can calculate how much heat is escaping from Mars’ interior into space, and estimate temperatures deeper down, even to its core. Knowing these two factors, scientists can also chart the history of the cooling of Mars from the time of its formation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lastly, scientists are measuring the \u003ca href=\"https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/features/yba/M31_velocity/spectrum/doppler_more.html\">Doppler shift\u003c/a> of InSight’s radio transmissions to make very precise calculations of Mars’ rotational motion. By analyzing peculiar wobbles and gyrations in Mars’ rotation they can glean useful information about the distribution of mass within Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is similar to how each load of laundry you run causes the washing machine to vibrate or dance to a slightly different tune during the spin cycle, as it distributes each load of wet laundry a bit differently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All the data points that InSight is gathering give scientists information about what’s inside Mars, how its interior is laid out, and even the geologic history of its formation over eons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Understanding how Mars is put together and has evolved can, by example, tell us how the other rocky planets of the inner solar system—Earth, Venus, and Mercury—formed, and infer the conditions in the early solar system that shaped them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The phenomena that InSight studies are incredibly subtle: Echoes of sound ten million times too weak to feel; the slow crawl of heat through a few feet of cold soil; minute perturbations in Mars’ spin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But by taking the pulse, temperature, and reflexes of Mars, scientists can begin to understand how our home planet came to be.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "On April 6th NASA's InSight lander detected its first \"marsquake\" with its SEIS instrument.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Since the recent Mojave Desert and \u003ca href=\"https://www.insurancejournal.com/blogs/corelogic/2019/08/08/535205.htm\">Ridgecrest earthquakes\u003c/a>, tremors in the ground have been on people’s minds. And the approaching 30th anniversary of the \u003ca href=\"https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/events/1989lomaprieta/\">Loma Prieta earthquake \u003c/a>reminds the Bay Area that we all live on shaky ground.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists —not just those who listen to Earth’s restless rumbling crust with their global arrays of seismometers — have seismic activity on their minds, too. At NASA they’ve put their ears to the ground on the planet Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946521\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946521\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-800x800.gif\" alt=\"Picture showing the InSight lander's seismic detection instrument, SEIS, deployed on Mars' surface. \" width=\"800\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-800x800.gif 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-160x160.gif 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-768x768.gif 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/PIA23180_raw-1020x1020.gif 1020w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Picture showing the InSight lander’s seismic detection instrument, SEIS, deployed on Mars’ surface. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/insight/\">NASA’s InSight\u003c/a> lander made its \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7383\">debut “marsquake” detection\u003c/a> on April 6th, with its \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/insight/spacecraft/instruments/seis/\">Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure\u003c/a> (SEIS) instrument. Like a doctor’s stethoscope, SEIS is placed against the Martian surface to listen for faint sounds from deep within the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>To Feel a Marsquake\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You would not have felt the marsquake SEIS detected even had you been standing near the lander when it happened. Like the thousands of “\u003ca href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2006/15mar_moonquakes\">moonquakes\u003c/a>” that Apollo mission seismometers detected on the moon between 1969 and 1977, the April 6 Mars-tremor was little more than a \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/22429/first-likely-marsquake-heard-by-nasas-insight/?site=insight\">faint and distant murmur\u003c/a> picked up by the highly sensitive SEIS detector.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To get a feel for the dynamics of the marsquake, experimenters at the Swiss university \u003ca href=\"https://ethz.ch/en.html\">ETH Zurich\u003c/a> ran the SEIS tremor data through a “\u003ca href=\"https://focusterra.ethz.ch/en/museum/earthquake-simulator.html\">shake room\u003c/a>,” a simulator that replicates the motion of earthquakes from recorded seismometer data. A shake room offers a more visceral quake-replay experience than you would get simply by studying tables of figures and graphs of the data.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But to make the marsquake even noticeable to people in the shake room, the experiment crew really had to crank up the volume on the SEIS signals–10 million times.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why Study Marsquakes?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The characteristic motions of quakes—the direction of shaking, the frequency of vibrations, the duration and strength of the seismic event—all tell scientists about the materials and geologic structures the seismic waves passed through on their way to the detector.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946526\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946526\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-800x491.jpg\" alt=\"Comparing the interior geologic structures of Earth, moon and Mars. Earth's interior is much better understood by virtue of decades of seismic and gravity measurements taken all over the world. With much less interior data to go on, the moon and Mars still present a lot of questions, which NASA hopes to begin answering with InSight. \" width=\"800\" height=\"491\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-800x491.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-160x98.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors-768x472.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/planetary-interiors.jpg 840w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Comparing the interior geologic structures of Earth, moon and Mars. Earth’s interior is much better understood by virtue of decades of seismic and gravity measurements taken all over the world. With much less interior data to go on, the moon and Mars still present a lot of questions, which NASA hopes to begin answering with InSight. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Varying densities in different geologic layers bend and focus the waves in different ways and directions as they bounce and echo inside a planet, and with enough data it’s possible to map these otherwise buried and \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7460\">hidden structures.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The April 6 marsquake did not contain enough information for scientists to begin mapping the planet’s internal structure, but this first-ever detection of a tremor ringing through Mars is a resounding opening bell for a new field in science, Martian Seismology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Causes Marsquakes?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The violent collision or edge-on-edge grinding of moving crustal plates driven by upwelling currents of molten magma in the hot mantle below cause most quakes on Earth. Scientists call this process \u003ca href=\"https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/plate-tectonics/\">plate tectonics\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine an over-crowded bumper-car rink, packed with vehicles trying to move in their own directions. The cars push against each other in a tense state of deadlocked traffic, but occasionally, something slips and a jerk of motion passes through the cars and riders. That’s kind of how quakes go down on Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Mars, as well as the moon, conditions are different.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These masses have cooled off to the point that they no longer experience plate tectonics, if they ever did.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Instead, as they continue to cool their interiors are \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2019/moonquakes\">gradually contracting\u003c/a>, a global “collapse” that creates stress in the hardened crust–stress that occasionally reaches a breaking point, causing it to fracture and collapse. Marsquakes are the result.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>InSight’s Insightful Mission\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists sent InSight to Mars with three \u003ca href=\"https://mars.nasa.gov/insight/spacecraft/instruments/summary/\">main scientific instruments\u003c/a> designed to do essentially one thing: offer a look inside Mars and develop a picture of its internal structure and composition, straight to its core.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seismic vibrations—marsquakes— allow scientists to listen for clues about the planet’s interior.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For decades on Earth, seismic listening posts located all around the globe have performed a similar function. They track the motion and qualities of shock waves that seismic events cause to develop a picture of Earth’s internal structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1946527\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1946527\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-800x450.jpg\" alt=\"Artist illustration of NASA's InSight lander, with its main scientific instruments and other tools labeled. \" width=\"800\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-800x450.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-160x90.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-768x432.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-1020x574.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download-1200x675.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/08/download.jpg 1600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist illustration of NASA’s InSight lander, with its main scientific instruments and other tools labeled. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>InSight’s second experiment is a string of temperature sensors buried in the top few feet of Mars’ soil.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By measuring ground temperature at different depths, scientists can calculate how much heat is escaping from Mars’ interior into space, and estimate temperatures deeper down, even to its core. Knowing these two factors, scientists can also chart the history of the cooling of Mars from the time of its formation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lastly, scientists are measuring the \u003ca href=\"https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/features/yba/M31_velocity/spectrum/doppler_more.html\">Doppler shift\u003c/a> of InSight’s radio transmissions to make very precise calculations of Mars’ rotational motion. By analyzing peculiar wobbles and gyrations in Mars’ rotation they can glean useful information about the distribution of mass within Mars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is similar to how each load of laundry you run causes the washing machine to vibrate or dance to a slightly different tune during the spin cycle, as it distributes each load of wet laundry a bit differently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All the data points that InSight is gathering give scientists information about what’s inside Mars, how its interior is laid out, and even the geologic history of its formation over eons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Understanding how Mars is put together and has evolved can, by example, tell us how the other rocky planets of the inner solar system—Earth, Venus, and Mercury—formed, and infer the conditions in the early solar system that shaped them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The phenomena that InSight studies are incredibly subtle: Echoes of sound ten million times too weak to feel; the slow crawl of heat through a few feet of cold soil; minute perturbations in Mars’ spin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But by taking the pulse, temperature, and reflexes of Mars, scientists can begin to understand how our home planet came to be.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Eight of the Most Important Space Discoveries Since the Apollo Landings",
