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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_27144\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/11/gamma-blog640-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gamma-blog640\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-27144\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dr. Michael Catelaz at work on the GAMMA II imaging machine, at the Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute (PARI) in North Carolina.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Dr. Michael Castelaz, the Science Director at the Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute, knows GAMMA II is a sleeping giant. He just needs a little help waking up the beast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>GAMMA II and its sister, GAMMA I, are legendary imaging machines that were used to create the 19-million strong Guide Star Catalogue for the \u003ca href=\"http://hubble.nasa.gov/\">Hubble Space Telescope\u003c/a> (HST). Think of the Guide Star Catalogue as a souped-up GPS, enabling the Hubble to set its scope on stars thousands of miles away.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Four years ago, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.stsci.edu/hst/%20\">Space Telescope Science Institute at Johns Hopkins University\u003c/a> announced it was retiring the image-makers after nearly 20 years of service.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The news swept across the astronomy community and Castelaz and his colleagues at PARI jumped at the opportunity to bring the GAMMA machines to their Western North Carolina campus and reconfigure them for a new cataloging gig.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s old, but it’s still state of the art. It’s incredible what was done in terms of designing these instruments and getting them going,” Michael Castelaz.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But why bring this beast to PARI? PARI houses a collection of old photographic plates known as the Astronomical Photographic Data Archive, or APDA. Those analog plates contain invaluable data of the night sky, but are not easy to share and use. Catelaz and ADPA director Thurburn Barker believe the re-commissioned GAMMA II can help convert those plates– some of which date back to the 1890s – into new digital maps for future astronomers. The maps will unlock data on thousands of unclassified stars known to exist in the APDA collection that can then be cataloged by their size, temperature and distance.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">“This is the space capsule, Mercury. We want to turn it into the Starship Enterprise.”\u003cbr>\n-- Dr. Michael Castelaz, re: the GAMMA II imaging machine.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>When PARI finally obtained the machines they were in pieces: three-tons of granite and lasers awaiting their next mission. The sheer mass of the machines was intended to absorb vibrations from the floor as well the Earth. In order to effectively serve the Hubble, GAMMA precisely mapped stars down to the exact micron. That’s a thousandth of a millimeter to you and me. Castelaz and his cohort eventually reassembled GAMMA II and got all the electronics up and running. However, do to the jerry-rigging and hand-written code used to reconfigure the original machine, they have not been able to recreate the imaging capacity … yet. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As soon as PARI can get GAMMA humming, the APDA collection will no longer be a black hole. The meticulous work by generations of astronomers will be ushered into the 21\u003csup>st\u003c/sup> century, bringing analog data back to the future.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>Pitchers and serious baseball fan knows that brand-new balls are never used in professional play. The shiny coating applied in the factory makes it too hard for pitchers to get a good grip, so \u003ca href=\"http://www.newsworks.org/index.php/health-science/item/27929-joy-in-mudville-all-major-league-baseballs-get-treatment-from-south-jersey-grime\">equipment managers in clubhouses around the country rub that sheen off\u003c/a> every ball before games. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What do they use? Mud. Yes, mud. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not just any mud. For more than 60 years, all the mud used in major league baseball has been harvested from the same secret spot in southern New Jersey. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jim Bintliff, the third-generation owner of \u003ca href=\"http://baseballrubbingmud.com/\">Lena Blackburne Baseball Rubbing Mud\u003c/a>, gets it from the banks of a tributary of the Delaware River.\u003cbr>\nLegend has it rubbing down new baseballs started after a wild pitch killed a batter in the 1920s. Bintliff said players and umpires tried tobacco juice and infield dirt to remove the factory sheen. What ended up working best was mud drawn from near the favorite fishing spot of a friend of Bintliff’s grandfather.\u003cbr>\nWhat makes his mud so special? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It's the texture,\" said Bintliff, who described it as a mixture of cold cream and chocolate pudding. \"If it's too gritty, it can damage the leather on the ball. It can scratch it.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bintliff runs the mud through a series of screens before packaging it, aging it (like fine wine, he says), and shipping it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Baseball is a sport of tradition and superstition, and many chalk up the sport’s fidelity to this particular mud to just that. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp> “To do it is a good idea,” said Robert Adair, a former Yale professor who wrote \u003ca href=\"http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Physics-Baseball-Robert-K-Adair/?isbn=9780060084363%20\">The Physics of Baseball\u003c/a>. “To use this particular mud and everything is (one of the) charming traditions that connect us to our grandparents.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Adair acknowledges that there is some science behind Bintliff’s main selling point – his product’s smooth texture. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Let's say you scuff or scar the ball on one side, that can produce asymmetric forces on the ball,\" Adair said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the ball is really scratched up, the air going over the marred side would have a different pattern than air going over the smooth side and the ball would curve toward the roughed-up side, Adair said. \"If you threw the ball just any old way, you wouldn't get much of an effect, because the scarred spot would rotate,” he said. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If a sneaky pitcher is good, though, he throws the ball so the scarring is always on the same side. Adair estimated serious scratches could make the ball veer six inches one way or the other. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The mud’s origin in a tidal tributary rather than the larger Delaware River, then, is key. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"(In) the main-stem Delaware, a lot of the bottom sediment is coarser grain material,\" said David Velinksy, a marine biogeochemist with the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ansp.org/\">Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fine-grain sediments stay suspended in the rushing water of major rivers. In slower-moving tributaries, they have a chance to settle out, Velinksy said. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, Jim Bintliff adds a secret ingredient to the mud after harvesting, so it’s not just Mother Nature who is responsible for the magic mud. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>To see additional video from QUEST Philadelphia for this story, see: \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flrWvnhPmng\">Baseball's dirty little secret\u003c/a>. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bintliff runs the mud through a series of screens before packaging it, aging it (like fine wine, he says), and shipping it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Baseball is a sport of tradition and superstition, and many chalk up the sport’s fidelity to this particular mud to just that. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp> “To do it is a good idea,” said Robert Adair, a former Yale professor who wrote \u003ca href=\"http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Physics-Baseball-Robert-K-Adair/?isbn=9780060084363%20\">The Physics of Baseball\u003c/a>. “To use this particular mud and everything is (one of the) charming traditions that connect us to our grandparents.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Adair acknowledges that there is some science behind Bintliff’s main selling point – his product’s smooth texture. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Let's say you scuff or scar the ball on one side, that can produce asymmetric forces on the ball,\" Adair said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the ball is really scratched up, the air going over the marred side would have a different pattern than air going over the smooth side and the ball would curve toward the roughed-up side, Adair said. \"If you threw the ball just any old way, you wouldn't get much of an effect, because the scarred spot would rotate,” he said. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If a sneaky pitcher is good, though, he throws the ball so the scarring is always on the same side. Adair estimated serious scratches could make the ball veer six inches one way or the other. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The mud’s origin in a tidal tributary rather than the larger Delaware River, then, is key. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"(In) the main-stem Delaware, a lot of the bottom sediment is coarser grain material,\" said David Velinksy, a marine biogeochemist with the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ansp.org/\">Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fine-grain sediments stay suspended in the rushing water of major rivers. In slower-moving tributaries, they have a chance to settle out, Velinksy said. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, Jim Bintliff adds a secret ingredient to the mud after harvesting, so it’s not just Mother Nature who is responsible for the magic mud. