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"disqusTitle": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: New Almaden",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33179\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmaden/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33179\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmaden-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmaden\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">View west from Almaden Quicksilver County Park toward Loma Prieta, highest peak of the Sierra Azul. All photos by Andrew Alden.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the foothills due south of San Jose sit the remnants of California's first mining bonanza, the New Almaden mercury district. Today \u003ca href=\"http://www.newalmaden.org/AQSPark/index.html\">Almaden Quicksilver County Park\u003c/a> is a rugged playground for hikers, bicyclists and equestrians, but lovers of geology and mines have a special kind of fun there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first Californians mined a deep-red ore they called \u003ci>mohetka\u003c/i> in the heights of Los Capitancillos Ridge. Like other ancient peoples around the world, they used it as a pigment. In 1845 a Mexican visitor recognized the substance as cinnabar or mercury ore. Soon afterward the New World's richest quicksilver mining district began production, supplying the mercury for the refiners of the California Gold Rush. Its name, New Almaden, echoed the famous Almadén mines of Spain. A hundred years later, the mines had yielded mercury in the amount of more than a million flasks—a volume of the liquid metal weighing 76 pounds. Although mining ended in the 1970s, geologists believe that much undiscovered ore remains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let's look at the geologic map of the area (derived from \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1998/of98-795/\">USGS Map OF-98-975\u003c/a>). \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33181\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 627px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadengeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33181\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadengeomap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadengeomap\" width=\"627\" height=\"472\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33181\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadengeomap.png 627w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadengeomap-400x301.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 627px) 100vw, 627px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The New Almaden district runs northwest on Los Capitancillos Ridge from the village of New Almaden. Asterisks mark the four park entrances. Franciscan rock units are fm, melange; fpv, volcanics; gs, greenstone; pink, serpentinite; yellow, silica-carbonate rock; orange, chert. Units with names starting Q, T or K are younger.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It's kind of a mess, and the details are in the caption, but basically Los Capitancillos Ridge is like many other \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/21/bay-area-mercury/\">Bay Area mercury sites\u003c/a>, an intricate mixture of \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/21/geological-outings-around-the-bay-marin-headlands/\">Franciscan rocks\u003c/a> and serpentinite that has been kneaded and heated and injected with metal-bearing fluids. These fluids, derived from magma intrusions, replaced the minerals in the serpentinite and turned it into silica-carbonate rock. The cinnabar lodes, in turn, were emplaced in and near the silica-carbonates. As you hike about the ridge, keep an eye underfoot for the widespread \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_metrocks/ig/serpentinites/\">serpentinite\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33182\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadenserpentine/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33182\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenserpentine.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadenserpentine\" width=\"600\" height=\"438\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33182\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenserpentine.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenserpentine-400x292.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Serpentinite boulders in a streambed.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Among other things, the park contains mines and machinery spanning a century of progress from traditional techniques of medieval origin to modern American facilities. One mine entrance, the San Cristobal tunnel, has been kept open for a short distance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33175\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/sancristobal/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33175\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/sancristobal.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"sancristobal\" width=\"500\" height=\"402\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33175\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/sancristobal.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/sancristobal-400x322.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">San Cristobal tunnel, first opened in 1866.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Go on in and look for the veins in the walls. These are typically filled with quartz or dolomite. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33184\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadenveins/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33184\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenveins.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadenveins\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33184\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenveins.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenveins-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Veins in the San Cristobal tunnel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another worthwhile spot is the site of the Buena Vista shaft, the deepest in the district. The foundation of the pumphouse is constructed of large blocks of local sandstone and Sierran granite. It was abandoned in 1893.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33180\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadenfoundation/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33180\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenfoundation.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadenfoundation\" width=\"600\" height=\"486\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33180\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenfoundation.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenfoundation-400x324.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Buena Vista shaft mainly served to dewater the hills and allow neighboring mines to go deeper in search of cinnabar. \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Nearby are extensive piles of mine tailings. Although this shaft produced only minor amounts of ore, the rocks themselves are interesting. Remember that collecting rocks and minerals is forbidden. A ranger told me that if people kept taking things home with them, eventually there would be no tailings left. I don't see the problem with that, and \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/17/fossil-collecting-in-the-bay-area/\">if I could make the rules I would give rockhounds access\u003c/a> to limited parts of the park.