"headTitle": "Eight of the Most Important Space Discoveries Since the Apollo Landings | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>The 1969-72 Apollo moon landings took place in the era when humankind was just beginning to explore outer space with robotic probes and space-based observatories. \u003cstrong> \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was a time when we took the cosmos more at face value, with a \u003cstrong>“\u003c/strong>what you see is what you get” attitude. Black holes, for instance, were mind-bending, hypothetical objects whose existence was yet to be verified. And we still wondered if our sun might be the only star in the universe with planets\u003cem>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945623\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945623 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-800x600.jpg\" alt=\"The unique perspective of observing the cosmos and our planet's place in it from the vantage point of outer space has led to many scientific discoveries and philosophical revelations. \" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-1920x1440.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The unique perspective of observing the cosmos and our planet’s place in it from the vantage point of outer space has led to many scientific discoveries and philosophical revelations. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the decades since the Apollo missions, a long list of fresh discoveries has reshaped our understanding of the universe, from the cosmic to the subatomic. Here are eight of the most important of those since humans last landed on the moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Black Hole Confirmed\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1971 strong emissions of X-rays were detected from a \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/chandra/multimedia/cygnusx1.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">point\u003c/a> in the constellation Cygnus. Like smoke from an unseen gun, the X-rays were believed to emanate from the first-ever detected \u003ca href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/black-holes\">black hole\u003c/a>, though this wasn’t \u003ca href=\"https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2011/11/29/cygnus-x-1-a-black-hole-confirmed/\">confirmed \u003c/a>for over 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The notion of a massive object with gravity so strong that even light cannot escape goes back to at least 1784, when the Englishman John Michell first published the idea. Einstein’s theory of general relativity in the early 20th century predicted black holes, though the theoretical objects had such bizarre properties that \u003ca href=\"https://www.history.com/news/black-holes-albert-einstein-theory-relativity-space-time\">Einstein himself was not convinced\u003c/a> they could exist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Life on the Ocean Floor\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1977, a thriving ecosystem of living organisms was found on the floor of the deep ocean, surrounding a \u003ca href=\"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/vents.html\">hydrothermal vent\u003c/a> and subsisting entirely on heat and chemical energy emerging from Earth’s interior. An NSF-funded team of marine geologists made the discovery in the geothermal hot spot of the \u003ca href=\"https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=334070\">Galapagos Rift\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945625\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945625\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/sully-main-endeavor-field.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/sully-main-endeavor-field.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/sully-main-endeavor-field-160x120.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A ‘black smoker.’ Hydrothermal vents on the deep ocean floor support thriving communities of life that are not dependent on energy from sunlight.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This find provided a first example of life that thrives without sunlight in the cold, dark environment of the ocean floor, encouraging scientists to imagine how extraterrestrial life might form and prosper under very alien conditions on other worlds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Dinosaur Killer Identified \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1980, the Nobel-prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez implicated an asteroid hitting Earth as the culprit responsible for the demise of the dinosaurs. This extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous geological period was a mystery that had gone unsolved for more than a century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alvarez’s team found an unusually high concentration of the element iridium in the worldwide geologic layer of sediment marking the end of the Cretaceous period. Iridium is rare in Earth rocks, but abundant in asteroids, suggesting that a global asteroid- impact catastrophe was the logical source.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945626\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 536px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945626\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/536px-Chicxulub_radar_topography.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the northern Yucatan Peninsula showing the barely visible remnants of the Chixulub impact crater, formed by an asteroid strike about 66 million years ago. \" width=\"536\" height=\"599\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/536px-Chicxulub_radar_topography.jpg 536w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/536px-Chicxulub_radar_topography-160x179.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 536px) 100vw, 536px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A map of the northern Yucatan Peninsula showing the barely visible remnants of the Chixulub impact crater, formed by an asteroid strike about 66 million years ago. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the 1990s, a \u003ca href=\"https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/Chicxulub/regional-effects/\">100-mile wide impact crater\u003c/a> was identified at the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, with its center near the town of Chixulub. Mostly buried under jungle and sea floor sediment, the crater was chemically dated to around 66 million years old, coinciding with the dying off of the dinosaurs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, Chixulub crater is \u003ca href=\"https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2010/03/09/alvarez-theory-on-dinosaur/\">widely accepted\u003c/a> as the fatal wound that ended the 200 million year dynasty of Earth’s most famous extinct creatures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>First Planets Outside Our Solar System Found\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first confirmed \u003ca href=\"https://futurism.com/the-first-exoplanet-was-discovered-25-years-ago-today\">discovery of a planet outside our solar system\u003c/a> occurred in 1992, when two extrasolar planets were detected orbiting a \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/subject/8731/pulsars/\">pulsar\u003c/a>, which is the remnant core of a dead star, in the constellation Virgo. The first detection of an exoplanet orbiting a star that is still active and burning fuel took place three years later.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945627\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945627\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/20130108_2M1207.jpg\" alt=\"Most exoplanets are too far away and too small to be captured directly in an image, and are detected indirectly. This image is one of the first, and few, direct images of an exoplanet (small red blotch), shown next to its star. \" width=\"500\" height=\"435\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/20130108_2M1207.jpg 500w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/20130108_2M1207-160x139.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Most exoplanets are too far away and too small to be captured directly in an image, and are detected indirectly. This image is one of the first, and few, direct images of an exoplanet (the small, red blotch) shown next to its star. \u003ccite>(NaCo/VLT/ESO)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Before these events, the existence of planets orbiting other stars was only speculation. To date, a \u003ca href=\"https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/\">total of 4,096 planets\u003c/a> in almost 3,000 planetary systems outside our solar system have been confirmed, most of them in our general neighborhood of the Milky Way galaxy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Expansion of the Universe is Speeding Up\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1998, the scientific community was stunned to discover that our universe is not only expanding, a fact known for decades, but expanding at an \u003cem>accelerating rate\u003c/em>. Conventional wisdom dictated that gravitational attraction by matter within the universe should be slowing the expansion, but careful observations of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.thephysicsmill.com/2015/06/29/type-1a-the-other-type-of-supernova/\">special type of supernova\u003c/a> that serves as a precision tool for measuring distances across the universe revealed the opposite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the idea of “\u003ca href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy\">dark energy\u003c/a>” was born, a strange form of energy thought to permeate the universe and exert a \u003cem>repulsive\u003c/em> force on all large-scale structures — galaxies and clusters of galaxies — driving them farther apart at an ever-faster rate\u003cstrong>.\u003c/strong> Though its nature remains largely unknown, it is estimated that at least 68% of the \u003ca href=\"https://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html\">universe’s overall composition\u003c/a> is made up of dark energy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Factoring in another invisible substance called “\u003ca href=\"https://home.cern/science/physics/dark-matter\">dark matter\u003c/a>,” it turns out that the objects in the universe that we can see — the type of stuff we and our planet and the stars are made of — make up only about 4% of the universe’s mass.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An Ocean on Jupiter’s Moon\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1995, NASA’s \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/galileo/\">Galileo mission\u003c/a> all but confirmed the existence of a massive ocean of liquid water, \u003ca href=\"https://europa.nasa.gov/about-europa/ocean/\">concealed beneath the icy crust\u003c/a> of Jupiter’s moon Europa.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images of Europa’s cracked surface suggested that it is a shell of ice floating on top of an ocean that may be up to 100 miles deep and contain twice the water in Earth’s ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1945628\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/the-puzzling-fascinating-surface-of-jupiters-icy-moon-europa-looms-large-in-this-newly-reprocessed.jpeg\" alt=\"The pattern of cracks in the icy crust of Jupiter's moon Europa was the first clue to the deep ocean it hides beneath.\" width=\"650\" height=\"481\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/the-puzzling-fascinating-surface-of-jupiters-icy-moon-europa-looms-large-in-this-newly-reprocessed.jpeg 650w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/the-puzzling-fascinating-surface-of-jupiters-icy-moon-europa-looms-large-in-this-newly-reprocessed-160x118.jpeg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 650px) 100vw, 650px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The existence of an ocean on a nearby world is reason for celebration by \u003ca href=\"https://www.seti.org/research/Astrobiology\">astrobiologists\u003c/a> interested in finding life beyond Earth, and has compelled \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-clipper/\">NASA\u003c/a> and the \u003ca href=\"https://spacenews.com/scientists-want-nasa-and-esa-to-work-together-on-a-europa-lander-mission/\">ESA\u003c/a> to mount space missions to conduct further exploration of Europa.