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>To see additional video from QUEST Philadelphia for this story, see: \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=flrWvnhPmng\">Baseball's dirty little secret\u003c/a>. \u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\" target=\"_blank\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\" target=\"_blank\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26065\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/21/seeing-relativity-no-bungees-attached/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26065\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image.jpg\" alt=\"Charles Burckhalter 1900 solar eclipse plate\" title=\"Charles Burckhalter 1900 solar eclipse with stars marked for Relativity analysis. Credit: Chabot Space & Science Center\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26065\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Charles Burckhalter's 1900 solar eclipse image with stars marked for Relativity analysis. Credit: Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Elevendy-one years ago (that's a hundred and eleven to the non-Shireborne), \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\">Chabot Observatory\u003c/a> Director Charles Burckhalter set forth on an expedition across the plains of India, risking bandits, tigers, famine, and plague, on a hunt for big game: a rare meeting of the Sun and the migrating Moon in a total solar eclipse. Little could he know, years later his then-world-class astrophotographs of the event would be used in an effort to prove or disprove the General Theory of Relativity published by Albert Einstein in 1916. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Einstein's \u003ca href=\"http://www.physics.fsu.edu/courses/spring98/ast3033/Relativity/GeneralRelativity.htm\">General Theory of Relativity\u003c/a> is the one that describes gravity, that attractive force between objects, not as some kind of invisible bungee cord but as a distortion, or warping, of space (and time) by matter. Other objects within the warped, \"curved\" space accelerate \"downhill\" along the curve, toward the mass producing the distortion. Likewise, objects moving through the gravity field are deflected, their trajectories curved toward the mass. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trick was how to prove this theory with observational evidence. That gravity is a fact is easily demonstrated by holding up an object and then letting go of it. Gravity, whatever gravity is, accelerates it \"downward\"—in our case, toward the center of Earth's mass. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But how to demonstrate that gravity, as Einstein theorized, is the effect of space-time warped by matter causing objects to slide down the \"uneven ground,\" (yeah, using a lot of quotation marks, I know) was a bit like trying to prove that gnomes are responsible for missing keys (as we all know they are, but just can't prove!)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, an experiment was proposed to try to sort out the culprit of gravity as curved space-time, or \"merely\" an invisible bungee cord. If space-time is in fact warped around a massive object, then not only other material objects, but non-material forms of energy should follow along the contours of the warp and also be deflected. Light was the handiest observable, non-material form of energy available. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the theory went, the greater the mass of an object, the greater the deflection, and the Sun was by far the most massive nearby object available. If the stars behind the Sun's vicinity could be observed to shift their apparent position—as a consequence of their light rays being deflected as they flew past the Sun on their way to Earth—then General Relativity could be observationally confirmed. And there were astronomers in both camps—pro-Relativity and pro-Invisible-Bungee-Cords—trying to observe the effect, or the lack thereof. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A total solar eclipse in 1919 made itself available only three years after Einstein published, and so became a very important eclipse to science. (And, coincidentally, occurred on almost the same day of the year, May 29, as the May 28, 1900 eclipse captured by Burckhalter--which meant that the stars whose positions were being measured, the Hyades cluster in Taurus, were the same in both cases.) In the early 20th century, before space-based satellite observatories existed, stars could not be observed close to the Sun's disk, the Sun being so bright as to drown them out completely. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But during a total solar eclipse, the Moon temporarily blocks the Sun's bright disk, briefly giving astronomers a glimpse of the starry background surrounding the Sun. Photographs of the stars' positions taken during the eclipse could be compared to those of the same stars taken at a different time of the year, when the Sun wasn't present in that location, and so the space-time distortions of gravity (if there were any) might be observed in the deflection of the stars' apparent positions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Charles Burckhalter's expedition photos from the 1900 eclipse were accessed as part of the observational experiment—including by those on the bungee-advocacy side of the aisle. His innovations in a technique for photographing solar eclipses made his image plates quite valuable among the 1900 sets. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the end, General Relativity was, in fact, demonstrated observationally, by \u003ca href=\"http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMDYPXO4HD_index_0.html\">Arthur Eddington\u003c/a> and others, which opened up a whole new universe of astounding possibilities, including the origin of the universe in the Big Bang, and the existence of the mind-bending, light-devouring objects called Black Holes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, back in the day, Burckhalter was probably more concerned by the sounds of tigers creeping through the bush and reports of the surrounding plague epidemic as he snapped his shots of the darkened Sun above….\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\" target=\"_blank\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\" target=\"_blank\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_26065\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/10/21/seeing-relativity-no-bungees-attached/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-26065\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image.jpg\" alt=\"Charles Burckhalter 1900 solar eclipse plate\" title=\"Charles Burckhalter 1900 solar eclipse with stars marked for Relativity analysis. Credit: Chabot Space & Science Center\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-26065\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/10/burckhalter-1900-eclipse-image-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Charles Burckhalter's 1900 solar eclipse image with stars marked for Relativity analysis. Credit: Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Elevendy-one years ago (that's a hundred and eleven to the non-Shireborne), \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2008/02/29/oaklands-observatory/\">Chabot Observatory\u003c/a> Director Charles Burckhalter set forth on an expedition across the plains of India, risking bandits, tigers, famine, and plague, on a hunt for big game: a rare meeting of the Sun and the migrating Moon in a total solar eclipse. Little could he know, years later his then-world-class astrophotographs of the event would be used in an effort to prove or disprove the General Theory of Relativity published by Albert Einstein in 1916. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Einstein's \u003ca href=\"http://www.physics.fsu.edu/courses/spring98/ast3033/Relativity/GeneralRelativity.htm\">General Theory of Relativity\u003c/a> is the one that describes gravity, that attractive force between objects, not as some kind of invisible bungee cord but as a distortion, or warping, of space (and time) by matter. Other objects within the warped, \"curved\" space accelerate \"downhill\" along the curve, toward the mass producing the distortion. Likewise, objects moving through the gravity field are deflected, their trajectories curved toward the mass. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The trick was how to prove this theory with observational evidence. That gravity is a fact is easily demonstrated by holding up an object and then letting go of it. Gravity, whatever gravity is, accelerates it \"downward\"—in our case, toward the center of Earth's mass. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But how to demonstrate that gravity, as Einstein theorized, is the effect of space-time warped by matter causing objects to slide down the \"uneven ground,\" (yeah, using a lot of quotation marks, I know) was a bit like trying to prove that gnomes are responsible for missing keys (as we all know they are, but just can't prove!)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, an experiment was proposed to try to sort out the culprit of gravity as curved space-time, or \"merely\" an invisible bungee cord. If space-time is in fact warped around a massive object, then not only other material objects, but non-material forms of energy should follow along the contours of the warp and also be deflected. Light was the handiest observable, non-material form of energy available. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the theory went, the greater the mass of an object, the greater the deflection, and the Sun was by far the most massive nearby object available. If the stars behind the Sun's vicinity could be observed to shift their apparent position—as a consequence of their light rays being deflected as they flew past the Sun on their way to Earth—then General Relativity could be observationally confirmed. And there were astronomers in both camps—pro-Relativity and pro-Invisible-Bungee-Cords—trying to observe the effect, or the lack thereof. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A total solar eclipse in 1919 made itself available only three years after Einstein published, and so became a very important eclipse to science. (And, coincidentally, occurred on almost the same day of the year, May 29, as the May 28, 1900 eclipse captured by Burckhalter--which meant that the stars whose positions were being measured, the Hyades cluster in Taurus, were the same in both cases.) In the early 20th century, before space-based satellite observatories existed, stars could not be observed close to the Sun's disk, the Sun being so bright as to drown them out completely. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But during a total solar eclipse, the Moon temporarily blocks the Sun's bright disk, briefly giving astronomers a glimpse of the starry background surrounding the Sun. Photographs of the stars' positions taken during the eclipse could be compared to those of the same stars taken at a different time of the year, when the Sun wasn't present in that location, and so the space-time distortions of gravity (if there were any) might be observed in the deflection of the stars' apparent positions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Charles Burckhalter's expedition photos from the 1900 eclipse were accessed as part of the observational experiment—including by those on the bungee-advocacy side of the aisle. His innovations in a technique for photographing solar eclipses made his image plates quite valuable among the 1900 sets. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the end, General Relativity was, in fact, demonstrated observationally, by \u003ca href=\"http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMDYPXO4HD_index_0.html\">Arthur Eddington\u003c/a> and others, which opened up a whole new universe of astounding possibilities, including the origin of the universe in the Big Bang, and the existence of the mind-bending, light-devouring objects called Black Holes. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, back in the day, Burckhalter was probably more concerned by the sounds of tigers creeping through the bush and reports of the surrounding plague epidemic as he snapped his shots of the darkened Sun above….\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Fire is one of humankind’s first technologies. We have been staring into the proverbial campfire for thousands of years. Yet, surprisingly there seems to be much more to learn. And now it’s becoming even more important to our collective future that we know as much as we can about fire. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a \u003ca href=\"http://eetd.lbl.gov/aet/premixed.html\">dark lab\u003c/a> at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, engineers and mathematicians are developing new burners and studying different flames in hopes of better understanding the power of fire and how to make the most efficient flame possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Combustion powers everything from cars to power plants. Improving the efficiency of those systems will help generate more power as well as reduce the amount of emissions produced by burning fossil fuels. In addition, today most power plants run on a single fuel type, say coal or gas. Power generators of the future will probably need to be more versatile and capable of running on multiple different types of fuels, such as hydrogen and natural gas, and move back and forth. Thus, the burners being developed here to study flame efficiency may also lead the way to more versatile power plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Robert Cheng, \u003ca href=\"https://ccse.lbl.gov/people/jbb/index.html\">John Bell \u003c/a> and the other team members have come together from different scientific disciplines; from mechanical engineering and mathematics to physics and chemistry, to develop these \u003ca href=\"http://eetd.lbl.gov/aet/combustion/LSC-Info/\">innovative burners \u003c/a> and amazing \u003ca href=\"https://ccse.lbl.gov/index.html\">three-dimensional combustion simulations\u003c/a> that take advantage of some of the largest super computers in the world. The results are incredibly beautiful and mesmerizing models that one can get lost in staring at…. Much as one might get only when staring at that old campfire.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Editor's Note\u003c/strong>: 10/24/12 - We are saddened to report that \u003ca href=\"http://www.otherlab.com/news/?p=435\">Corwin Hardam\u003c/a>, wind energy pioneer and CEO of Makani Power has \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Corwin-Hardham-wind-power-pioneer-dies-3982587.php\">died unexpectedly at age 38\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-24140\" title=\"propeller300\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\" alt=\"propeller\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A dreamer stares up into the sky, watches the clouds slowly pass by and ponders what could be. From da Vinci to Newton to the Wright brothers to the little kid down the street, sometimes there’s a fine line between the day-dreamer and the visionary. And now a group of innovative thinkers are looking at those same passing clouds in a whole new way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking up at the jet stream, \u003ca href=\"http://dge.stanford.edu/labs/caldeiralab/\">Ken Caldeira\u003c/a>, a climate scientist from the Carnegie Institution of Global Ecology at Stanford University says, “We find that there’s more than 100 times the power necessary to power civilization in these high altitude winds.” 100 times the energy to power the world is going to get people's attention.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The global need for clean energy is pushing scientists and engineers to search for new, untapped sources of energy. “To solve this problem we need a real revolution in our system of energy development,” continues Caldeira, “We need huge amounts of power, and the things that can provide huge amounts of power include fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas; nuclear power, solar power and wind.” The strongest and most consistent winds are found in the \u003ca href=\"http://squall.sfsu.edu/crws/jetstream.html\">jet stream\u003c/a> as high as 30,000 feet above the earth. But how do you harness the wind power from that high? Now the race is on to find the answer to that question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It may seem pie-in-the-sky, but over 20 companies around the world are now working to develop technology to tap the strong and consistent power of high altitude wind. One company we profiled here on QUEST, \u003ca href=\"http://www.makanipower.com/\">Makani Power\u003c/a> in Alameda, California, has received a $15 million grant from Google to build a wing concept that would autonomously fly in high circles, capturing energy with small turbines and sending the power down its tether. Other companies are exploring the use of kites, parachutes, balloons and other fanciful flying machines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no shortage of skeptics and there are plenty of obstacles to hurdle before true high altitude wind energy can get off the ground. But still, it’s fun and interesting to stare up at the floating clouds and dare to dream.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Editor's Note\u003c/strong>: 10/24/12 - We are saddened to report that \u003ca href=\"http://www.otherlab.com/news/?p=435\">Corwin Hardam\u003c/a>, wind energy pioneer and CEO of Makani Power has \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Corwin-Hardham-wind-power-pioneer-dies-3982587.php\">died unexpectedly at age 38\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-24140\" title=\"propeller300\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/propeller300.jpg\" alt=\"propeller\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A dreamer stares up into the sky, watches the clouds slowly pass by and ponders what could be. From da Vinci to Newton to the Wright brothers to the little kid down the street, sometimes there’s a fine line between the day-dreamer and the visionary. And now a group of innovative thinkers are looking at those same passing clouds in a whole new way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Looking up at the jet stream, \u003ca href=\"http://dge.stanford.edu/labs/caldeiralab/\">Ken Caldeira\u003c/a>, a climate scientist from the Carnegie Institution of Global Ecology at Stanford University says, “We find that there’s more than 100 times the power necessary to power civilization in these high altitude winds.” 100 times the energy to power the world is going to get people's attention.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The global need for clean energy is pushing scientists and engineers to search for new, untapped sources of energy. “To solve this problem we need a real revolution in our system of energy development,” continues Caldeira, “We need huge amounts of power, and the things that can provide huge amounts of power include fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas; nuclear power, solar power and wind.” The strongest and most consistent winds are found in the \u003ca href=\"http://squall.sfsu.edu/crws/jetstream.html\">jet stream\u003c/a> as high as 30,000 feet above the earth. But how do you harness the wind power from that high? Now the race is on to find the answer to that question.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It may seem pie-in-the-sky, but over 20 companies around the world are now working to develop technology to tap the strong and consistent power of high altitude wind. One company we profiled here on QUEST, \u003ca href=\"http://www.makanipower.com/\">Makani Power\u003c/a> in Alameda, California, has received a $15 million grant from Google to build a wing concept that would autonomously fly in high circles, capturing energy with small turbines and sending the power down its tether. Other companies are exploring the use of kites, parachutes, balloons and other fanciful flying machines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is no shortage of skeptics and there are plenty of obstacles to hurdle before true high altitude wind energy can get off the ground. But still, it’s fun and interesting to stare up at the floating clouds and dare to dream.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>FRIDAY HARBOR, SAN JUAN ISLAND - How do we distinguish orca sounds from other underwater noise?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Friday Harbor, a decade-old \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophone\">hydrophone\u003c/a> system running 200 meters along Snug Harbor is constantly recording sounds that come through Haro Strait.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Val Veirs, the owner of \u003ca href=\"http://orcasound.net/\">Orcasound\u003c/a>, uses custom software to detect interesting sounds recorded by his hydrophones. When a sequence of sounds displays a particular harmonic structure, it gets converted into an .mp3 sound file that is uploaded into a database for further research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But how exactly do hydrophones work?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When underwater sounds push against a hydrophone, a small voltage is created. That voltage is pre-amplified and then sent up cables to computers for analysis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/webextraorcas-marqueeimage2-to-use-within-blog-post.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/webextraorcas-marqueeimage2-to-use-within-blog-post-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"hydrophone\" title=\"webextraorcas-marqueeimage2 - to use within blog post\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-23891\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The voltage (or sound) is sampled at a very high rate - 196 thousand samples per second - which is 4 times higher than compact disc sample rates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Veirs, sampling high frequencies that are above the human hearing range allows him to study the intricacies of orca language; more importantly, he wants to show how noise such as boats and ships make it harder for orcas to communicate and hunt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In studying orcas, Veirs uses a complicated set of algorithms to discriminate against 99.9% of the sounds that come through the hydrophones. Orcas produce sounds that have a very simple harmonic structure, and that’s what his software looks for.