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadentailings/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33183\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadentailings.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadentailings\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33183\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadentailings.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadentailings-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Don't miss the views of the surrounding territory. The top photo of this post shows the view west to the Sierra Azul, and to the east are views of the Santa Teresa Hills and Diablo Range.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33178\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/hamilton/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33178\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hamilton.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"hamilton\" width=\"600\" height=\"463\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33178\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hamilton.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hamilton-400x309.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mount Hamilton's observatories stand out beyond the lower Santa Teresa Hills, site of more mercury mines and sandstone quarries.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The mining museum housed in the Casa Grande, the old manager's residence built in 1854, is full of exhibits and is well worth a visit if you can be there during its brief open hours.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33176\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/casagrande/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33176\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/casagrande.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"casagrande\" width=\"600\" height=\"459\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33176\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/casagrande.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/casagrande-400x306.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Casa Grande has rooms full of period furnishings as well as the Quicksilver Mining Museum.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The little museum shop has cinnabar from the Guadalupe Mine for sale. This is the only way you can acquire New Almaden specimens today, unless a dealer is selling off a historic collection at a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/18/theres-nothing-like-a-rock-show/\">rock and mineral show\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33177\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/guadalupecinnabar/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33177\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/guadalupecinnabar.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"guadalupecinnabar\" width=\"600\" height=\"487\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33177\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/guadalupecinnabar.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/guadalupecinnabar-400x325.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">New Almaden cinnabar is notable for its tiny crystals that give the ore a glittering appearance.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The definitive source for historic and geologic information on the area is the classic \u003ca href=\"http://openlibrary.org/books/OL7034975M/Geology_and_quicksilver_deposits_of_the_New_Almaden_District_Santa_Clara_County_California\">US Geological Survey Professional Paper 360\u003c/a>, \"Geology and Quicksilver Deposits of the New Almaden District.\"\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "The New Almaden area looms large in Gold Rush history. Today it's an open-air museum of California mining practices and quicksilver geology.",
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"description": "The New Almaden area looms large in Gold Rush history. Today it's an open-air museum of California mining practices and quicksilver geology.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33179\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmaden/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33179\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmaden-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmaden\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">View west from Almaden Quicksilver County Park toward Loma Prieta, highest peak of the Sierra Azul. All photos by Andrew Alden.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the foothills due south of San Jose sit the remnants of California's first mining bonanza, the New Almaden mercury district. Today \u003ca href=\"http://www.newalmaden.org/AQSPark/index.html\">Almaden Quicksilver County Park\u003c/a> is a rugged playground for hikers, bicyclists and equestrians, but lovers of geology and mines have a special kind of fun there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first Californians mined a deep-red ore they called \u003ci>mohetka\u003c/i> in the heights of Los Capitancillos Ridge. Like other ancient peoples around the world, they used it as a pigment. In 1845 a Mexican visitor recognized the substance as cinnabar or mercury ore. Soon afterward the New World's richest quicksilver mining district began production, supplying the mercury for the refiners of the California Gold Rush. Its name, New Almaden, echoed the famous Almadén mines of Spain. A hundred years later, the mines had yielded mercury in the amount of more than a million flasks—a volume of the liquid metal weighing 76 pounds. Although mining ended in the 1970s, geologists believe that much undiscovered ore remains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let's look at the geologic map of the area (derived from \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1998/of98-795/\">USGS Map OF-98-975\u003c/a>). \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33181\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 627px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadengeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33181\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadengeomap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadengeomap\" width=\"627\" height=\"472\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33181\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadengeomap.png 627w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadengeomap-400x301.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 627px) 100vw, 627px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The New Almaden district runs northwest on Los Capitancillos Ridge from the village of New Almaden. Asterisks mark the four park entrances. Franciscan rock units are fm, melange; fpv, volcanics; gs, greenstone; pink, serpentinite; yellow, silica-carbonate rock; orange, chert. Units with names starting Q, T or K are younger.