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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/07/210a_dark_energy30011.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sitting in a small, non-descript room in the basement of the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab in Berkeley, physics graduate student Hannah Swift and physicist Saul Perlmutter are searching for supernovae, stars destroyed in huge explosions millions or billions of years ago. (They're looking for ones that exploded billions of years ago). Through a computer hooked up to \u003ca href=\"https://www.keckobservatory.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Hawaii's Keck 2 telescope\u003c/a> -– one of the largest in the world –- they are able to follow along as UC Berkeley post-doc Rahman Amanullah, a team member who had traveled to Hawaii a few days earlier, supervises the night's observation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Their goal is to use a device called a spectrograph to get a spectra of five to eight supernovae. This spectrum is a \"photograph\" of the light emitted by the supernova and it allows scientists to determine whether they are the \u003ca href=\"http://supernova.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">type Ia supernovae\u003c/a> that are useful for their research. By figuring out how far away these type Ia supernovae are (or \"were,\" since by the time their light reaches us, they have long since vanished) and observing how much the light traveling towards the Earth has shifted towards red wavelengths, they can determine how long ago the star exploded. With this information, they're building a history of the expansion of the universe. The weather in Hawaii is good, and the researchers are forecasting a good \"seeing.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's encouraging and moving to see how young these researchers are. Swift is a twenty-something from Kansas. She's so young that she has always understood the universe to be accelerating, that is, expanding faster and faster. She has never thought that the universe is decelerating, which is what the scientific community believed before 1998, when Perlmutter's team at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab and another team simultaneously \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=discovering-a-dark-universe\" target=\"_blank\">reported their findings that the universe is accelerating\u003c/a>. When this announcement was made, Swift was in the 8th grade. Perlmutter himself is only in his 40s. When he started his post-doc, he and his colleagues had to beg for time on the big telescopes. That wasn't that long ago: our understanding of the universe has shifted very fast.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A few days later, Swift invites us back to the lab to show us some of the data the researchers gathered during the observation. They obtained spectra for five supernovae – a good night's work. Swift is now in the process of figuring out which of the supernovae are type Ia's. To do this, she's comparing their spectrograms to the spectra of a standard type Ia. Light is a very useful tool because different elements emit light of different wavelengths. Swift shows me the spectrogram for a standard type Ia. It has telltale peaks and valleys that reveal what exploding type Ia supernovae eject when they explode – silicon and cobalt, among other elements.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I wonder what big changes in the way we understand our universe will be commonplace when my one-year-old niece is in her 20s. What new discoveries will we use as points of reference in the coming decades? (Assuming we're hip enough to use astronomical discoveries as points of reference!) Will scientists know by then the nature of dark energy, the now-mysterious \"something\" that is making the universe accelerate, pushing its fabric apart? Will I be able to preface a comment to my niece with, \"When you were little, before we knew what dark energy is…\"? And will she be able to reply, \"Aunt Gabi, you're so ooold!\" I suspect she'll do the latter no matter what.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/images/tv_icon_light.gif\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>Watch the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/dark-energy\">\"Dark Energy\" TV Story \u003c/a> online, as well as find additional links and resources. Also don't miss our \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kqedquest/sets/72157606318771842/\">online photo set\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.872222 -122.268403\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"disqusTitle": "Why no Y? Gender-bending Transcaucasian mole voles",
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"content": "\u003cp>I've always been fascinated by weird animals. Especially those with out-of-the-ordinary genetics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/07/molevole1.jpg\">\u003cem>Transcaucasian mole vole. Image Courtesy of Heike Himmelreich\u003c/em>\u003c/span>One of my favorites is a little burrowing mammal called a Transcaucasian mole vole. These guys live in the Caucasus Mountains of Armenia, Iran, Turkey, and Azerbaijan. There they are born, live, have babies and die. All without a Y chromosome.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is really bizarre. In most mammals, two X chromosomes usually means that the animal is female and an X and a Y means the animal is male. All mole voles have a single X chromosome. So technically, there shouldn’t be any males running around. And yet, clearly, there are. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what distinguishes a boy mole vole from a girl mole vole genetically? No one really knows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In most mammals, the Y chromosome causes a fertilized egg to turn into a male because of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowSection&rid=gnd.section.156\">SRY\u003c/a> gene. This gene starts a cascade of events that eventually results in a male.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One possibility would be if the SRY gene happened to move to another chromosome. There are certainly cases of this happening even in humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this were the case, then maybe a different chromosome has the SRY gene in mole voles. Maybe there are versions of the gene that work and versions that don't. Now we have a gene no different than an eye or hair color gene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Good model but it isn't true. Scientists have looked but it appears that these little guys don't have an SRY gene. They make the male/female decision in a completely different way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most likely somewhere along the way a gene mutated so that it could now determine the sex of these mammals. When this happened, the loss of the Y didn't matter much and so it was lost. The mole vole evolved into a Y-less mammal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, if any chromosome had to go it would be the Y. It has been under constant attack ever since it distinguished itself from the X chromosome 200 or 300 million years ago. It has gone from being one of the biggest chromosomes with 900-1400 genes to a bit of DNA with around 80 genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are even active discussions about whether the Y is on a death spiral in all mammals. Soon we may all be mole voles. Or be gone. Some of my recent posts elsewhere on this topic:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=51\">Males going extinct?\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=28\">Fish that change gender\u003c/a> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.332 -121.903\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>I've always been fascinated by weird animals. Especially those with out-of-the-ordinary genetics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/07/molevole1.jpg\">\u003cem>Transcaucasian mole vole. Image Courtesy of Heike Himmelreich\u003c/em>\u003c/span>One of my favorites is a little burrowing mammal called a Transcaucasian mole vole. These guys live in the Caucasus Mountains of Armenia, Iran, Turkey, and Azerbaijan. There they are born, live, have babies and die. All without a Y chromosome.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is really bizarre. In most mammals, two X chromosomes usually means that the animal is female and an X and a Y means the animal is male. All mole voles have a single X chromosome. So technically, there shouldn’t be any males running around. And yet, clearly, there are. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what distinguishes a boy mole vole from a girl mole vole genetically? No one really knows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In most mammals, the Y chromosome causes a fertilized egg to turn into a male because of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowSection&rid=gnd.section.156\">SRY\u003c/a> gene. This gene starts a cascade of events that eventually results in a male.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One possibility would be if the SRY gene happened to move to another chromosome. There are certainly cases of this happening even in humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If this were the case, then maybe a different chromosome has the SRY gene in mole voles. Maybe there are versions of the gene that work and versions that don't. Now we have a gene no different than an eye or hair color gene.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Good model but it isn't true. Scientists have looked but it appears that these little guys don't have an SRY gene. They make the male/female decision in a completely different way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most likely somewhere along the way a gene mutated so that it could now determine the sex of these mammals. When this happened, the loss of the Y didn't matter much and so it was lost. The mole vole evolved into a Y-less mammal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Of course, if any chromosome had to go it would be the Y. It has been under constant attack ever since it distinguished itself from the X chromosome 200 or 300 million years ago. It has gone from being one of the biggest chromosomes with 900-1400 genes to a bit of DNA with around 80 genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are even active discussions about whether the Y is on a death spiral in all mammals. Soon we may all be mole voles. Or be gone. Some of my recent posts elsewhere on this topic:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=51\">Males going extinct?\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=28\">Fish that change gender\u003c/a> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.332 -121.903\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/06/plasticbag11.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Humans produce 500 billion plastic bags annually.