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not long after Europa’s ocean was discovered, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft detected plumes of water vapor spewing from Saturn’s tiny moon \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/cassini/science/enceladus/\">Enceladus\u003c/a>, further upping the stakes in the search for extraterrestrial life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Black Holes Collide\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2016, researchers at the \u003ca href=\"https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/what-is-ligo\">Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory\u003c/a>, or LIGO, made the first-ever detection of \u003ca href=\"https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/what-are-gw\">gravity waves\u003c/a>. Gravity waves are disturbances, or ripples, in the fabric of \u003ca href=\"http://www.einstein-online.info/elementary/specialRT/spacetime.html\">space-time\u003c/a>, caused by the acceleration of massive objects in space. The detection of these waves allows us to perceive events in the universe that cannot be observed by conventional instruments like telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945630\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 454px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945630\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Ligosketch.jpg\" alt=\"The LIGO gravity wave observatory uses a laser to measure the extremely minute changes in distance between them caused by fluctuations in the fabric of spacetime. \" width=\"454\" height=\"260\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Ligosketch.jpg 454w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Ligosketch-160x92.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The LIGO gravity wave observatory uses a laser to measure the extremely minute changes in distance between them caused by fluctuations in the fabric of spacetime. \u003ccite>(LIGO/Shane Larson)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was LIGO that detected the disturbance caused by two black holes colliding and merging, an event whose possibility was hypothesized but never observed. But because LIGO’s highly sensitive laser-and-mirror array enables it to measure distortions in space-time smaller than the nucleus of an atom, it was able to catch the collision.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>First Image of a Black Hole \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2019, an international array of coordinated telescopes, collectively called the \u003ca href=\"https://eventhorizontelescope.org/\">Event Horizon Telescope\u003c/a>, or EHT, achieved what was conventionally thought to be impossible: It captured an image of the silhouette of one of the most elusive objects in the universe, a black hole.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Supermassive+Black+Hole\">supermassive black hole\u003c/a> caught on camera lies 53 million light years away, at the heart of the galaxy Messier 87, and contains the equivalent mass of 6.5 billion stars the size of our sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Black holes have long been famed as the ultimate dark object in the universe, impossible to capture in pictures by virtue of their strong gravity, which prevents any light from escaping. While it is a fact that light cannot get out of a black hole from inside its \u003ca href=\"http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/E/Event+Horizon\">event horizon \u003c/a>— the distance at which the black hole’s gravity becomes strong enough to prevent light from escaping — it had long been thought that a black hole might be viewed in silhouette against the glow of hot gas surrounding it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But black holes are too small and distant for conventional telescopes to observe. The EHT array, however, is not a conventional telescope; it’s a collection of multiple millimeter-wavelength radio telescopes stationed at observatories from Antarctica to Greenland, Spain to Hawaii, and throughout the Americas. When their collective observations of a target object are synchronized, the EHT achieves imaging resolutions equal to an imaginary telescope that would measure half the size of Earth’s diameter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s Next?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Going forward, what can we imagine will be discovered in the next 50 years?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Life forms swimming in Europa’s remote ocean? A fresh and unexpected picture of the universe seen through the lens of dark energy telescopes? The long-sought radio signals from distant, intelligent civilizations?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If recent history is a guide, we can imagine now what we may soon no longer need to.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "From black holes to an ocean on Jupiter's moon, a spate of discoveries over the past 50 years has reshaped our understanding of the universe.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The 1969-72 Apollo moon landings took place in the era when humankind was just beginning to explore outer space with robotic probes and space-based observatories. \u003cstrong> \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It was a time when we took the cosmos more at face value, with a \u003cstrong>“\u003c/strong>what you see is what you get” attitude. Black holes, for instance, were mind-bending, hypothetical objects whose existence was yet to be verified. And we still wondered if our sun might be the only star in the universe with planets\u003cem>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945623\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945623 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-800x600.jpg\" alt=\"The unique perspective of observing the cosmos and our planet's place in it from the vantage point of outer space has led to many scientific discoveries and philosophical revelations. \" width=\"800\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-800x600.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-160x120.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-768x576.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-1020x765.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-1200x900.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048-1920x1440.jpg 1920w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Earthrise1_Apollo8AndersWeigang_2048.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The unique perspective of observing the cosmos and our planet’s place in it from the vantage point of outer space has led to many scientific discoveries and philosophical revelations. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the decades since the Apollo missions, a long list of fresh discoveries has reshaped our understanding of the universe, from the cosmic to the subatomic. Here are eight of the most important of those since humans last landed on the moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Black Hole Confirmed\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1971 strong emissions of X-rays were detected from a \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/chandra/multimedia/cygnusx1.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">point\u003c/a> in the constellation Cygnus. Like smoke from an unseen gun, the X-rays were believed to emanate from the first-ever detected \u003ca href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/black-holes\">black hole\u003c/a>, though this wasn’t \u003ca href=\"https://www.centauri-dreams.org/2011/11/29/cygnus-x-1-a-black-hole-confirmed/\">confirmed \u003c/a>for over 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The notion of a massive object with gravity so strong that even light cannot escape goes back to at least 1784, when the Englishman John Michell first published the idea. Einstein’s theory of general relativity in the early 20th century predicted black holes, though the theoretical objects had such bizarre properties that \u003ca href=\"https://www.history.com/news/black-holes-albert-einstein-theory-relativity-space-time\">Einstein himself was not convinced\u003c/a> they could exist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Life on the Ocean Floor\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1977, a thriving ecosystem of living organisms was found on the floor of the deep ocean, surrounding a \u003ca href=\"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/vents.html\">hydrothermal vent\u003c/a> and subsisting entirely on heat and chemical energy emerging from Earth’s interior. An NSF-funded team of marine geologists made the discovery in the geothermal hot spot of the \u003ca href=\"https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=334070\">Galapagos Rift\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945625\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945625\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/sully-main-endeavor-field.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/sully-main-endeavor-field.jpg 400w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/sully-main-endeavor-field-160x120.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A ‘black smoker.’ Hydrothermal vents on the deep ocean floor support thriving communities of life that are not dependent on energy from sunlight.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This find provided a first example of life that thrives without sunlight in the cold, dark environment of the ocean floor, encouraging scientists to imagine how extraterrestrial life might form and prosper under very alien conditions on other worlds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Dinosaur Killer Identified \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1980, the Nobel-prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez implicated an asteroid hitting Earth as the culprit responsible for the demise of the dinosaurs. This extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous geological period was a mystery that had gone unsolved for more than a century.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alvarez’s team found an unusually high concentration of the element iridium in the worldwide geologic layer of sediment marking the end of the Cretaceous period. Iridium is rare in Earth rocks, but abundant in asteroids, suggesting that a global asteroid- impact catastrophe was the logical source.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945626\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 536px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945626\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/536px-Chicxulub_radar_topography.jpg\" alt=\"A map of the northern Yucatan Peninsula showing the barely visible remnants of the Chixulub impact crater, formed by an asteroid strike about 66 million years ago. \" width=\"536\" height=\"599\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/536px-Chicxulub_radar_topography.jpg 536w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/536px-Chicxulub_radar_topography-160x179.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 536px) 100vw, 536px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A map of the northern Yucatan Peninsula showing the barely visible remnants of the Chixulub impact crater, formed by an asteroid strike about 66 million years ago. \u003ccite>(NASA/JPL-Caltech)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the 1990s, a \u003ca href=\"https://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/Chicxulub/regional-effects/\">100-mile wide impact crater\u003c/a> was identified at the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, with its center near the town of Chixulub. Mostly buried under jungle and sea floor sediment, the crater was chemically dated to around 66 million years old, coinciding with the dying off of the dinosaurs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, Chixulub crater is \u003ca href=\"https://newscenter.lbl.gov/2010/03/09/alvarez-theory-on-dinosaur/\">widely accepted\u003c/a> as the fatal wound that ended the 200 million year dynasty of Earth’s most famous extinct creatures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>First Planets Outside Our Solar System Found\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first confirmed \u003ca href=\"https://futurism.com/the-first-exoplanet-was-discovered-25-years-ago-today\">discovery of a planet outside our solar system\u003c/a> occurred in 1992, when two extrasolar planets were detected orbiting a \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/subject/8731/pulsars/\">pulsar\u003c/a>, which is the remnant core of a dead star, in the constellation Virgo. The first detection of an exoplanet orbiting a star that is still active and burning fuel took place three years later.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945627\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945627\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/20130108_2M1207.jpg\" alt=\"Most exoplanets are too far away and too small to be captured directly in an image, and are detected indirectly. This image is one of the first, and few, direct images of an exoplanet (small red blotch), shown next to its star. \" width=\"500\" height=\"435\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/20130108_2M1207.jpg 500w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/20130108_2M1207-160x139.