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It's kind of a mess, and the details are in the caption, but basically Los Capitancillos Ridge is like many other \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/21/bay-area-mercury/\">Bay Area mercury sites\u003c/a>, an intricate mixture of \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/21/geological-outings-around-the-bay-marin-headlands/\">Franciscan rocks\u003c/a> and serpentinite that has been kneaded and heated and injected with metal-bearing fluids. These fluids, derived from magma intrusions, replaced the minerals in the serpentinite and turned it into silica-carbonate rock. The cinnabar lodes, in turn, were emplaced in and near the silica-carbonates. As you hike about the ridge, keep an eye underfoot for the widespread \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_metrocks/ig/serpentinites/\">serpentinite\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33182\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadenserpentine/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33182\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenserpentine.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadenserpentine\" width=\"600\" height=\"438\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33182\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenserpentine.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenserpentine-400x292.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Serpentinite boulders in a streambed.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Among other things, the park contains mines and machinery spanning a century of progress from traditional techniques of medieval origin to modern American facilities. One mine entrance, the San Cristobal tunnel, has been kept open for a short distance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33175\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/sancristobal/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33175\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/sancristobal.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"sancristobal\" width=\"500\" height=\"402\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33175\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/sancristobal.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/sancristobal-400x322.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">San Cristobal tunnel, first opened in 1866.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Go on in and look for the veins in the walls. These are typically filled with quartz or dolomite. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33184\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadenveins/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33184\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenveins.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadenveins\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33184\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenveins.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenveins-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Veins in the San Cristobal tunnel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Another worthwhile spot is the site of the Buena Vista shaft, the deepest in the district. The foundation of the pumphouse is constructed of large blocks of local sandstone and Sierran granite. It was abandoned in 1893.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33180\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadenfoundation/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33180\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenfoundation.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadenfoundation\" width=\"600\" height=\"486\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33180\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenfoundation.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadenfoundation-400x324.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Buena Vista shaft mainly served to dewater the hills and allow neighboring mines to go deeper in search of cinnabar. \u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Nearby are extensive piles of mine tailings. Although this shaft produced only minor amounts of ore, the rocks themselves are interesting. Remember that collecting rocks and minerals is forbidden. A ranger told me that if people kept taking things home with them, eventually there would be no tailings left. I don't see the problem with that, and \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/11/17/fossil-collecting-in-the-bay-area/\">if I could make the rules I would give rockhounds access\u003c/a> to limited parts of the park.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/newalmadentailings/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33183\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadentailings.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"newalmadentailings\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33183\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadentailings.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/newalmadentailings-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Don't miss the views of the surrounding territory. The top photo of this post shows the view west to the Sierra Azul, and to the east are views of the Santa Teresa Hills and Diablo Range.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33178\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/hamilton/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33178\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hamilton.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"hamilton\" width=\"600\" height=\"463\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33178\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hamilton.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hamilton-400x309.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mount Hamilton's observatories stand out beyond the lower Santa Teresa Hills, site of more mercury mines and sandstone quarries.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The mining museum housed in the Casa Grande, the old manager's residence built in 1854, is full of exhibits and is well worth a visit if you can be there during its brief open hours.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33176\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/casagrande/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33176\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/casagrande.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"casagrande\" width=\"600\" height=\"459\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33176\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/casagrande.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/casagrande-400x306.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Casa Grande has rooms full of period furnishings as well as the Quicksilver Mining Museum.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The little museum shop has cinnabar from the Guadalupe Mine for sale. This is the only way you can acquire New Almaden specimens today, unless a dealer is selling off a historic collection at a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/08/18/theres-nothing-like-a-rock-show/\">rock and mineral show\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33177\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/15/geological-outings-around-the-bay-new-almaden/guadalupecinnabar/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33177\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/guadalupecinnabar.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"guadalupecinnabar\" width=\"600\" height=\"487\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33177\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/guadalupecinnabar.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/guadalupecinnabar-400x325.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">New Almaden cinnabar is notable for its tiny crystals that give the ore a glittering appearance.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The definitive source for historic and geologic information on the area is the classic \u003ca href=\"http://openlibrary.org/books/OL7034975M/Geology_and_quicksilver_deposits_of_the_New_Almaden_District_Santa_Clara_County_California\">US Geological Survey Professional Paper 360\u003c/a>, \"Geology and Quicksilver Deposits of the New Almaden District.\"\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Side Trips from Interstate 5: Panoche and Tumey Hills",