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In China, they recently \u003ca title=\"CNN - China Plastic Bags\" href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7178287.stm\" target=\"_blank\">banned it\u003c/a>. Australia, Bangladesh, Ireland, Italy, South Africa,Taiwan, Mumbai and India have either banned it or discouraged its use by raising taxes. And on March 27, 2007, \u003ca title=\"SF Plastic Ban\" href=\"http://www.sfenvironment.org/our_programs/interests.html?ssi=2&ti=6&ii=142\" target=\"_blank\">San Francisco\u003c/a> became the first city in the USA to ban it from large grocery stores.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">More people are ditching plastic bags on a local and national level with good reason: we produce about 500 billion plastic bags world-wide, and less than one percent of that is recycled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">\u003ca title=\"QUEST Future History: Plastic Bottles\" href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/view/874\" target=\"_blank\">A recent QUEST report\u003c/a> shows that plastic bottles are straining our environment, too: each year the USA alone produces 50 billion plastic bottles. Some would say to switch from plastic to paper bags - but \u003ca title=\"paper or plastic?\" href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/paper-or-plastic\" target=\"_blank\">reports\u003c/a> show that paper bags aren't the most sustainable solution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plastic can have a longer shelf-live than humans do: it can persist in the environment for anywhere between 20 to 1,000 years. But a 16-year-old from Waterloo, Canada figured out to decompose it in only six weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Daniel Burd, a student at Waterloo Collegiate Institute, discovered the key to decomposing plastic bags for a school science fair. Needless to say, he won.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Almost every week I have to do chores and when I open the closet door, I have this avalanche of plastic bags falling on top of me,\" said Burd to \u003ca title=\"The Record - Daniel Burd\" href=\"http://news.therecord.com/article/354044\" target=\"_blank\">The Record\u003c/a>, a Waterloo newspaper. \"One day, I got tired of it and wanted to know what other people are doing with these plastic bags.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First, Burd decided to isolate the microbes that break down plastic in polyethelene plastic bags. Burd ground plastic bags into powder and created a solution to break it down using tap water and yeast. Six weeks later, he found that the plastic weighed 17 percent less than the control group.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Burd then isolated the effective strains that caused the degradation - \u003ca title=\"sphingomonas\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphingomonas\" target=\"_blank\">Sphingomonas \u003c/a>and \u003ca title=\"pseudomonas\" href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas\" target=\"_blank\">Pseudomonas\u003c/a> - and tried the experiment again, adding sodium acecate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Six weeks later - as opposed to 1,000 years - the plastic decomposed by 43 percent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For his final report, \u003cem>Plastic Not Fantastic\u003c/em>, Burd wrote that his process of polyethylene degradation can be used for large-scale plastic bag biodegradation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"As a result, this would save the lives of millions of wildlife species and save space in landfills,\" wrote Burd.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.762611 -122.409719\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/06/plasticbag11.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Humans produce 500 billion plastic bags annually.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In China, they recently \u003ca title=\"CNN - China Plastic Bags\" href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7178287.stm\" target=\"_blank\">banned it\u003c/a>. Australia, Bangladesh, Ireland, Italy, South Africa,Taiwan, Mumbai and India have either banned it or discouraged its use by raising taxes. And on March 27, 2007, \u003ca title=\"SF Plastic Ban\" href=\"http://www.sfenvironment.org/our_programs/interests.html?ssi=2&ti=6&ii=142\" target=\"_blank\">San Francisco\u003c/a> became the first city in the USA to ban it from large grocery stores.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">More people are ditching plastic bags on a local and national level with good reason: we produce about 500 billion plastic bags world-wide, and less than one percent of that is recycled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: left\">\u003ca title=\"QUEST Future History: Plastic Bottles\" href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/view/874\" target=\"_blank\">A recent QUEST report\u003c/a> shows that plastic bottles are straining our environment, too: each year the USA alone produces 50 billion plastic bottles. Some would say to switch from plastic to paper bags - but \u003ca title=\"paper or plastic?\" href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/paper-or-plastic\" target=\"_blank\">reports\u003c/a> show that paper bags aren't the most sustainable solution.