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Orcas make sounds with frequencies that change in a smooth way, with most of the energy in 3, 4, 5 peaks,” says Veirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And sounds that have a complicated harmonic structure - with many frequencies in it are discriminated by the software, because these are sounds not typically made by orcas.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Southern resident orcas in Friday Harbor are considered an \u003ca href=\"http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Marine-Mammals/Whales-Dolphins-Porpoise/Killer-Whales/ESA-Status/\">endangered population segment by NOAA\u003c/a> (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Ultimately, Veirs wants to use his research to create public policy that urges boats to slow down, stay farther away from the orcas, and to use quieter engines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Once we understand that these noises may make it harder for the whales to forage, to communicate, then we have a chance to take some societal steps to give them a better chance of surviving…That is the best hope we have for them.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>FRIDAY HARBOR, SAN JUAN ISLAND - How do we distinguish orca sounds from other underwater noise?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Friday Harbor, a decade-old \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophone\">hydrophone\u003c/a> system running 200 meters along Snug Harbor is constantly recording sounds that come through Haro Strait.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Val Veirs, the owner of \u003ca href=\"http://orcasound.net/\">Orcasound\u003c/a>, uses custom software to detect interesting sounds recorded by his hydrophones. When a sequence of sounds displays a particular harmonic structure, it gets converted into an .mp3 sound file that is uploaded into a database for further research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But how exactly do hydrophones work?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When underwater sounds push against a hydrophone, a small voltage is created. That voltage is pre-amplified and then sent up cables to computers for analysis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/webextraorcas-marqueeimage2-to-use-within-blog-post.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/09/webextraorcas-marqueeimage2-to-use-within-blog-post-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"hydrophone\" title=\"webextraorcas-marqueeimage2 - to use within blog post\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"alignright size-thumbnail wp-image-23891\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The voltage (or sound) is sampled at a very high rate - 196 thousand samples per second - which is 4 times higher than compact disc sample rates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to Veirs, sampling high frequencies that are above the human hearing range allows him to study the intricacies of orca language; more importantly, he wants to show how noise such as boats and ships make it harder for orcas to communicate and hunt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In studying orcas, Veirs uses a complicated set of algorithms to discriminate against 99.9% of the sounds that come through the hydrophones. Orcas produce sounds that have a very simple harmonic structure, and that’s what his software looks for.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Orcas make sounds with frequencies that change in a smooth way, with most of the energy in 3, 4, 5 peaks,” says Veirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“And sounds that have a complicated harmonic structure - with many frequencies in it are discriminated by the software, because these are sounds not typically made by orcas.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Southern resident orcas in Friday Harbor are considered an \u003ca href=\"http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Marine-Mammals/Whales-Dolphins-Porpoise/Killer-Whales/ESA-Status/\">endangered population segment by NOAA\u003c/a> (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Ultimately, Veirs wants to use his research to create public policy that urges boats to slow down, stay farther away from the orcas, and to use quieter engines.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Once we understand that these noises may make it harder for the whales to forage, to communicate, then we have a chance to take some societal steps to give them a better chance of surviving…That is the best hope we have for them.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Goodbye to the Bevatron",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/goodbye-to-the-bevatron-audio\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/radio3-28_Bevatron3001.jpg\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>With the demolition of the Bevatron, a chapter of the Bay Area's high-level physics research comes to a close. \u003c/em>\u003c/span>By 1954, ten years after the first atomic bombs leveled Hisroshima and Nagasaki, many of the scientists who had helped develop America’s nuclear arsenal had returned to the US. After years of working on weapons of mass destruction -- and seeing those theories become reality -- many turned to some of the most basic questions imaginable: How did the universe begin? What is it made of?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the places they came to ask those questions was \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>, in the Berkeley hills.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stewart Loken is a physicist with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and every day on his way to work he passes by a decrepit-looking building about the size and shape of a small sports stadium. Its windows are knocked out, there's a junk pile of old doors and pipes in front. It's called the Bevatron. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=\"QUEST Audio Player\" skin=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip\" file=\"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/01/2011-01-17-quest.mp3\" ]\u003cbr>\n\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/goodbye-to-the-bevatron-audio\">Goodbye to the Bevatron\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5798_6001.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_5798_600\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-11565\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5798_6001.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5798_6001-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003cem>With the demolition of the Bevatron, a chapter of the Bay Area's high-level physics research comes to a close. \u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was the highest energy accelerator in the world,” says Loken, pointing to the ruins. “It was commissioned with a single goal in mind, which was to produce experimental evidence of the \u003ca href=\"http://philosophyofscienceportal.blogspot.com/2009/11/bevatronantiproton-bit-of-history.html\">existence of the anti-proton\u003c/a>.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To understand – or at least, approach understanding -- the anti-proton, you have to back up, all the way up to the event that physicists consider the very beginning of the universe, 14 billion years ago: The big bang. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Any model of the big bang that makes any sense to us creates equal amounts of matter and \u003ca href=\"http://livefromcern.web.cern.ch/livefromcern/antimatter/history/AM-history01-b.html\">antimatter \u003c/a>from the vacuum,” says Persis Drell, who directs the \u003ca href=\"http://www.slac.stanford.edu/\">SLAC National Accelerator Lab\u003c/a>, at Stanford. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5804_6001.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_5804_600\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-11566\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5804_6001.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5804_6001-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003cem>Some of the Bevatron’s waste was radioactive, and had to be hauled to hazardous waste sites, such as in Kettleman City.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Drell says matter is pretty straightforward. It's what makes up your coffee cup, your brain, the visible universe. But for every subatomic particle that makes up matter, there’s a matching particle, an anti-particle, with the opposite electrical charge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When you create matter, you always create an equal amount of antimatter,” Drell says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists knew the anti-matter had to be out there, but for the most part, they couldn't see it. So, they decided to look for one type of anti-matter in particular, the anti-proton. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The anti-proton was the thing that would confirm the fact that there is an antimatter world, in addition to the matter world that we see every day,” says Stewart Loken. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, if scientists could produce an anti-proton, it would mean that our understanding of the Big Bang, and the makeup of our universe was basically on the right track. If not, well, it was back to square one. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, they built the Bevatron to test their theory. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5817_6001.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_5817_600\" width=\"400\" height=\"600\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-11567\">\u003cem>Five Nobel Prizes were won based on work at the Bevatron, including the 1959 nobel Prize in Physics, for the discovery of the anti-proton.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The experiment began with a thin cloud of hydrogen gas. First, scientists extracted protons from the hydrogen atoms, and injected them into the accelerator chamber. As the protons whipped around and around the chamber they went faster and faster, until they approached the speed of light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You want to get to high enough energy that when \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/07/27/producers-notes-homegrown-particle-accelerators/\">particles smash together\u003c/a>, you can turn that energy into the production of new particles,” says Loken. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which is exactly what happened. As the particles approached light speed, the Bevatron performed a feat Einstein himself described with the equation E=MC2: That mass and energy are different manifestations of the same thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since mass and energy are essentially interchangeable, the Bevatron was able to transform matter into energy, and energy back into even more matter… including, in 1955, for the first time ever, antimatter. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We smashed proton against proton and in the end we had proton, proton, antiproton and another proton to balance it out,” Loken says. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This work won Bevatron scientists the \u003ca href=\"http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1959/\">1959 Nobel Prize in physics\u003c/a>. It was the first of four Nobels to come from research done here - as well as new insights into things like radiation treatment for cancer, and how to keep astronauts safe from radiation in space. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But by the late 1980s, the Bevatron had become obsolete. In 1993, it closed its doors for good. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Taking down the Bevatron is a huge endeavor. When it's finally \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/Community/construction/b51.html\">demolished\u003c/a>, in 2011, it will have cost the country 50 million dollars. Part of the expense will be from removing a protective layer of concrete blocks that kept scientists safe from radiation released by the accelerator. Now, \u003ca href=\"http://articles.sfgate.com/2005-04-01/bay-area/17368125_1_lab-two-years-lawrence-berkeley-national-laboratory-particle\">those blocks\u003c/a> must be hauled away to hazardous waste sites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the work that in some ways began here… much of it has moved to the \u003ca href=\"http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/lhc/lhc-en.html\">Large Hadron Collider\u003c/a> in Cern, Switzerland. Where scientists – including from Berkeley – are trying to get a better understanding of how the universe began. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8768 -122.251\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/goodbye-to-the-bevatron-audio\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/radio3-28_Bevatron3001.jpg\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>With the demolition of the Bevatron, a chapter of the Bay Area's high-level physics research comes to a close. \u003c/em>\u003c/span>By 1954, ten years after the first atomic bombs leveled Hisroshima and Nagasaki, many of the scientists who had helped develop America’s nuclear arsenal had returned to the US. After years of working on weapons of mass destruction -- and seeing those theories become reality -- many turned to some of the most basic questions imaginable: How did the universe begin? What is it made of?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the places they came to ask those questions was \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>, in the Berkeley hills.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stewart Loken is a physicist with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and every day on his way to work he passes by a decrepit-looking building about the size and shape of a small sports stadium. Its windows are knocked out, there's a junk pile of old doors and pipes in front. It's called the Bevatron. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[jwplayer config=\"QUEST Audio Player\" skin=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/themes/quest/glow.zip\" file=\"http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2011/01/2011-01-17-quest.mp3\" ]\u003cbr>\n\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Listen to the QUEST radio story \u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/goodbye-to-the-bevatron-audio\">Goodbye to the Bevatron\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv style=\"border-bottom:1px dotted #cecece;height:20px;margin-bottom:10px\"> \u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5798_6001.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_5798_600\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-11565\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5798_6001.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5798_6001-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003cem>With the demolition of the Bevatron, a chapter of the Bay Area's high-level physics research comes to a close. \u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was the highest energy accelerator in the world,” says Loken, pointing to the ruins. “It was commissioned with a single goal in mind, which was to produce experimental evidence of the \u003ca href=\"http://philosophyofscienceportal.blogspot.com/2009/11/bevatronantiproton-bit-of-history.html\">existence of the anti-proton\u003c/a>.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To understand – or at least, approach understanding -- the anti-proton, you have to back up, all the way up to the event that physicists consider the very beginning of the universe, 14 billion years ago: The big bang. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Any model of the big bang that makes any sense to us creates equal amounts of matter and \u003ca href=\"http://livefromcern.web.cern.ch/livefromcern/antimatter/history/AM-history01-b.html\">antimatter \u003c/a>from the vacuum,” says Persis Drell, who directs the \u003ca href=\"http://www.slac.stanford.edu/\">SLAC National Accelerator Lab\u003c/a>, at Stanford. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5804_6001.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_5804_600\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-11566\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5804_6001.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5804_6001-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003cem>Some of the Bevatron’s waste was radioactive, and had to be hauled to hazardous waste sites, such as in Kettleman City.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Drell says matter is pretty straightforward. It's what makes up your coffee cup, your brain, the visible universe. But for every subatomic particle that makes up matter, there’s a matching particle, an anti-particle, with the opposite electrical charge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When you create matter, you always create an equal amount of antimatter,” Drell says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists knew the anti-matter had to be out there, but for the most part, they couldn't see it. So, they decided to look for one type of anti-matter in particular, the anti-proton. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The anti-proton was the thing that would confirm the fact that there is an antimatter world, in addition to the matter world that we see every day,” says Stewart Loken. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, if scientists could produce an anti-proton, it would mean that our understanding of the Big Bang, and the makeup of our universe was basically on the right track. If not, well, it was back to square one. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, they built the Bevatron to test their theory. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2011/01/IMG_5817_6001.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_5817_600\" width=\"400\" height=\"600\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-11567\">\u003cem>Five Nobel Prizes were won based on work at the Bevatron, including the 1959 nobel Prize in Physics, for the discovery of the anti-proton.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The experiment began with a thin cloud of hydrogen gas. First, scientists extracted protons from the hydrogen atoms, and injected them into the accelerator chamber. As the protons whipped around and around the chamber they went faster and faster, until they approached the speed of light. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You want to get to high enough energy that when \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/07/27/producers-notes-homegrown-particle-accelerators/\">particles smash together\u003c/a>, you can turn that energy into the production of new particles,” says Loken. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which is exactly what happened. As the particles approached light speed, the Bevatron performed a feat Einstein himself described with the equation E=MC2: That mass and energy are different manifestations of the same thing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since mass and energy are essentially interchangeable, the Bevatron was able to transform matter into energy, and energy back into even more matter… including, in 1955, for the first time ever, antimatter. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We smashed proton against proton and in the end we had proton, proton, antiproton and another proton to balance it out,” Loken says. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This work won Bevatron scientists the \u003ca href=\"http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1959/\">1959 Nobel Prize in physics\u003c/a>. It was the first of four Nobels to come from research done here - as well as new insights into things like radiation treatment for cancer, and how to keep astronauts safe from radiation in space. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But by the late 1980s, the Bevatron had become obsolete. In 1993, it closed its doors for good. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Taking down the Bevatron is a huge endeavor. When it's finally \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/Community/construction/b51.html\">demolished\u003c/a>, in 2011, it will have cost the country 50 million dollars. Part of the expense will be from removing a protective layer of concrete blocks that kept scientists safe from radiation released by the accelerator. Now, \u003ca href=\"http://articles.sfgate.com/2005-04-01/bay-area/17368125_1_lab-two-years-lawrence-berkeley-national-laboratory-particle\">those blocks\u003c/a> must be hauled away to hazardous waste sites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the work that in some ways began here… much of it has moved to the \u003ca href=\"http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/lhc/lhc-en.html\">Large Hadron Collider\u003c/a> in Cern, Switzerland. Where scientists – including from Berkeley – are trying to get a better understanding of how the universe began. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8768 -122.251\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/10/usascience.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>The USA Science and Engineering Festival's mission was to “re-invigorate the interest of our nation’s youth in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) by producing and presenting the most compelling, exciting, educational and entertaining science gatherings in the United States”.