"title": "Side Trips from Interstate 5: Panoche and Tumey Hills",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32499\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panoche/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32499\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoche-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panoche\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-32499\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Panoche Hills provide a splendid overlook to the Great Valley on good days. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most people, it's probably fair to say, loathe Interstate 5 between Redding and Bakersfield. If all you want to do is get from point A to point B, I-5 enables that, but the road is so smooth and the route so straight that the typical driver resents the time spent on it, even at 80 mph and faster. Traffic can reach dangerous speeds, eyes get glazed, attention wavers, and tempers grow short.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for me, I love the chance to enjoy I-5. I make it a full day's trip to get from the Bay Area to Southern California or the Shasta region, and that gives me a long enough leash to get off the freeway at least once during the day. So I'd like to share with you some of my favorite side trips, and they don't include Santa Nella.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One that I've enjoyed several times goes past the Panoche and Tumey Hills, a big patch of wild land along the east side of the Coast Range managed by the Bureau of Land Management. It's a loop of backroad about halfway to Bakersfield, due west of Fresno. Its north end is Little Panoche Road and its south end is Panoche Road. It includes some dirt road and takes a good hour if you don't stop much. Its two notable landmarks are Mercey Hot Springs and the village of Panoche, in well-hidden Panoche Valley. I've never stopped at either place because it's the countryside that attracts me.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let's have a look at the geologic map of the area, derived from the nice \u003ca href=\"http://www.quake.ca.gov/gmaps/GMC/stategeologicmap.html\">interactive state geologic map\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32500\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panochegeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32500\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panochegeomap.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panochegeomap\" width=\"640\" height=\"529\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32500\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panochegeomap.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panochegeomap-400x331.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Significant map units: Ku, upper Cretaceous marine rocks; Ep, Paleocene marine rocks; E, Eocene marine rocks; QP, Pliocene-Pleistocene nonmarine rocks; Q, modern and recent sediment; Qoa, Quaternary river terraces; KJf, Franciscan complex; um, ultramafic rocks\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The bulk of the hills consists of late Cretaceous mudstones, laid down in a shallow sea some 80 million years ago when the Sierra Nevada was a great chain of volcanoes like today's Cascade Range. This sea persisted past Cretaceous time into the succeeding Paleocene and Eocene epochs, perhaps 50 or 40 million years ago. There are rare plesiosaur and mosasaur fossils in the older section and lots of fossil wood throughout. But we don't have time to hunt fossils, although collecting for personal purposes is allowed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Little Panoche Road runs up the valley of Little Panoche Creek, where at least two levels of stream terraces are visible that testify to different episodes of erosion. They in turn are undoubtedly related to the uplift history of these hills.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32498\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/littlepanoche/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32498\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/littlepanoche.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"littlepanoche\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32498\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/littlepanoche.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/littlepanoche-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Looking across Little Panoche Creek to the north flank of the Panoche Hills.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The road turns south and runs through Little Panoche Valley, passing the low-key \u003ca href=\"https://merceyhotsprings.com/\">Mercey Hot Springs\u003c/a> resort. The entrance to the BLM's \u003ca href=\"http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/hollister/recreation/panoche.html\">Panoche Hills Recreation Area\u003c/a> is here, too. At the head of the valley the road cuts through Glaucophane Ridge, an unexpected exposure of old Franciscan rocks, then goes straight south across the wide and gentle Panoche Valley and ends at Panoche Road. This pocket of farmland is one of Central California's hidden gems. The south side of the valley presents a striking set of terraces. These are mapped as river terraces but might be lake beds; I haven't looked into the literature. In either case they, too, attest to ancient episodes of accelerated erosion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32503\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panocheterraces/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32503\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheterraces.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panocheterraces\" width=\"600\" height=\"387\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32503\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheterraces.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheterraces-400x258.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Buck Peak, in the Griswold Hills, and river terraces of the Panoche Valley.