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plastic can have a longer shelf-live than humans do: it can persist in the environment for anywhere between 20 to 1,000 years. But a 16-year-old from Waterloo, Canada figured out to decompose it in only six weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/05/chabot_kids.jpg\">\u003cem>School groups tour the Oakland Schools Science Fair\u003cbr>\nprojects at Chabot. Ben Burress, Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It's the time of year again that I get a chance to peruse what our scientific-minded youth are thinking on questions of the physical world and universe around us: \u003ca href=\"http://science.ousd.k12.ca.us/sciencefair.htm\">Oakland Unified School District Science Fair\u003c/a>!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-179081293.html\">science projects of students\u003c/a> from a range of schools in Oakland are on display at Chabot Space & Science Center for a couple of days-a long-time tradition I know, because when I was in elementary school (Glenview Elementary in Oakland) I participated in the Science Fair every year and wound up with my First Grade project (\u003cem>Which Straw Works Best\u003c/em>-longer or shorter?) on display at Chabot Observatory on Mountain Blvd.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So I went out into our halls to browse the rows of free-standing cardboard displays (all pre-fabbed display boards; in \u003cem>my\u003c/em> day we'd make our own from boxes, staples, and glue!) to see what today's young minds are thinking about science. In particular, I was looking for any that dealt with astronomy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As usual, I saw a range of science topics, presentations styles, decoration, and grade levels. I saw the \u003ca href=\"http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/\">cadre of \"standard\" science projects\u003c/a> that get done every year (the tabletop volcano, the floating egg, the electric potato, and the like).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I also saw some that I'd not seen before. There was one where the question asked was who has more germs, boys or girls? The experimenter took swab samples from behind the ears and from the hands of the students in her fourth grade class and grew germ cultures, which were all displayed before the presentation board in little plastic Petri dishes. What was the result? Do you want to know? Well, by this experiment at least, the girls won over the boys in having more germs from both sample sites....\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what of the astronomy? In all of the couple hundred project displays, only three of them were astronomy projects. This doesn't surprise me too much, since astronomy is for the most part an observational, not experimental, science and doesn't lend itself to the kinds of things kids like to get their hands into. And of my own elementary school science fair projects, not one of them dealt with astronomy, so I really can't complain!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What were they? One dealt with \u003ca href=\"http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/moon_phases/\">observations of Moon phases\u003c/a>, asking the question is there a pattern to the way in which the Moon's shape changes from day to day. One asked why do the planets of the Solar System take different periods of time to \u003ca href=\"http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/kepler6.htm\">orbit the Sun\u003c/a>, and why do they have different temperatures. Finally, one asked the ultimate Inconvenient Truth sort of question: What would happen to Earth if the Sun suddenly turned off? (That \u003cem>would\u003c/em> be inconvenient!) The answer to that one was, not long, since just about everything we do requires energy derived ultimately from the Sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The results of my own observation project, walking down the halls of Chabot and seeing what's up in the minds of our youth, was a happy success: the curiosity and scientific enthusiasm of our budding scientists appears to be alive and well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7631 -122.409\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/05/chabot_kids.jpg\">\u003cem>School groups tour the Oakland Schools Science Fair\u003cbr>\nprojects at Chabot. Ben Burress, Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It's the time of year again that I get a chance to peruse what our scientific-minded youth are thinking on questions of the physical world and universe around us: \u003ca href=\"http://science.ousd.k12.ca.us/sciencefair.htm\">Oakland Unified School District Science Fair\u003c/a>!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-179081293.html\">science projects of students\u003c/a> from a range of schools in Oakland are on display at Chabot Space & Science Center for a couple of days-a long-time tradition I know, because when I was in elementary school (Glenview Elementary in Oakland) I participated in the Science Fair every year and wound up with my First Grade project (\u003cem>Which Straw Works Best\u003c/em>-longer or shorter?) on display at Chabot Observatory on Mountain Blvd.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So I went out into our halls to browse the rows of free-standing cardboard displays (all pre-fabbed display boards; in \u003cem>my\u003c/em> day we'd make our own from boxes, staples, and glue!) to see what today's young minds are thinking about science. In particular, I was looking for any that dealt with astronomy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As usual, I saw a range of science topics, presentations styles, decoration, and grade levels. I saw the \u003ca href=\"http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/\">cadre of \"standard\" science projects\u003c/a> that get done every year (the tabletop volcano, the floating egg, the electric potato, and the like).