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This past weekend, I was on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. with a notebook and a very good pair of walking shoes. I spent the weekend exploring the inaugural expo of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.usasciencefestival.org/about/mission\">USA Science and Engineering Festival\u003c/a>. The festival’s mission was to “re-invigorate the interest of our nation’s youth in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) by producing and presenting the most compelling, exciting, educational and entertaining science gatherings in the United States”. It was a great weekend that re-invigorated my passion for science and presenting it to the public.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Expo encompassed booths from groups around the United States, robotic stations sponsored by Lockheed Martin, mobile museums and medical vans and a variety of stage performances in celebration of science, technology, math and engineering. Booths were spread out over the National Mall in front of the capital as well as the Wilson and Freedom Plazas in downtown DC. There was so much variety of interests, issues and fields represented that I learned about a range of subjects from dark matter to biomes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There were a few things that I took away from the experience. First off, low-tech is still a tried and true way to convey science. Kids were crowded around the booths that offered a hands-on approach. One station showed the make up of the universe with marbles and it worked great. Another booth conveyed physics by showing how much weight a boat could withstand and still float. Those booths with TV screens and a media approach just didn’t hold attention if the kids but those that had an experiment to work on were packed. The one exception was the robotic stations. Kids were driving robots in arenas playing soccer and were engrossed in the activity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Expo also gave me a renewed respect for higher learning institutions. Across the board, some of the best science conveyed was coming out from University science departments and student run science clubs. They did a fantastic job. I was also pleasantly surprised to see so much content directed towards girls and women in the sciences. Overall, I was really inspired by the Expo and more importantly all the kids and family that were engaged throughout the weekend. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the swag items I got at the Expo was a button that said “I am a Scientific American” which seemed to sum up my experience at the Expo; I felt truly inspired about the huge numbers of groups that came together to share about science. In the Fall of 2011, UCSF will be presenting an inaugural \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencefestivals.org/component/festival/festival/viewfestival/bay-area-science-festival\">Bay Area Science Festival\u003c/a> in our locale. I can’t wait to see how the festival materializes and conveys the rich science and technology we have right here in the San Francisco Bay Area. I hope there will be a button that reads “I am a Scientific San Franciscan”.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7699 -122.467174\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/10/usascience.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>The USA Science and Engineering Festival's mission was to “re-invigorate the interest of our nation’s youth in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) by producing and presenting the most compelling, exciting, educational and entertaining science gatherings in the United States”.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This past weekend, I was on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. with a notebook and a very good pair of walking shoes. I spent the weekend exploring the inaugural expo of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.usasciencefestival.org/about/mission\">USA Science and Engineering Festival\u003c/a>. The festival’s mission was to “re-invigorate the interest of our nation’s youth in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) by producing and presenting the most compelling, exciting, educational and entertaining science gatherings in the United States”. It was a great weekend that re-invigorated my passion for science and presenting it to the public.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Expo encompassed booths from groups around the United States, robotic stations sponsored by Lockheed Martin, mobile museums and medical vans and a variety of stage performances in celebration of science, technology, math and engineering. Booths were spread out over the National Mall in front of the capital as well as the Wilson and Freedom Plazas in downtown DC. There was so much variety of interests, issues and fields represented that I learned about a range of subjects from dark matter to biomes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There were a few things that I took away from the experience. First off, low-tech is still a tried and true way to convey science. Kids were crowded around the booths that offered a hands-on approach. One station showed the make up of the universe with marbles and it worked great. Another booth conveyed physics by showing how much weight a boat could withstand and still float. Those booths with TV screens and a media approach just didn’t hold attention if the kids but those that had an experiment to work on were packed. The one exception was the robotic stations. Kids were driving robots in arenas playing soccer and were engrossed in the activity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Expo also gave me a renewed respect for higher learning institutions. Across the board, some of the best science conveyed was coming out from University science departments and student run science clubs. They did a fantastic job. I was also pleasantly surprised to see so much content directed towards girls and women in the sciences. Overall, I was really inspired by the Expo and more importantly all the kids and family that were engaged throughout the weekend. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the swag items I got at the Expo was a button that said “I am a Scientific American” which seemed to sum up my experience at the Expo; I felt truly inspired about the huge numbers of groups that came together to share about science. In the Fall of 2011, UCSF will be presenting an inaugural \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencefestivals.org/component/festival/festival/viewfestival/bay-area-science-festival\">Bay Area Science Festival\u003c/a> in our locale. I can’t wait to see how the festival materializes and conveys the rich science and technology we have right here in the San Francisco Bay Area. I hope there will be a button that reads “I am a Scientific San Franciscan”.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7699 -122.467174\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Scientists Manipulate Atoms in Real Time",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/1c_STMAnimation.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Illustration of a magnetically active iron atom under observation in the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine a future where iPods could store hundreds of thousands -- or even millions -- of songs, where smart phones could hold hundreds of Hollywood films, and where solar-powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a future that may be possible. IBM scientists in San Jose have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper describing the research was published Friday as the cover story in the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/\">Science\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To observe the behavior of individual copper and iron atoms billionths of a meter in size, the scientists had to use a “\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope\">scanning tunneling microscope\u003c/a>,” a device invented by IBM researchers in 1981.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It isn’t your typical microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/2_LothSTM.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>IBM Postdoctoral Researcher Sebastian Loth next to the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The cool thing about the scanning tunneling microscope is that you can not only see these atoms, you can move them around,” said Sebastian Loth, a postdoctoral researcher at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.almaden.ibm.com/\">IBM Almaden-Research Center\u003c/a>, and the lead author of the paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The device uses a metallic-pointed tip mounted on a robotic arm to move with atomic-scale precision next to iron and copper atoms. Iron was chosen because it’s magnetically active, even at the scale of individual atoms. While the individual copper atoms aren’t magnetically active, they influence the duration the iron atoms stay magnetically active when they’re placed next to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loth and his four other team members sent a current from the tip of the microscope to the iron atoms, which are like tiny bar magnets. The current causes the iron atom to become polarized, or to change its magnetic orientation, so instead of pointing north, it points south.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is the information, or data, that the scientists observed and measured on the order of nanoseconds, or billionths of a second. The difference between one nanosecond and one second is equal to the difference between one second and 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s similar to the way a computer reads the bits of data stored on a computer chip. But here, instead of the typical sequence of ones and zeroes to indicate information, the scientists looked at magnetic information -- the direction the iron atom pointed in and for how long it kept its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists experimented with the number and placement of iron atoms next to copper atoms to find the right configuration that would yield the longest time frame an iron atom would hold its magnetic position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The particular structure that we studied is this combination of one iron and one copper atom right next to it, snuggling it. With this configuration, the iron atom it holds the magnetic information for 200 nanoseconds”, said Loth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/3_STMCloseup1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Closeup view of the IBM scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the moment, the research team is exploring other configurations of iron and copper atoms to increase this length of time, which although extremely brief, is still long enough for meaningful activity to take place in today’s computers. For example, a laptop with a fast processor refreshes data constantly, every nanosecond. So in 200 nanoseconds, the computer has already performed a few hundred operations while its user is typing a document, surfing the web or checking email.