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Panoche Road west eventually gets you to Paicines, south of Hollister. The road east gets you back to I-5, but all of the crooked part is decent dirt. In wet weather, turn back here, or maybe go a little ways on the paved part and daydream about taking New Idria Road south to the remote ghost town of Idria. The eastern end of the valley has good views of the Panoche Hills from the south, but eventually the road crosses the creek without benefit of a bridge and then turns to dirt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panoches/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32502\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoches.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panoches\" width=\"600\" height=\"438\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32502\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoches.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoches-400x292.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fine weather, ford the stream and proceed across some splendid and scenic country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panocheroad/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32501\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheroad.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panocheroad\" width=\"600\" height=\"414\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32501\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheroad.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheroad-400x276.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At this point, you are in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/hollister/recreation/tumey.html\">Tumey Hills Recreation Area\u003c/a>. These hills are lower and drier than the Panoches, and the rocks along the road are quite different. They are young sandstones and conglomerates formed as the Coast Range began to rise, just a few million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/tumeycgl/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32504\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeycgl.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"tumeycgl\" width=\"500\" height=\"401\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32504\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeycgl.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeycgl-400x321.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watch the road as well as the rocks, but don't miss the landscape. All photos in this post were taken in late March.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/tumeys/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32506\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeys.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"tumeys\" width=\"600\" height=\"473\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32506\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeys.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeys-400x315.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When you reach I-5, you'll have a choice of eating places to get you ready to roll again. Maybe, like me, you prefer to think of it as the place where the iron dinosaur used to be. It was the creation of the late Carmon Neff of Chowchilla, and I don't know where it went.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/tumeydino/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32505\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeydino.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"tumeydino\" width=\"600\" height=\"401\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32505\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeydino.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeydino-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Interstate 5 doesn't have to be a dreary drive. Take a geological side trip on the way, for instance to the hidden Coast Range treasures due west of Fresno.",
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"description": "Interstate 5 doesn't have to be a dreary drive. Take a geological side trip on the way, for instance to the hidden Coast Range treasures due west of Fresno.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32499\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panoche/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32499\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoche-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panoche\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-32499\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Panoche Hills provide a splendid overlook to the Great Valley on good days. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Most people, it's probably fair to say, loathe Interstate 5 between Redding and Bakersfield. If all you want to do is get from point A to point B, I-5 enables that, but the road is so smooth and the route so straight that the typical driver resents the time spent on it, even at 80 mph and faster. Traffic can reach dangerous speeds, eyes get glazed, attention wavers, and tempers grow short.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for me, I love the chance to enjoy I-5. I make it a full day's trip to get from the Bay Area to Southern California or the Shasta region, and that gives me a long enough leash to get off the freeway at least once during the day. So I'd like to share with you some of my favorite side trips, and they don't include Santa Nella.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One that I've enjoyed several times goes past the Panoche and Tumey Hills, a big patch of wild land along the east side of the Coast Range managed by the Bureau of Land Management. It's a loop of backroad about halfway to Bakersfield, due west of Fresno. Its north end is Little Panoche Road and its south end is Panoche Road. It includes some dirt road and takes a good hour if you don't stop much. Its two notable landmarks are Mercey Hot Springs and the village of Panoche, in well-hidden Panoche Valley. I've never stopped at either place because it's the countryside that attracts me.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let's have a look at the geologic map of the area, derived from the nice \u003ca href=\"http://www.quake.ca.gov/gmaps/GMC/stategeologicmap.html\">interactive state geologic map\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32500\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panochegeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32500\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panochegeomap.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panochegeomap\" width=\"640\" height=\"529\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32500\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panochegeomap.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panochegeomap-400x331.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Significant map units: Ku, upper Cretaceous marine rocks; Ep, Paleocene marine rocks; E, Eocene marine rocks; QP, Pliocene-Pleistocene nonmarine rocks; Q, modern and recent sediment; Qoa, Quaternary river terraces; KJf, Franciscan complex; um, ultramafic rocks\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The bulk of the hills consists of late Cretaceous mudstones, laid down in a shallow sea some 80 million years ago when the Sierra Nevada was a great chain of volcanoes like today's Cascade Range. This sea persisted past Cretaceous time into the succeeding Paleocene and Eocene epochs, perhaps 50 or 40 million years ago. There are rare plesiosaur and mosasaur fossils in the older section and lots of fossil wood throughout. But we don't have time to hunt fossils, although collecting for personal purposes is allowed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Little Panoche Road runs up the valley of Little Panoche Creek, where at least two levels of stream terraces are visible that testify to different episodes of erosion. They in turn are undoubtedly related to the uplift history of these hills.