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I also saw some that I'd not seen before. There was one where the question asked was who has more germs, boys or girls? The experimenter took swab samples from behind the ears and from the hands of the students in her fourth grade class and grew germ cultures, which were all displayed before the presentation board in little plastic Petri dishes. What was the result? Do you want to know? Well, by this experiment at least, the girls won over the boys in having more germs from both sample sites....\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what of the astronomy? In all of the couple hundred project displays, only three of them were astronomy projects. This doesn't surprise me too much, since astronomy is for the most part an observational, not experimental, science and doesn't lend itself to the kinds of things kids like to get their hands into. And of my own elementary school science fair projects, not one of them dealt with astronomy, so I really can't complain!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What were they? One dealt with \u003ca href=\"http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/moon_phases/\">observations of Moon phases\u003c/a>, asking the question is there a pattern to the way in which the Moon's shape changes from day to day. One asked why do the planets of the Solar System take different periods of time to \u003ca href=\"http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/kepler6.htm\">orbit the Sun\u003c/a>, and why do they have different temperatures. Finally, one asked the ultimate Inconvenient Truth sort of question: What would happen to Earth if the Sun suddenly turned off? (That \u003cem>would\u003c/em> be inconvenient!) The answer to that one was, not long, since just about everything we do requires energy derived ultimately from the Sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The results of my own observation project, walking down the halls of Chabot and seeing what's up in the minds of our youth, was a happy success: the curiosity and scientific enthusiasm of our budding scientists appears to be alive and well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7631 -122.409\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/03/solarinteraction.jpg\">\u003cem>Illustration of a blast of solar wind impacting\u003cbr>\nEarth's protective magnetic field. Credit: NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Breathe in, exhale. Feel the air in your mouth, windpipe, and lungs. That's a sample of Earth's atmosphere: the thin layer of gases enveloping our planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did you know that the \u003ca href=\"http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/heliosph.html\">Sun also has an atmosphere\u003c/a>, and that the Earth is inside it? In fact, the Sun's envelope of gases extends well beyond the orbit of Pluto, out to the regions of the solar system where the 3-decade-old Voyager spacecraft are only now reaching.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003ca href=\"http://www.spaceweather.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Space weather\u003c/a>\" refers to the conditions in space caused by the outflow of electrically charged gases (plasma) coming from the Sun—what we call the \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/wind_character.html\" target=\"_blank\">solar wind\u003c/a>.\" The term \"space weather\" may conjure images of cosmic tornadoes, astral lightning bursts, and some Star Trek version of a galactic hurricane-- but actual space weather is nothing so Earthly and familiar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First of all, the \"air\" in space is nothing like the atmosphere we draw our breath from. \u003ca href=\"http://scipp.ucsc.edu/outreach/balloon/atmos/The%20Earth.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Earth air\u003c/a>, at the surface, is made of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other trace elements, and is relatively dense. \"Space air\" is mostly hydrogen-- \u003ca href=\"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/ionization.html\" target=\"_blank\">ionized hydrogen\u003c/a> at that (meaning stripped of its electrons and so electrically charged; the separated electrons are also blowing along in the solar wind).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Second, the gases of the solar wind are extremely rarified. Despite the talk of a solar atmosphere, solar wind, and space weather, space within the solar system is still almost a complete vacuum. At Earth's distance from the Sun, the average density of the solar wind is somewhere between 6 and 9 atoms (mostly hydrogen) per cubic centimeter. If you spread out the gas contained in an ordinary party balloon to this same thinness, it would fill a volume of space over 10 miles across!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Third, the solar wind, for all its sparseness, blows fast! Depending on conditions of space weather, the flow of solar wind past the Earth can speed along anywhere from 200 to 900 kilometers per second! Earth's fastest winds slug along at only a few hundred kilometers per HOUR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So how does space weather—the changing conditions of the solar wind—affect us on Earth? How might you, personally, have experienced, directly or indirectly, the effects of the Sun's gentle breeze?