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today’s hard drives, as compact as they are, still require about 10,000 atoms to store one bit of data. Each bit is a magnet pointing up or down, referring to a one or a zero, which a sensor on the hard drive reads when it retrieves data. Since the IBM researchers showed that magnetic information can be stored and read out on just one iron atom, the real estate needed to store data could shrink enormously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you could do atomic-scale data storage in a real device, you would have another 40 years in the development of Moore’s Law”, said Andreas Heinrich, a co-author of the paper and the research team leader.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moore’s Law, coined in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, states that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every 18 months, allowing for an exponential increase in computing power and storage. At a certain point, which is fast approaching, the physical limitation of engineering such small silicon transistors will prevent this exponential progress in computer chip technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating particles billionths of a meter in size, is widely seen as the answer to leapfrog over the limitations of traditional silicon chip manufacturing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We want to get away from transistors, to come up with new schemes on single atoms that allow you to do computation and data storage differently, more efficiently with less power”, said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A key challenge the IBM scientists had to overcome was to somehow visualize the individual atoms’ magnetic behavior in real time, on the order of a few nanoseconds. The computer attached to their microscope generated a map of the location of the atoms but it was missing the crucial time component.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We see these images of the atoms and they all look static,” said Loth. “The reason for that is that the scanning tunneling microscope is a slow technique. It takes minutes to get one of these images.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But thanks to inspiration from a Sci-Fi blockbuster, the researchers were able to actually capture movies that show the evolution of magnetically active individual iron atoms, a million times faster than was previously possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was a true feat of five people sticking their heads together for days on end. We were all in the lab talking about this and I was thinking of these cool bullet shots from \u003cem>The Matrix\u003c/em>, when the villain shoots at the good guy and you see the bullets stop in the air,” Loth said. “This is what we wanted to do. We wanted to freeze the motion so that we can inspect it and the way \u003cem>The Matrix \u003c/em>movie guys did it, they just took a bunch of still pictures. So we took a bunch of still pictures too.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think of it as time-lapse photography, shot at the nano-scale. But since neither the microscope nor its attached computer have lenses, the “pictures” they generated were individual points of action, recorded every few nanoseconds, while manipulating the iron atoms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The research team connected to their microscope a machine, a pulse pattern generator, to deliver extremely fast pulses of electricity from the metallic tip of the microscope to the iron atoms. After an iron atom was given a tiny electric current to initially polarize it and change its magnetic orientation from north to south, for example, a second, smaller current was then given to measure how strongly the atom held its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process was repeated over and over again, generating individual frames of action every 2 or 3 nanoseconds to capture in real time the magnetic behavior of the iron atom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have a defined delay between the initiating pulse and the reading pulse and this is what sets our time,” said Loth. “Instead of having to watch really closely and hope you catch this information in time, you predefine it by these pulses.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The frames were then sequentially played back as a movie, with the various data the computer was collecting to refer to the location of the atom and its magnetic orientation, for example, converted into a map showing the dynamic activity of the iron atom over time. The six movies the team has generated today are about a minute long but they show action that was recorded over the space of one millionth of a second.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/4_STM-time-resolution-3d-rendering.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>3D map illustration of iron atoms, with the strength of their magnetic polarization represented as yellow bars. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science is often close to an art. And one aspect of this is how you visualize your data in a way that looks most efficient and cool,” said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ability to capture atomic activity in real time represents a major milestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our effort to speed up nanoscience and put high-speed time into the nanoscience,” said Heinrich. “People were able to study nano-sized objects since the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, and people were able to study fast phenomena using lasers, but they weren’t able to combine these two worlds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This work is beautiful,” said Kathryn Moler, a professor of applied physics at Stanford University. “For information technology, it could mean a new generation of devices with better storage capabilities and lower power consumption,” she added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The IBM researchers said they are confident that their breakthrough will spur innovation in other fields as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heinrich said the microscope set-up could be “tuned to a different channel of information.” So instead of looking at the magnetic characteristics of an atom, scientists working on solar cells could track at the level of nanoseconds when a photon of light is converted into energy. Such work could yield better-designed solar cells that are more efficient at capturing light and converting it into electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a scientist, sometimes you make a development or discovery that is truly great and this was one of those moments when I knew this was a great development and something to be really proud of,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>Movie of iron atoms placed alongside copper atoms as they change their magnetic polarization over time. Red indicates high polarization and white indicates low polarization.(Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.210445 -121.810514\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Imagine a future where iPods are capable of storing hundreds of thousands or millions of songs, where smart phones could play back several hundred times more feature-length Hollywood films than is currently possible, and where solar powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\n\nIt’s a future that may be possible thanks to research being done by IBM scientists in San Jose who have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/1c_STMAnimation.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Illustration of a magnetically active iron atom under observation in the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Imagine a future where iPods could store hundreds of thousands -- or even millions -- of songs, where smart phones could hold hundreds of Hollywood films, and where solar-powered cells become dramatically more efficient in converting light to electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s a future that may be possible. IBM scientists in San Jose have developed a new technique to manipulate individual atoms and measure how long they can store information in real time, over just a few billionths of a second. Their work could radically shrink a computer’s hard drive, allowing data to be stored on it more efficiently.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper describing the research was published Friday as the cover story in the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/\">Science\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To observe the behavior of individual copper and iron atoms billionths of a meter in size, the scientists had to use a “\u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope\">scanning tunneling microscope\u003c/a>,” a device invented by IBM researchers in 1981.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It isn’t your typical microscope.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/2_LothSTM.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>IBM Postdoctoral Researcher Sebastian Loth next to the scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The cool thing about the scanning tunneling microscope is that you can not only see these atoms, you can move them around,” said Sebastian Loth, a postdoctoral researcher at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.almaden.ibm.com/\">IBM Almaden-Research Center\u003c/a>, and the lead author of the paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The device uses a metallic-pointed tip mounted on a robotic arm to move with atomic-scale precision next to iron and copper atoms. Iron was chosen because it’s magnetically active, even at the scale of individual atoms. While the individual copper atoms aren’t magnetically active, they influence the duration the iron atoms stay magnetically active when they’re placed next to them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loth and his four other team members sent a current from the tip of the microscope to the iron atoms, which are like tiny bar magnets. The current causes the iron atom to become polarized, or to change its magnetic orientation, so instead of pointing north, it points south.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is the information, or data, that the scientists observed and measured on the order of nanoseconds, or billionths of a second. The difference between one nanosecond and one second is equal to the difference between one second and 30 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s similar to the way a computer reads the bits of data stored on a computer chip. But here, instead of the typical sequence of ones and zeroes to indicate information, the scientists looked at magnetic information -- the direction the iron atom pointed in and for how long it kept its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The scientists experimented with the number and placement of iron atoms next to copper atoms to find the right configuration that would yield the longest time frame an iron atom would hold its magnetic position.