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Most exoplanets are too far away and too small to be captured directly in an image, and are detected indirectly. This image is one of the first, and few, direct images of an exoplanet (the small, red blotch) shown next to its star. \u003ccite>(NaCo/VLT/ESO)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Before these events, the existence of planets orbiting other stars was only speculation. To date, a \u003ca href=\"https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/\">total of 4,096 planets\u003c/a> in almost 3,000 planetary systems outside our solar system have been confirmed, most of them in our general neighborhood of the Milky Way galaxy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Expansion of the Universe is Speeding Up\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1998, the scientific community was stunned to discover that our universe is not only expanding, a fact known for decades, but expanding at an \u003cem>accelerating rate\u003c/em>. Conventional wisdom dictated that gravitational attraction by matter within the universe should be slowing the expansion, but careful observations of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.thephysicsmill.com/2015/06/29/type-1a-the-other-type-of-supernova/\">special type of supernova\u003c/a> that serves as a precision tool for measuring distances across the universe revealed the opposite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the idea of “\u003ca href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-is-dark-energy\">dark energy\u003c/a>” was born, a strange form of energy thought to permeate the universe and exert a \u003cem>repulsive\u003c/em> force on all large-scale structures — galaxies and clusters of galaxies — driving them farther apart at an ever-faster rate\u003cstrong>.\u003c/strong> Though its nature remains largely unknown, it is estimated that at least 68% of the \u003ca href=\"https://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html\">universe’s overall composition\u003c/a> is made up of dark energy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Factoring in another invisible substance called “\u003ca href=\"https://home.cern/science/physics/dark-matter\">dark matter\u003c/a>,” it turns out that the objects in the universe that we can see — the type of stuff we and our planet and the stars are made of — make up only about 4% of the universe’s mass.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An Ocean on Jupiter’s Moon\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1995, NASA’s \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/galileo/\">Galileo mission\u003c/a> all but confirmed the existence of a massive ocean of liquid water, \u003ca href=\"https://europa.nasa.gov/about-europa/ocean/\">concealed beneath the icy crust\u003c/a> of Jupiter’s moon Europa.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Images of Europa’s cracked surface suggested that it is a shell of ice floating on top of an ocean that may be up to 100 miles deep and contain twice the water in Earth’s ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1945628\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/the-puzzling-fascinating-surface-of-jupiters-icy-moon-europa-looms-large-in-this-newly-reprocessed.jpeg\" alt=\"The pattern of cracks in the icy crust of Jupiter's moon Europa was the first clue to the deep ocean it hides beneath.\" width=\"650\" height=\"481\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/the-puzzling-fascinating-surface-of-jupiters-icy-moon-europa-looms-large-in-this-newly-reprocessed.jpeg 650w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/the-puzzling-fascinating-surface-of-jupiters-icy-moon-europa-looms-large-in-this-newly-reprocessed-160x118.jpeg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 650px) 100vw, 650px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The existence of an ocean on a nearby world is reason for celebration by \u003ca href=\"https://www.seti.org/research/Astrobiology\">astrobiologists\u003c/a> interested in finding life beyond Earth, and has compelled \u003ca href=\"https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/europa-clipper/\">NASA\u003c/a> and the \u003ca href=\"https://spacenews.com/scientists-want-nasa-and-esa-to-work-together-on-a-europa-lander-mission/\">ESA\u003c/a> to mount space missions to conduct further exploration of Europa.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not long after Europa’s ocean was discovered, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft detected plumes of water vapor spewing from Saturn’s tiny moon \u003ca href=\"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/cassini/science/enceladus/\">Enceladus\u003c/a>, further upping the stakes in the search for extraterrestrial life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Black Holes Collide\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2016, researchers at the \u003ca href=\"https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/what-is-ligo\">Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory\u003c/a>, or LIGO, made the first-ever detection of \u003ca href=\"https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/what-are-gw\">gravity waves\u003c/a>. Gravity waves are disturbances, or ripples, in the fabric of \u003ca href=\"http://www.einstein-online.info/elementary/specialRT/spacetime.html\">space-time\u003c/a>, caused by the acceleration of massive objects in space. The detection of these waves allows us to perceive events in the universe that cannot be observed by conventional instruments like telescopes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945630\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 454px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945630\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Ligosketch.jpg\" alt=\"The LIGO gravity wave observatory uses a laser to measure the extremely minute changes in distance between them caused by fluctuations in the fabric of spacetime. \" width=\"454\" height=\"260\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Ligosketch.jpg 454w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Ligosketch-160x92.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The LIGO gravity wave observatory uses a laser to measure the extremely minute changes in distance between them caused by fluctuations in the fabric of spacetime. \u003ccite>(LIGO/Shane Larson)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was LIGO that detected the disturbance caused by two black holes colliding and merging, an event whose possibility was hypothesized but never observed. But because LIGO’s highly sensitive laser-and-mirror array enables it to measure distortions in space-time smaller than the nucleus of an atom, it was able to catch the collision.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>First Image of a Black Hole \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2019, an international array of coordinated telescopes, collectively called the \u003ca href=\"https://eventhorizontelescope.org/\">Event Horizon Telescope\u003c/a>, or EHT, achieved what was conventionally thought to be impossible: It captured an image of the silhouette of one of the most elusive objects in the universe, a black hole.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Supermassive+Black+Hole\">supermassive black hole\u003c/a> caught on camera lies 53 million light years away, at the heart of the galaxy Messier 87, and contains the equivalent mass of 6.5 billion stars the size of our sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Black holes have long been famed as the ultimate dark object in the universe, impossible to capture in pictures by virtue of their strong gravity, which prevents any light from escaping. While it is a fact that light cannot get out of a black hole from inside its \u003ca href=\"http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/E/Event+Horizon\">event horizon \u003c/a>— the distance at which the black hole’s gravity becomes strong enough to prevent light from escaping — it had long been thought that a black hole might be viewed in silhouette against the glow of hot gas surrounding it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But black holes are too small and distant for conventional telescopes to observe. The EHT array, however, is not a conventional telescope; it’s a collection of multiple millimeter-wavelength radio telescopes stationed at observatories from Antarctica to Greenland, Spain to Hawaii, and throughout the Americas. When their collective observations of a target object are synchronized, the EHT achieves imaging resolutions equal to an imaginary telescope that would measure half the size of Earth’s diameter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What’s Next?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Going forward, what can we imagine will be discovered in the next 50 years?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Life forms swimming in Europa’s remote ocean? A fresh and unexpected picture of the universe seen through the lens of dark energy telescopes? The long-sought radio signals from distant, intelligent civilizations?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If recent history is a guide, we can imagine now what we may soon no longer need to.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"title": "Splashdown! The Inside Story of the Apollo 11 Recovery",
"headTitle": "Splashdown! The Inside Story of the Apollo 11 Recovery | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>Fifty years ago, on July 24, 1969, the U.S.S. Hornet was 900 miles southwest of Hawaii, ready to recover the Apollo 11 astronauts upon their return to Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, the aircraft carrier is docked in Alameda and is open to the public as a museum. It’s a time capsule back to the day when our most daring explorers took their first steps on Earth after visiting the Moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Hornet’s role in space history is the big reason it didn’t get scrapped after being decommissioned in 1970. Though the Apollo 11 assignment was kind of a fluke.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945412\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 518px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945412\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Hornetship.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"518\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Hornetship.jpg 518w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Hornetship-160x111.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 518px) 100vw, 518px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The aircraft carrier USS Hornet docked in Alameda. The Hornet was the only ship to serve in World War II, the Cold War, Vietnam and the Space Race. \u003ccite>(Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“The world generally thought the Apollo 10 recovery ship, the Princeton, would [also] do Apollo 11,” says Bob Fish, author of \u003ca href=\"https://www.amazon.com/Hornet-Plus-Three-Apollo-Recovery/dp/0974961078\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hornet Plus Three\u003c/a>. He’s a former Marine, the Apollo curator for the USS Hornet Museum, and the world expert on the recovery of Apollo 11.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Right Place, Right Time\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In early June 1969, Fish says, the Hornet was “the only aircraft carrier that wasn’t either going to Vietnam or being replenished or repaired was the Hornet, which had just come back from Vietnam.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The crew had finished a six-month tour. Some hadn’t even left the ship yet when the new assignment came in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And then it’s like, ‘All hands back on deck, we got to go recover these guys.’ If you really sit down with a crewman and you give him a beer he’ll say, ‘Yeah I wasn’t really happy about that.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the crew were galvanized by the realization that \u003cem>their\u003c/em> ship would soon be the center of the nation’s attention.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“All of a sudden the morale just changed completely,” says Fish. “[They thought:] ‘Oh my God. They actually are going to land on the moon and the President’s going to be here? Oh yeah!’ The mood flipped.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945413\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 528px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945413\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/McLaughlin.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"528\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/McLaughlin.jpg 528w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/McLaughlin-160x109.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 528px) 100vw, 528px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">John McLaughlin, one of the Apollo 11 swimmers, stands in front of the Sikorsky Sea King aircraft which played a vital role in the the space program in recovering Gemini, Apollo and Skylab crews. \u003ccite>(Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of the members of the recovery team was John McLaughlin. He was a swimmer on the Underwater Demolition Team, sometimes called the “frogmen” (precursors to the Navy SEALs). If you’re wondering how someone comes to specialize in plucking newly-landed astronauts out of the ocean …\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Somebody just said, you’re going to do it. It was a job, but we took it very seriously and it was fun,” says McLaughlin, who also worked recovery on Apollo 8.