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most familiar phenomenon caused by space weather is \u003ca href=\"http://www.geo.mtu.edu/weather/aurora/\">Earth's beautiful auroras\u003c/a> —the northern and southern lights. Interactions between the solar wind and Earth's magnetic field and electrically charged particles trapped in it excite atoms in the upper atmosphere to emit light. And it's not just a softly glowing night light: the most powerful auroras can generate up to a trillion Watts of power!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar wind \"storms\" can not only produce more active auroras, but can cause fluctuations in Earth's magnetic field whose effects can be felt on the ground. These \"geomagnetic storms\" usually pass unnoticed, perhaps causing a tiny change in the direction that compass needles point-- but have also been known to overload electrical power grids and cause blackouts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the space around Earth, solar storms have been known to damage or disable satellites, and can put unprotected astronauts at risk. Space walks on the International Space Station are scheduled for times when space weather is - so to speak -\"sunny and calm.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thinking about space weather on Earth might seem like worrying over Atlantic hurricanes here in the Bay Area—but with more and more human activity taking place beyond the confines of our atmosphere, this is a very real and vital concern, and is taken very seriously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/03/solarinteraction.jpg\">\u003cem>Illustration of a blast of solar wind impacting\u003cbr>\nEarth's protective magnetic field. Credit: NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Breathe in, exhale. Feel the air in your mouth, windpipe, and lungs. That's a sample of Earth's atmosphere: the thin layer of gases enveloping our planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Did you know that the \u003ca href=\"http://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/heliosph.html\">Sun also has an atmosphere\u003c/a>, and that the Earth is inside it? In fact, the Sun's envelope of gases extends well beyond the orbit of Pluto, out to the regions of the solar system where the 3-decade-old Voyager spacecraft are only now reaching.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"\u003ca href=\"http://www.spaceweather.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Space weather\u003c/a>\" refers to the conditions in space caused by the outflow of electrically charged gases (plasma) coming from the Sun—what we call the \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/sun/wind_character.html\" target=\"_blank\">solar wind\u003c/a>.\" The term \"space weather\" may conjure images of cosmic tornadoes, astral lightning bursts, and some Star Trek version of a galactic hurricane-- but actual space weather is nothing so Earthly and familiar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First of all, the \"air\" in space is nothing like the atmosphere we draw our breath from. \u003ca href=\"http://scipp.ucsc.edu/outreach/balloon/atmos/The%20Earth.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Earth air\u003c/a>, at the surface, is made of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other trace elements, and is relatively dense. \"Space air\" is mostly hydrogen-- \u003ca href=\"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/ionization.html\" target=\"_blank\">ionized hydrogen\u003c/a> at that (meaning stripped of its electrons and so electrically charged; the separated electrons are also blowing along in the solar wind).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Second, the gases of the solar wind are extremely rarified. Despite the talk of a solar atmosphere, solar wind, and space weather, space within the solar system is still almost a complete vacuum. At Earth's distance from the Sun, the average density of the solar wind is somewhere between 6 and 9 atoms (mostly hydrogen) per cubic centimeter. If you spread out the gas contained in an ordinary party balloon to this same thinness, it would fill a volume of space over 10 miles across!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Third, the solar wind, for all its sparseness, blows fast! Depending on conditions of space weather, the flow of solar wind past the Earth can speed along anywhere from 200 to 900 kilometers per second! Earth's fastest winds slug along at only a few hundred kilometers per HOUR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So how does space weather—the changing conditions of the solar wind—affect us on Earth? How might you, personally, have experienced, directly or indirectly, the effects of the Sun's gentle breeze?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The most familiar phenomenon caused by space weather is \u003ca href=\"http://www.geo.mtu.edu/weather/aurora/\">Earth's beautiful auroras\u003c/a> —the northern and southern lights. Interactions between the solar wind and Earth's magnetic field and electrically charged particles trapped in it excite atoms in the upper atmosphere to emit light. And it's not just a softly glowing night light: the most powerful auroras can generate up to a trillion Watts of power!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Solar wind \"storms\" can not only produce more active auroras, but can cause fluctuations in Earth's magnetic field whose effects can be felt on the ground. These \"geomagnetic storms\" usually pass unnoticed, perhaps causing a tiny change in the direction that compass needles point-- but have also been known to overload electrical power grids and cause blackouts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the space around Earth, solar storms have been known to damage or disable satellites, and can put unprotected astronauts at risk. Space walks on the International Space Station are scheduled for times when space weather is - so to speak -\"sunny and calm.