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The particular structure that we studied is this combination of one iron and one copper atom right next to it, snuggling it. With this configuration, the iron atom it holds the magnetic information for 200 nanoseconds”, said Loth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/3_STMCloseup1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Closeup view of the IBM scanning tunneling microscope. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At the moment, the research team is exploring other configurations of iron and copper atoms to increase this length of time, which although extremely brief, is still long enough for meaningful activity to take place in today’s computers. For example, a laptop with a fast processor refreshes data constantly, every nanosecond. So in 200 nanoseconds, the computer has already performed a few hundred operations while its user is typing a document, surfing the web or checking email.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today’s hard drives, as compact as they are, still require about 10,000 atoms to store one bit of data. Each bit is a magnet pointing up or down, referring to a one or a zero, which a sensor on the hard drive reads when it retrieves data. Since the IBM researchers showed that magnetic information can be stored and read out on just one iron atom, the real estate needed to store data could shrink enormously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If you could do atomic-scale data storage in a real device, you would have another 40 years in the development of Moore’s Law”, said Andreas Heinrich, a co-author of the paper and the research team leader.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Moore’s Law, coined in 1965 by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, states that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every 18 months, allowing for an exponential increase in computing power and storage. At a certain point, which is fast approaching, the physical limitation of engineering such small silicon transistors will prevent this exponential progress in computer chip technology.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating particles billionths of a meter in size, is widely seen as the answer to leapfrog over the limitations of traditional silicon chip manufacturing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We want to get away from transistors, to come up with new schemes on single atoms that allow you to do computation and data storage differently, more efficiently with less power”, said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A key challenge the IBM scientists had to overcome was to somehow visualize the individual atoms’ magnetic behavior in real time, on the order of a few nanoseconds. The computer attached to their microscope generated a map of the location of the atoms but it was missing the crucial time component.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We see these images of the atoms and they all look static,” said Loth. “The reason for that is that the scanning tunneling microscope is a slow technique. It takes minutes to get one of these images.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But thanks to inspiration from a Sci-Fi blockbuster, the researchers were able to actually capture movies that show the evolution of magnetically active individual iron atoms, a million times faster than was previously possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This was a true feat of five people sticking their heads together for days on end. We were all in the lab talking about this and I was thinking of these cool bullet shots from \u003cem>The Matrix\u003c/em>, when the villain shoots at the good guy and you see the bullets stop in the air,” Loth said. “This is what we wanted to do. We wanted to freeze the motion so that we can inspect it and the way \u003cem>The Matrix \u003c/em>movie guys did it, they just took a bunch of still pictures. So we took a bunch of still pictures too.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Think of it as time-lapse photography, shot at the nano-scale. But since neither the microscope nor its attached computer have lenses, the “pictures” they generated were individual points of action, recorded every few nanoseconds, while manipulating the iron atoms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The research team connected to their microscope a machine, a pulse pattern generator, to deliver extremely fast pulses of electricity from the metallic tip of the microscope to the iron atoms. After an iron atom was given a tiny electric current to initially polarize it and change its magnetic orientation from north to south, for example, a second, smaller current was then given to measure how strongly the atom held its magnetic orientation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The process was repeated over and over again, generating individual frames of action every 2 or 3 nanoseconds to capture in real time the magnetic behavior of the iron atom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You have a defined delay between the initiating pulse and the reading pulse and this is what sets our time,” said Loth. “Instead of having to watch really closely and hope you catch this information in time, you predefine it by these pulses.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The frames were then sequentially played back as a movie, with the various data the computer was collecting to refer to the location of the atom and its magnetic orientation, for example, converted into a map showing the dynamic activity of the iron atom over time. The six movies the team has generated today are about a minute long but they show action that was recorded over the space of one millionth of a second.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/4_STM-time-resolution-3d-rendering.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>3D map illustration of iron atoms, with the strength of their magnetic polarization represented as yellow bars. (Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Science is often close to an art. And one aspect of this is how you visualize your data in a way that looks most efficient and cool,” said Heinrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ability to capture atomic activity in real time represents a major milestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is our effort to speed up nanoscience and put high-speed time into the nanoscience,” said Heinrich. “People were able to study nano-sized objects since the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, and people were able to study fast phenomena using lasers, but they weren’t able to combine these two worlds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This work is beautiful,” said Kathryn Moler, a professor of applied physics at Stanford University. “For information technology, it could mean a new generation of devices with better storage capabilities and lower power consumption,” she added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The IBM researchers said they are confident that their breakthrough will spur innovation in other fields as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Heinrich said the microscope set-up could be “tuned to a different channel of information.” So instead of looking at the magnetic characteristics of an atom, scientists working on solar cells could track at the level of nanoseconds when a photon of light is converted into energy. Such work could yield better-designed solar cells that are more efficient at capturing light and converting it into electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As a scientist, sometimes you make a development or discovery that is truly great and this was one of those moments when I knew this was a great development and something to be really proud of,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003cobject width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/jqcFdrHAFIY?fs=1&hl=en_US\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"640\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>Movie of iron atoms placed alongside copper atoms as they change their magnetic polarization over time. Red indicates high polarization and white indicates low polarization.(Credit: IBM Almaden-Research Center)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/science-on-the-spot-color-by-nano--the-art-of-kate-nichols\">\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/09/suspension300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem> These glass capillaries contain liquid solutions of silver nanoprisms synthesized by artist Kate Nichols. Image courtesy of Kate Nichols.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Originally inspired by the work of Northern Renaissance painters, one could also describe artist \u003ca href=\"http://www.katenicholsstudio.com/\">Kate Nichols\u003c/a> as a “Renaissance” artist herself. Nichols applies a wide variety of skills and media to her creations, most recently with her pieces that incorporate her experimentation with \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/nanotechnology-takes-off\">nanotechnology\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nichols was fascinated with the rich, bright hues of the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpho\">Morpho butterfly\u003c/a>, and sought to replicate those vivid colors in her work. Through research, she learned that the butterfly wings’ brilliant blue color arose through \u003ca href=\"http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/15D.html\">structural color\u003c/a>, and that nanotechnology could help her obtain this vibrant palette.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After writing an e-mail to scientist Paul Alivisatos and expressing her interest in nanotechnology, he enthusiastically supported her endeavors (Alivisatos is also a photographer) and Nichols became the first artist-in-residence at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.cchem.berkeley.edu/pagrp/\">Paul Alivisatos Group \u003c/a> at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Working in the laboratory setting didn’t come naturally to her as she had no background or formal training in science.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I spent the first part of my experience in the laboratory reading scientific papers that would describe specific procedures. And I would get so frustrated that I couldn’t achieve the same results. It takes a lot of practice to be able to be up and running in a material science chemistry lab,” says Nichols.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But over time and through the guidance of her colleagues, Nichols learned to synthesize nanosilver particles to create the beautiful colors she uses in her \u003ca href=\"http://www.katenicholsstudio.com/\">work\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.8768 -122.251\u003c/p>\n\n",
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