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Precision Practice \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Astronaut recovery is a high-stakes affair, with an intricate choreography. Everyone wanted to make sure Apollo 11 had a picture-perfect finish.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They practiced again, and again, and again — 26 times over a 10-day period. They had to jump out of helicopters, swim to a mock-up Command Module known as a “boilerplate,” and attach a sea anchor. Then, a different swimmer would affix a flotation collar that would surround the module, which the astronauts would step out on to.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945422\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945422 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-800x805.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"805\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-800x805.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-160x161.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-768x773.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-1020x1026.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-1193x1200.jpg 1193w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium.jpg 1272w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The three Apollo 11 crew men await pickup by a helicopter from the USS Hornet. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Then there was a separate swimmer on Apollo 11 that brought the contamination suits and kind of washed them down to make sure no moon germs got around,” says McLaughlin. (The three long-distance travelers had been breathing moondust ever since Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin got back to the Lunar Module.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After getting sprayed and scrubbed with bleach, the astronauts would climb onto a raft, and from there into a net that functioned like a chair (known as a Billy Pugh net) to be hoisted into a helicopter hovering overhead.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Simulations didn’t always go as planned … they could be downright dangerous.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We practiced during the day and [at] night, so one night we jumped in and we jumped into probably 30 or 50 sharks. I mean, the water was just kind of boiling,” McLaughlin remembers. “We were 25 to 50 yards from the Command Module, the boilerplate — and nothing but sharks between us. There was no place to go in the middle of the ocean. So we just swam like hell and counted our lucky stars.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the morning of the real recovery was shark-free. McLaughlin and the rest of the recovery team started off for the targeted splashdown site about an hour before sunrise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945417\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945417 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-800x1091.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"1091\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-800x1091.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-160x218.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-768x1047.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-880x1200.jpg 880w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium.jpg 939w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Apollo 11 astronauts exit the recovery helicopter and walk to the mobile quarantine unit aboard the USS Hornet, July 24, 1969. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I remember we saw the fireball. It was the Command Module re-entering,” he says. “And that was very exciting. We thought we were ready but you see that, boy, that got the heartbeat going a little faster.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The swimmers’ recovery went off without a hitch. A helicopter crew hoisted them up. Then, a three minute flight back to the Hornet to be welcomed back as heroes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The astronauts walked from the recovery helicopter into an Airstream trailer outfitted as a mobile quarantine facility. They took showers, changed into NASA jumpsuits and then, with a window separating them, were welcomed by President Nixon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I want you to know that I think I’m the luckiest man in the world,” said the President, “because I have the privilege of speaking for so many in welcoming you back to Earth.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then the ship set sail for Pearl Harbor. The astronauts would go on to spend three more days in the Airstream and 21 days total in quarantine. Fish has spoken extensively with Neil Armstrong, who told him they appreciated the time spent apart from the hubbub.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It gave them some breathing space because they’d just been through the most incredible thing. I mean, they spent a lot of time crammed together in this little tiny aluminum can. The next thing you know, they’re down on the moon, walking around on the moon. When they come back, they needed to sort their thoughts out.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And compared to their spacecraft, the Airstream trailer felt like a mansion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945418\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945418 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-800x579.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"579\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-800x579.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-160x116.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-768x556.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-1020x739.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-1200x869.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The crew of Apollo 11 relaxes in an Airstream trailer outfitted as a quarantine unit, following their return from the moon. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today, the Hornet is maintained just as it was in 1969, complete with war planes and space memorabilia. The Apollo 11 exhibit boasts an Apollo Command Module (used in earlier testing), plus a “Sea King” recovery helicopter and a Mobile Quarantine Unit you can visit. It’s is one of only three in the world and the only one you can enter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That’s what’s so cool about the Hornet,” says Fish. “You actually get a visceral feeling for it. It’s not just a video on TV.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fish hopes the museum can help rekindle something he thinks we’ve lost as a society: big, crazy dreams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n",
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"excerpt": "Shark-infested waters were just one thing U.S. Navy 'Frogmen' dealt with as they prepared to scoop the Apollo astronauts out of the Pacific and return them to shore. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Fifty years ago, on July 24, 1969, the U.S.S. Hornet was 900 miles southwest of Hawaii, ready to recover the Apollo 11 astronauts upon their return to Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, the aircraft carrier is docked in Alameda and is open to the public as a museum. It’s a time capsule back to the day when our most daring explorers took their first steps on Earth after visiting the Moon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Hornet’s role in space history is the big reason it didn’t get scrapped after being decommissioned in 1970. Though the Apollo 11 assignment was kind of a fluke.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945412\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 518px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945412\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Hornetship.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"518\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Hornetship.jpg 518w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/Hornetship-160x111.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 518px) 100vw, 518px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The aircraft carrier USS Hornet docked in Alameda. The Hornet was the only ship to serve in World War II, the Cold War, Vietnam and the Space Race. \u003ccite>(Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“The world generally thought the Apollo 10 recovery ship, the Princeton, would [also] do Apollo 11,” says Bob Fish, author of \u003ca href=\"https://www.amazon.com/Hornet-Plus-Three-Apollo-Recovery/dp/0974961078\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hornet Plus Three\u003c/a>. He’s a former Marine, the Apollo curator for the USS Hornet Museum, and the world expert on the recovery of Apollo 11.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Right Place, Right Time\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In early June 1969, Fish says, the Hornet was “the only aircraft carrier that wasn’t either going to Vietnam or being replenished or repaired was the Hornet, which had just come back from Vietnam.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The crew had finished a six-month tour. Some hadn’t even left the ship yet when the new assignment came in.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And then it’s like, ‘All hands back on deck, we got to go recover these guys.’ If you really sit down with a crewman and you give him a beer he’ll say, ‘Yeah I wasn’t really happy about that.'”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the crew were galvanized by the realization that \u003cem>their\u003c/em> ship would soon be the center of the nation’s attention.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“All of a sudden the morale just changed completely,” says Fish. “[They thought:] ‘Oh my God. They actually are going to land on the moon and the President’s going to be here? Oh yeah!’ The mood flipped.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945413\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 528px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945413\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/McLaughlin.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"528\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/McLaughlin.jpg 528w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/McLaughlin-160x109.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 528px) 100vw, 528px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">John McLaughlin, one of the Apollo 11 swimmers, stands in front of the Sikorsky Sea King aircraft which played a vital role in the the space program in recovering Gemini, Apollo and Skylab crews. \u003ccite>(Lindsey Moore/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of the members of the recovery team was John McLaughlin. He was a swimmer on the Underwater Demolition Team, sometimes called the “frogmen” (precursors to the Navy SEALs). If you’re wondering how someone comes to specialize in plucking newly-landed astronauts out of the ocean …\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Somebody just said, you’re going to do it. It was a job, but we took it very seriously and it was fun,” says McLaughlin, who also worked recovery on Apollo 8.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Precision Practice \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Astronaut recovery is a high-stakes affair, with an intricate choreography. Everyone wanted to make sure Apollo 11 had a picture-perfect finish.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They practiced again, and again, and again — 26 times over a 10-day period. They had to jump out of helicopters, swim to a mock-up Command Module known as a “boilerplate,” and attach a sea anchor. Then, a different swimmer would affix a flotation collar that would surround the module, which the astronauts would step out on to.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945422\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945422 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-800x805.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"805\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-800x805.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-160x161.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-768x773.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-1020x1026.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium-1193x1200.jpg 1193w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/s69-21698_medium.jpg 1272w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The three Apollo 11 crew men await pickup by a helicopter from the USS Hornet. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Then there was a separate swimmer on Apollo 11 that brought the contamination suits and kind of washed them down to make sure no moon germs got around,” says McLaughlin. (The three long-distance travelers had been breathing moondust ever since Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin got back to the Lunar Module.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After getting sprayed and scrubbed with bleach, the astronauts would climb onto a raft, and from there into a net that functioned like a chair (known as a Billy Pugh net) to be hoisted into a helicopter hovering overhead.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Simulations didn’t always go as planned … they could be downright dangerous.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We practiced during the day and [at] night, so one night we jumped in and we jumped into probably 30 or 50 sharks. I mean, the water was just kind of boiling,” McLaughlin remembers. “We were 25 to 50 yards from the Command Module, the boilerplate — and nothing but sharks between us. There was no place to go in the middle of the ocean. So we just swam like hell and counted our lucky stars.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the morning of the real recovery was shark-free. McLaughlin and the rest of the recovery team started off for the targeted splashdown site about an hour before sunrise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945417\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945417 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-800x1091.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"1091\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-800x1091.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-160x218.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-768x1047.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium-880x1200.jpg 880w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901201_medium.jpg 939w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Apollo 11 astronauts exit the recovery helicopter and walk to the mobile quarantine unit aboard the USS Hornet, July 24, 1969. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“I remember we saw the fireball. It was the Command Module re-entering,” he says. “And that was very exciting. We thought we were ready but you see that, boy, that got the heartbeat going a little faster.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The swimmers’ recovery went off without a hitch. A helicopter crew hoisted them up. Then, a three minute flight back to the Hornet to be welcomed back as heroes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The astronauts walked from the recovery helicopter into an Airstream trailer outfitted as a mobile quarantine facility. They took showers, changed into NASA jumpsuits and then, with a window separating them, were welcomed by President Nixon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I want you to know that I think I’m the luckiest man in the world,” said the President, “because I have the privilege of speaking for so many in welcoming you back to Earth.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then the ship set sail for Pearl Harbor. The astronauts would go on to spend three more days in the Airstream and 21 days total in quarantine. Fish has spoken extensively with Neil Armstrong, who told him they appreciated the time spent apart from the hubbub.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It gave them some breathing space because they’d just been through the most incredible thing. I mean, they spent a lot of time crammed together in this little tiny aluminum can. The next thing you know, they’re down on the moon, walking around on the moon. When they come back, they needed to sort their thoughts out.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And compared to their spacecraft, the Airstream trailer felt like a mansion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945418\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1945418 size-medium\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-800x579.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"800\" height=\"579\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-800x579.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-160x116.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-768x556.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-1020x739.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium-1200x869.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/6901208_medium.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The crew of Apollo 11 relaxes in an Airstream trailer outfitted as a quarantine unit, following their return from the moon. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today, the Hornet is maintained just as it was in 1969, complete with war planes and space memorabilia. The Apollo 11 exhibit boasts an Apollo Command Module (used in earlier testing), plus a “Sea King” recovery helicopter and a Mobile Quarantine Unit you can visit. It’s is one of only three in the world and the only one you can enter.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That’s what’s so cool about the Hornet,” says Fish. “You actually get a visceral feeling for it. It’s not just a video on TV.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fish hopes the museum can help rekindle something he thinks we’ve lost as a society: big, crazy dreams.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"title": "Nine Major Innovations You Can Thank Space Program For",
"headTitle": "Nine Major Innovations You Can Thank Space Program For | KQED",
"content": "\u003cp>The rewards of our nation’s ventures in space go beyond astonishing scientific discoveries and breathtaking human drama on the stage of the cosmos. Not to be overlooked are a multitude of down-to-earth technological “\u003ca href=\"https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/blog/nasa-spinoffs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">spin-offs\u003c/a>” that we all share in and enjoy in our daily lives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All modern technological conveniences have roots somewhere in the past, whether stemming from great need, from a military conflict, or simply by happy accident.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The discovery of life-saving penicillin was a laboratory accident. Early mechanical “logic machines,” like \u003ca href=\"https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/15/business/alan-turing-50-pound-note/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alan Turing\u003c/a>‘s Nazi code breaker in World War II, paved the way for digital computers in the decades that followed. Microwave ovens emerged from post-World-War-II military radar technology (the first microwave model was called the ‘Radarange’ for a reason).\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945252\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 638px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945252\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/nasainyourlife1.jpg\" alt=\"NASA spinoff technologies have found their way into all major commercial sectors. \" width=\"638\" height=\"479\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/nasainyourlife1.jpg 638w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/nasainyourlife1-160x120.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 638px) 100vw, 638px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA spinoff technologies have found their way into all major commercial sectors. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In some cases, that useful gadget in your home is a true \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/feature/Going_to_the_Moon_Was_Hard_But_the_Benefits_Were_Huge\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">space-age miracle\u003c/a>. Many of the materials, devices, and processes originally invented for the moon landings and other space ventures were later commercially developed to deliver “space-age” conveniences and applications into our communities, work places, and homes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here are some examples.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Solar Power\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"https://physics.info/photoelectric/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">photoelectric effect\u003c/a>, when light knocks electrons off of certain types of atoms to create an electrical current, has been known to us for over a century. Early light-sensitive detectors and meters made use of this phenomenon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But photoelectric technology didn’t become advanced enough to produce useful quantities of electrical power until the space age, when the need to power orbital satellites and space probes challenged engineers to action.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar cells were first used in space on the United States’ Vanguard spacecraft in 1958 to extend the life of the battery-powered satellite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1959, the \u003ca href=\"https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-004A\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Explorer 6\u003c/a> satellite was launched, carrying large wing-like arrays of solar panels that enabled it to operate for months.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, solar panels are found everywhere, from giant collector arrays on building rooftops to small panels (or cells) powering all manner of gadgets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Cold-Weather Wearables\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1992, NASA contracted Aspen Technologies to develop “\u003ca href=\"https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2010/cg_2.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">aerogel\u003c/a>” fabrics for thermal insulation material. Aerogel, first invented in 1931, is created by removing the liquid components from a gel and leaving behind the thin skeleton of its solid structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The extremely sparse material is a very poor conductor of heat, making it perfect as a lightweight thermal insulator. NASA employed the insulators developed from aerogel in the heat shields of spacecraft and also the swaddling layers of its astronauts’ spacesuits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Professional explorers and serious wilderness enthusiasts on Earth have benefited from commercial spinoffs of these insulators, in the form of glove liners, boot insoles, and even lightweight insulated jackets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One climber who summited Mount Everest with a pair of “\u003ca href=\"https://backpackinglight.com/polar_wrap_toasty_feet_insole_spotlite_review/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Toasty Feet\u003c/a>” insoles inside her boots reported that her feet remained warm and comfortable throughout her climb, despite wearing only a single pair of socks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Foil Blankets\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The silvery-foiled “\u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/offices/oct/40-years-of-nasa-spinoff/emergency-blankets\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">space blanket\u003c/a>” you may have used on camping trips, or keep in the emergency roadside kit in your car, was another product of the Apollo program, developed in 1964.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945383\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1945383\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-800x535.jpg\" alt=\"A "space blanket" deployed to control solar heating of NASA's Skylab space station. The lightweight multi-layer foil material reflects almost 100% of the sunlight hitting it. \" width=\"800\" height=\"535\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-800x535.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-160x107.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-768x514.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-1020x683.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-1200x803.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR.jpg 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A “space blanket” deployed to control solar heating of NASA’s Skylab space station. The lightweight multi-layer foil material reflects almost 100% of the sunlight hitting it. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The multi-layer, aluminized-mylar material was created to address the need for lightweight and compactly stored thermal insulation to protect astronauts from temperature extremes in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Scratch-Resistant Glasses\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scratch resistant coating you may have on your sunglasses, eyeglasses, or ski mask also stems from the development of spacesuit materials.