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thinking about space weather on Earth might seem like worrying over Atlantic hurricanes here in the Bay Area—but with more and more human activity taking place beyond the confines of our atmosphere, this is a very real and vital concern, and is taken very seriously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>It's approaching that time of year again: Spring Equinox. The blaze in my home's interior hallway has been signaling this for the last week.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/03/blog_chabot_equinox_clock.jpg\">\u003cem>The shadow of Chabot's \"solar clock\" at noon\u003cbr>\non the equinox produces a pattern of solid green\u003cbr>\nstraddling the gnomon\u003c/em>\u003c/span>I noticed late in the afternoon a couple days ago that the windowless hallway where we hang all of our family photos was afire in a shaft of bright sunlight, entering a window in the adjacent bedroom. Only around \u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/the_universe/uts/equinox.html\">Equinox\u003c/a> (Spring or Fall), when the Sun sets about directly west, does this happen in my house. The rest of the year the Sun sets too far north or south for this window-and-hallway alignment to take place. It's a striking event because for only a few days of the year my normally dark hallway explodes with radiance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ancient cultures all around the world made use of the changing rise and set position of the Sun to track the seasons, and either observed \u003ca href=\"http://space.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn11281\">special alignments of sunlight and shadow\u003c/a> with geographical features, or \u003ca href=\"http://www.spirasolaris.ca/sbb4g1.html\">built structures that made the special alignments\u003c/a>. Stonehenge is one famous example, but there are plenty of \u003ca href=\"http://www.delange.org/Xochicalco_o/Xochicalco_o.htm\">other seasonal observatories\u003c/a> in just about every part of the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike the more distant stars in the sky, which always rise and set at the same points on the horizon, the Sun (a star too, of course) wanders northward and southward in the sky throughout the year, and so its rise and set points migrate. On the Equinoxes the Sun rises directly at the east point on the horizon and sets directly at the west point-but at Summer Solstice in the Bay Area it rises a full 30 degrees to the north, and at Winter Solstice 30 degrees to the south.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reason for the Sun's annual wandering comes from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.astro.uiuc.edu/~kaler/celsph.html\">tilt of Earth's rotational axis with its orbit around the Sun\u003c/a>. At our (Northern Hemisphere) Summer Solstice, our hemisphere is tipped toward the Sun and the Sun appears at its most northerly point in the sky; we receive more hours of sunlight and more direct rays from the Sun-so it's warmer. Winter Solstice is opposite, with our hemisphere tipped away and the Sun and the Sun farthest to the south, making for shorter hours of daylight and less direct solar rays--and so it's colder.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Equinox is a middle point between solstices: the Sun is poised between the northern and southern extreme points of the solstices-positioned directly over Earth's equator-and the hours of daylight and night are about equal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Does \u003cem>your\u003c/em> home or place of work function as a solar seasonal calendar, as mine does? Is there a special time of year when you notice a striking pattern of light and shadow, a special alignment of walls, windows, doors, or other features? From the location of Chabot Space & Science Center, at equinox the Sun sets directly on the Golden Gate Bridge... .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you have noticed something like this, then you've experienced what many ancient peoples noticed about the seasonal changing of the Sun. Their observations led them to understanding, or at least making use of, the cycle of the Earth revolving about the Sun to establish the earliest calendar systems.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Take a look and see what you notice, especially around Equinox (March 19, Pacific Time-March 20 GMT).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/02/blog_hinode_sun.jpg\">\u003cem>Extreme close-up of the Sun's visible surface,\u003cbr>\nshowing 'bubbling' cells of convecting gas--each the size of\u003cbr>\nNorthern California. credit: Hinode JAXA/NASA/PPARC\u003c/em>\u003c/span>By all accounts, a new cycle-\u003ca href=\"http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2008/10jan_solarcycle24.htm\">Cycle 24\u003c/a>-in solar activity has begun... something you probably didn't notice since the beginning of a solar cycle is quite subtle....\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>First things first: what is a solar cycle, and why is this one number 24? You've probably heard of sunspots and solar flares and disturbances in radio communications caused by solar activity, but had you noticed NOT hearing much about these things in the last two or three years?