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the 1980s NASA’S Ames Research Center came up with a material to prevent astronauts’ spacesuit helmet visors from becoming scratched — a serious consideration during space walks and other maneuvers where clear vision is essential, and scratch-covered lenses and visors cannot be readily replaced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Miniature, Inexpensive Digital Cameras\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you have marveled at the detailed, rich, and colorful pictures that tiny little camera on your smart phone takes — or are just glad to have such a small and portable camera with you at all times — you can thank NASA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed the \u003ca href=\"https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2017/cg_1.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CMOS sensor\u003c/a> in 1995, a photographic chip tailored for the reliability, image quality, and low power consumption required aboard robotic space probes with limited power budgets and the need to take many thousands of pictures each day. CMOS stands for “complementary metal-oxide semiconductor,” a solid-state technology previously developed for use in microprocessors and other computer applications.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This space-camera innovation later spun off a family of smaller, cheaper imaging chips for a range of commercial applications, including smart phones, sport cams, web cams, compact digital and DSLR cameras.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fireproof Clothing\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You might not be a firefighter, astronaut, or airplane pilot, but it should comfort you to know that many of society’s professional first responders and other heroic personnel won’t easily catch fire if put into an incendiary situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fatal \u003ca href=\"https://www.space.com/17338-apollo-1.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Apollo 1 training drill fire\u003c/a> that killed three astronauts in 1967 pressed NASA engineers to \u003ca href=\"https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2008/ps_3.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">rethink the use of combustible materials\u003c/a> in spacesuits and other furnishings on board their spacecraft.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Working with a synthetic fiber called \u003ca href=\"https://www.space.com/10671-space-spinoff-technology-fireproof-clothing.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">polybenzimidazole, \u003c/a>NASA developed a fabric that would not catch fire, especially in the high-oxygen environment of an Apollo space capsule.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This innovation bestowed fire protection not only upon Apollo astronauts of later missions, it also protects post-Apollo astronauts to this day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The technology quickly branched out into other government and commercial applications, from the outer fire-resistant shells of firefighter gear, to sporting applications such as clothing worn by race car drivers, to uniforms and protective clothing for workers in industrial settings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Vac-Packed Food\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You go to your kitchen’s pantry shelf and select a rigid plastic-wrapped food item, slit the plastic, and hear that little “phhht!” as the package seems to melt into softness. Then, time to cook.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may appreciate how the vacuum-packaging keeps your food shelf-safe for months (or even years) without refrigeration, but did you know that the technique was developed for use in space by astronauts?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945254\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1945254\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-800x534.jpg\" alt=\"Assortment of freeze-dried/vacuum-packed food items used by astronauts during the Mercury and Gemini programs. \" width=\"800\" height=\"534\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-800x534.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-160x107.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-768x512.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-1020x680.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Assortment of freeze-dried/vacuum-packed food items used by astronauts during the Mercury and Gemini programs. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>NASA developed a process for freeze-drying and vacuum-packaging food for astronauts in space as early as Gemini missions. It has been used to \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_Food_for_Space_Flight.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">supply or supplement the food\u003c/a> of all human space missions since.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bacterial contamination and growth is prevented by the hermetic seal and the low-pressure and -oxygen environment inside. Vacuum-sealing also reduces the volume of the package, making for more compact storage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Out of this space innovation came improvements to the preparation of commercially supplied food on Earth. Extending the shelf-life of food means less waste from spoilage, greater ease of transportation and distribution, and increased food safety and public health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Memory Foam\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Have your running shoes lost their springy step? Does that old mattress welcome you to bed each night with the hug of a permanent body-formed declivity? Do you have a favorite sitting spot on your couch because the rest of it is just too firm and supportive?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looks like a job for \u003ca href=\"https://www.explainthatstuff.com/memoryfoammattresses.html\">m\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://www.explainthatstuff.com/memoryfoammattresses.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">emory foam\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Developed under a contract by NASA/Ames Research Center in 1966 to cushion test pilots pulling high-G maneuvers in jet aircraft, the springy, resilient, always-snaps-back-to-the-same-shape material that we have come to know as memory foam has found many commercial and domestic applications over the last few decades. Your happy feet, good night’s sleep, and general couch-potatoing enjoyment are proof.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Cordless Power Tools\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine you are an Apollo astronaut on the moon’s surface, assembling the lunar rover, setting up scientific instruments, and collecting rock specimens. You could really use an electric-powered tool. The problem: you’re on the moon and there are no electrical outlets for a quarter of a million miles. What do you do?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945249\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 588px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945249\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/apollo-rock-drill-testing-at-KSC.jpg\" alt=\"Battery powered hammering rock drill used by Apollo astronauts to collect lunar samples. Picture shows testing of the device at the Kennedy Space Center. \" width=\"588\" height=\"752\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/apollo-rock-drill-testing-at-KSC.jpg 588w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/apollo-rock-drill-testing-at-KSC-160x205.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 588px) 100vw, 588px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Battery powered hammering rock drill used by Apollo astronauts to collect lunar samples. Picture shows testing of the device at the Kennedy Space Center. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you were NASA, you teamed up with the Black and Decker company to develop the specialized motors and batteries needed for completely cordless hand-tools that can operate in the airless, sometimes weightless environments of space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Black and Decker had already invented battery-powered hand tools, but coming up with the very specialized devices NASA needed required some innovation. For the Gemini missions, the company produced an electric wrench that could turn a bolt in Zero-G without sending the astronaut into a spin of their own. For the Apollo missions, a special hammering rock drill was developed for astronauts to collect rock samples on the moon’s surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Spinning off the technology for commercial applications, Black and Decker later developed the light-weight, high-speed motor that powered their “Dustbuster” hand-held vacuum cleaner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n",
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"excerpt": "The technology we use every day originated from some extraordinary challenge -- like NASA's effort 50 years ago to put humans on the moon. ",
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"title": "Nine Major Innovations You Can Thank Space Program For | KQED",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The rewards of our nation’s ventures in space go beyond astonishing scientific discoveries and breathtaking human drama on the stage of the cosmos. Not to be overlooked are a multitude of down-to-earth technological “\u003ca href=\"https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com/blog/nasa-spinoffs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">spin-offs\u003c/a>” that we all share in and enjoy in our daily lives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All modern technological conveniences have roots somewhere in the past, whether stemming from great need, from a military conflict, or simply by happy accident.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The discovery of life-saving penicillin was a laboratory accident. Early mechanical “logic machines,” like \u003ca href=\"https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/15/business/alan-turing-50-pound-note/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alan Turing\u003c/a>‘s Nazi code breaker in World War II, paved the way for digital computers in the decades that followed. Microwave ovens emerged from post-World-War-II military radar technology (the first microwave model was called the ‘Radarange’ for a reason).\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945252\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 638px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945252\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/nasainyourlife1.jpg\" alt=\"NASA spinoff technologies have found their way into all major commercial sectors. \" width=\"638\" height=\"479\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/nasainyourlife1.jpg 638w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/nasainyourlife1-160x120.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 638px) 100vw, 638px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">NASA spinoff technologies have found their way into all major commercial sectors. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In some cases, that useful gadget in your home is a true \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/feature/Going_to_the_Moon_Was_Hard_But_the_Benefits_Were_Huge\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">space-age miracle\u003c/a>. Many of the materials, devices, and processes originally invented for the moon landings and other space ventures were later commercially developed to deliver “space-age” conveniences and applications into our communities, work places, and homes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here are some examples.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Solar Power\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"https://physics.info/photoelectric/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">photoelectric effect\u003c/a>, when light knocks electrons off of certain types of atoms to create an electrical current, has been known to us for over a century. Early light-sensitive detectors and meters made use of this phenomenon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But photoelectric technology didn’t become advanced enough to produce useful quantities of electrical power until the space age, when the need to power orbital satellites and space probes challenged engineers to action.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar cells were first used in space on the United States’ Vanguard spacecraft in 1958 to extend the life of the battery-powered satellite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1959, the \u003ca href=\"https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-004A\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Explorer 6\u003c/a> satellite was launched, carrying large wing-like arrays of solar panels that enabled it to operate for months.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, solar panels are found everywhere, from giant collector arrays on building rooftops to small panels (or cells) powering all manner of gadgets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Cold-Weather Wearables\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1992, NASA contracted Aspen Technologies to develop “\u003ca href=\"https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2010/cg_2.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">aerogel\u003c/a>” fabrics for thermal insulation material. Aerogel, first invented in 1931, is created by removing the liquid components from a gel and leaving behind the thin skeleton of its solid structure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The extremely sparse material is a very poor conductor of heat, making it perfect as a lightweight thermal insulator. NASA employed the insulators developed from aerogel in the heat shields of spacecraft and also the swaddling layers of its astronauts’ spacesuits.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Professional explorers and serious wilderness enthusiasts on Earth have benefited from commercial spinoffs of these insulators, in the form of glove liners, boot insoles, and even lightweight insulated jackets.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One climber who summited Mount Everest with a pair of “\u003ca href=\"https://backpackinglight.com/polar_wrap_toasty_feet_insole_spotlite_review/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Toasty Feet\u003c/a>” insoles inside her boots reported that her feet remained warm and comfortable throughout her climb, despite wearing only a single pair of socks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Foil Blankets\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The silvery-foiled “\u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/offices/oct/40-years-of-nasa-spinoff/emergency-blankets\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">space blanket\u003c/a>” you may have used on camping trips, or keep in the emergency roadside kit in your car, was another product of the Apollo program, developed in 1964.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945383\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1945383\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-800x535.jpg\" alt=\"A "space blanket" deployed to control solar heating of NASA's Skylab space station. The lightweight multi-layer foil material reflects almost 100% of the sunlight hitting it. \" width=\"800\" height=\"535\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-800x535.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-160x107.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-768x514.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-1020x683.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR-1200x803.jpg 1200w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/dpIOPHR.jpg 1536w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A “space blanket” deployed to control solar heating of NASA’s Skylab space station. The lightweight multi-layer foil material reflects almost 100% of the sunlight hitting it. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The multi-layer, aluminized-mylar material was created to address the need for lightweight and compactly stored thermal insulation to protect astronauts from temperature extremes in space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Scratch-Resistant Glasses\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scratch resistant coating you may have on your sunglasses, eyeglasses, or ski mask also stems from the development of spacesuit materials.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the 1980s NASA’S Ames Research Center came up with a material to prevent astronauts’ spacesuit helmet visors from becoming scratched — a serious consideration during space walks and other maneuvers where clear vision is essential, and scratch-covered lenses and visors cannot be readily replaced.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Miniature, Inexpensive Digital Cameras\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you have marveled at the detailed, rich, and colorful pictures that tiny little camera on your smart phone takes — or are just glad to have such a small and portable camera with you at all times — you can thank NASA.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An engineer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed the \u003ca href=\"https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2017/cg_1.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CMOS sensor\u003c/a> in 1995, a photographic chip tailored for the reliability, image quality, and low power consumption required aboard robotic space probes with limited power budgets and the need to take many thousands of pictures each day. CMOS stands for “complementary metal-oxide semiconductor,” a solid-state technology previously developed for use in microprocessors and other computer applications.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This space-camera innovation later spun off a family of smaller, cheaper imaging chips for a range of commercial applications, including smart phones, sport cams, web cams, compact digital and DSLR cameras.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fireproof Clothing\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You might not be a firefighter, astronaut, or airplane pilot, but it should comfort you to know that many of society’s professional first responders and other heroic personnel won’t easily catch fire if put into an incendiary situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The fatal \u003ca href=\"https://www.space.com/17338-apollo-1.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Apollo 1 training drill fire\u003c/a> that killed three astronauts in 1967 pressed NASA engineers to \u003ca href=\"https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2008/ps_3.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">rethink the use of combustible materials\u003c/a> in spacesuits and other furnishings on board their spacecraft.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Working with a synthetic fiber called \u003ca href=\"https://www.space.com/10671-space-spinoff-technology-fireproof-clothing.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">polybenzimidazole, \u003c/a>NASA developed a fabric that would not catch fire, especially in the high-oxygen environment of an Apollo space capsule.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This innovation bestowed fire protection not only upon Apollo astronauts of later missions, it also protects post-Apollo astronauts to this day.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The technology quickly branched out into other government and commercial applications, from the outer fire-resistant shells of firefighter gear, to sporting applications such as clothing worn by race car drivers, to uniforms and protective clothing for workers in industrial settings.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Vac-Packed Food\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You go to your kitchen’s pantry shelf and select a rigid plastic-wrapped food item, slit the plastic, and hear that little “phhht!” as the package seems to melt into softness. Then, time to cook.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may appreciate how the vacuum-packaging keeps your food shelf-safe for months (or even years) without refrigeration, but did you know that the technique was developed for use in space by astronauts?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945254\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 800px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1945254\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-800x534.jpg\" alt=\"Assortment of freeze-dried/vacuum-packed food items used by astronauts during the Mercury and Gemini programs. \" width=\"800\" height=\"534\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-800x534.jpg 800w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-160x107.jpg 160w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-768x512.jpg 768w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4-1020x680.jpg 1020w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/mercuryandgeminifood4.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Assortment of freeze-dried/vacuum-packed food items used by astronauts during the Mercury and Gemini programs. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>NASA developed a process for freeze-drying and vacuum-packaging food for astronauts in space as early as Gemini missions. It has been used to \u003ca href=\"https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/F_Food_for_Space_Flight.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">supply or supplement the food\u003c/a> of all human space missions since.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bacterial contamination and growth is prevented by the hermetic seal and the low-pressure and -oxygen environment inside. Vacuum-sealing also reduces the volume of the package, making for more compact storage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Out of this space innovation came improvements to the preparation of commercially supplied food on Earth. Extending the shelf-life of food means less waste from spoilage, greater ease of transportation and distribution, and increased food safety and public health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Memory Foam\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Have your running shoes lost their springy step? Does that old mattress welcome you to bed each night with the hug of a permanent body-formed declivity? Do you have a favorite sitting spot on your couch because the rest of it is just too firm and supportive?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looks like a job for \u003ca href=\"https://www.explainthatstuff.com/memoryfoammattresses.html\">m\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://www.explainthatstuff.com/memoryfoammattresses.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">emory foam\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Developed under a contract by NASA/Ames Research Center in 1966 to cushion test pilots pulling high-G maneuvers in jet aircraft, the springy, resilient, always-snaps-back-to-the-same-shape material that we have come to know as memory foam has found many commercial and domestic applications over the last few decades. Your happy feet, good night’s sleep, and general couch-potatoing enjoyment are proof.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Cordless Power Tools\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine you are an Apollo astronaut on the moon’s surface, assembling the lunar rover, setting up scientific instruments, and collecting rock specimens. You could really use an electric-powered tool. The problem: you’re on the moon and there are no electrical outlets for a quarter of a million miles. What do you do?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1945249\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 588px\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945249\" src=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/science/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/apollo-rock-drill-testing-at-KSC.jpg\" alt=\"Battery powered hammering rock drill used by Apollo astronauts to collect lunar samples. Picture shows testing of the device at the Kennedy Space Center. \" width=\"588\" height=\"752\" srcset=\"https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/apollo-rock-drill-testing-at-KSC.jpg 588w, https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/35/2019/07/apollo-rock-drill-testing-at-KSC-160x205.jpg 160w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 588px) 100vw, 588px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Battery powered hammering rock drill used by Apollo astronauts to collect lunar samples. Picture shows testing of the device at the Kennedy Space Center. \u003ccite>(NASA)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you were NASA, you teamed up with the Black and Decker company to develop the specialized motors and batteries needed for completely cordless hand-tools that can operate in the airless, sometimes weightless environments of space.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Black and Decker had already invented battery-powered hand tools, but coming up with the very specialized devices NASA needed required some innovation. For the Gemini missions, the company produced an electric wrench that could turn a bolt in Zero-G without sending the astronaut into a spin of their own. For the Apollo missions, a special hammering rock drill was developed for astronauts to collect rock samples on the moon’s surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Spinning off the technology for commercial applications, Black and Decker later developed the light-weight, high-speed motor that powered their “Dustbuster” hand-held vacuum cleaner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"soldout": {
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"title": "SOLD OUT: Rethinking Housing in America",
"tagline": "A new future for housing",
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