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Sun exhibits a \u003ca href=\"http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SunspotCycle.shtml\">cyclic rise and fall in its level of magnetic activity\u003c/a>. Being an enormous ball of roiling, circulating plasma (electrically charged gas), the \u003ca href=\"http://bizarrelabs.com/mag.htm\">Sun generates powerful magnetic fields\u003c/a> in a way similar to how the circulating electricity in an electromagnet creates one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the course of a solar cycle, the intensity and amount of magnetism generated by the Sun increases, like soup warming up on the stove, reaching a violent climax in which twisting, tangling magnetic fields break loose and release their energy in the form of \u003ca href=\"http://hesperia.gsfc.nasa.gov/sftheory/flare.htm\">solar flare explosions\u003c/a>, coronal mass ejections, and tremendous heating of the solar atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/sun/sunspots.html\">Sunspots\u003c/a> are surface features formed by the presence of strong magnetic fields, and in general the number of sunspots that can be seen and counted indicate the level of magnetic activity on the Sun. For 400 years, since Galileo first started counting sunspots through his telescope, observers have kept track of sunspot counts, and over time a pattern in their number emerged. On average, the number of sunspot activity peaks every 11 years at a time called solar maximum.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I remember when I first started working at Chabot Space & Science Center, back in 1999/2000, during the last solar maximum. Using our Sunspotter telescopes on public observing days, in teacher workshops, and in my solar summer camp, we could easily count many sunspots-sometimes as many as 20 or more! Those were the days!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the past two or three summers, however, it's a lucky week to spot just a single sunspot! Most of the time, the Sun's face has been a bland disk with few discernible surface features.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That status quo should start to change, now that we have allegedly reached solar minimum and are stepping onto the uphill slope toward the next maximum, which should happen sometime around 2011 or 2012. If you want to keep tabs on the rising solar activity, and you like lots of graphs and numbers and stuff like that, check out the \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarcycle24.com/\">Solar Cycle 24 website\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Oh, why is this Cycle 24? A 19\u003csup>th\u003c/sup> Century astronomer who studied the then newly discovered sunspot cycle, Rudolf Wolf, established the cycle that spanned 1755 to 1766 as Cycle 1...and they've been counting up ever since.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But even in this \"nap time\" of the Sun, today's modern solar observatories and spacecraft, with their arrays of high-tech cameras and sensors, see plenty on the Sun to keep them busy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Japan's \u003cem>Hinode\u003c/em> spacecraft, launched in 2006, has returned libraries of \u003ca href=\"http://sot.lmsal.com/pod?cmd=view-gallery\">amazing pictures and movies of solar flares, activity around sunspots, circulating hot gases\u003c/a>, fine details of the life and times of magnetic fields...and all of this during solar minimum! I can't wait until the Sun really gets going and Hinode becomes like a camera-happy tourist in Tahiti....\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
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"mindshift": {
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"order": 12
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"onourwatch": {
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"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"tagline": "Politics from a personal perspective",
"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
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"possible": {
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"title": "Possible",
"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.possible.fm/",
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"source": "Possible"
},
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"pri-the-world": {
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"title": "PRI's The World: Latest Edition",
"info": "Each weekday, host Marco Werman and his team of producers bring you the world's most interesting stories in an hour of radio that reminds us just how small our planet really is.",
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"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-World-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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},
"radiolab": {
"id": "radiolab",
"title": "Radiolab",
"info": "A two-time Peabody Award-winner, Radiolab is an investigation told through sounds and stories, and centered around one big idea. In the Radiolab world, information sounds like music and science and culture collide. Hosted by Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich, the show is designed for listeners who demand skepticism, but appreciate wonder. WNYC Studios is the producer of other leading podcasts including Freakonomics Radio, Death, Sex & Money, On the Media and many more.",
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},
"reveal": {
"id": "reveal",
"title": "Reveal",
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