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32498\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/littlepanoche/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32498\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/littlepanoche.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"littlepanoche\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32498\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/littlepanoche.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/littlepanoche-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Looking across Little Panoche Creek to the north flank of the Panoche Hills.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The road turns south and runs through Little Panoche Valley, passing the low-key \u003ca href=\"https://merceyhotsprings.com/\">Mercey Hot Springs\u003c/a> resort. The entrance to the BLM's \u003ca href=\"http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/hollister/recreation/panoche.html\">Panoche Hills Recreation Area\u003c/a> is here, too. At the head of the valley the road cuts through Glaucophane Ridge, an unexpected exposure of old Franciscan rocks, then goes straight south across the wide and gentle Panoche Valley and ends at Panoche Road. This pocket of farmland is one of Central California's hidden gems. The south side of the valley presents a striking set of terraces. These are mapped as river terraces but might be lake beds; I haven't looked into the literature. In either case they, too, attest to ancient episodes of accelerated erosion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_32503\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panocheterraces/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32503\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheterraces.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panocheterraces\" width=\"600\" height=\"387\" class=\"size-full wp-image-32503\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheterraces.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheterraces-400x258.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Buck Peak, in the Griswold Hills, and river terraces of the Panoche Valley.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Panoche Road west eventually gets you to Paicines, south of Hollister. The road east gets you back to I-5, but all of the crooked part is decent dirt. In wet weather, turn back here, or maybe go a little ways on the paved part and daydream about taking New Idria Road south to the remote ghost town of Idria. The eastern end of the valley has good views of the Panoche Hills from the south, but eventually the road crosses the creek without benefit of a bridge and then turns to dirt.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panoches/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32502\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoches.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panoches\" width=\"600\" height=\"438\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32502\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoches.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panoches-400x292.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fine weather, ford the stream and proceed across some splendid and scenic country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/panocheroad/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32501\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheroad.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"panocheroad\" width=\"600\" height=\"414\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32501\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheroad.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/panocheroad-400x276.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At this point, you are in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/hollister/recreation/tumey.html\">Tumey Hills Recreation Area\u003c/a>. These hills are lower and drier than the Panoches, and the rocks along the road are quite different. They are young sandstones and conglomerates formed as the Coast Range began to rise, just a few million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/tumeycgl/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32504\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeycgl.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"tumeycgl\" width=\"500\" height=\"401\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32504\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeycgl.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeycgl-400x321.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watch the road as well as the rocks, but don't miss the landscape. All photos in this post were taken in late March.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/tumeys/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32506\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeys.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"tumeys\" width=\"600\" height=\"473\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32506\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeys.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeys-400x315.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When you reach I-5, you'll have a choice of eating places to get you ready to roll again. Maybe, like me, you prefer to think of it as the place where the iron dinosaur used to be. It was the creation of the late Carmon Neff of Chowchilla, and I don't know where it went.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/08/side-trips-from-interstate-5-panoche-and-tumey-hills/tumeydino/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-32505\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeydino.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"tumeydino\" width=\"600\" height=\"401\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-32505\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeydino.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/tumeydino-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Half-Life of Disaster Awareness",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/01/the-half-life-of-disaster-awareness/pacifica-tsusign/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31903\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/pacifica-tsusign-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"pacifica-tsusign\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31903\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the Sumatra earthquake and tsunami of 2004, the U.S. government quickly expanded funding for the right things. These included the network of \u003ca href=\"http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/\">DART\u003c/a> (Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) seafloor sensors, coastal signage, inundation maps, and procedures to be presented at coastal towns. By 2011, the tsunami program had done a lot of good, and when the giant Tohoku earthquake sent tsunamis across the Pacific, the DART network did its job, emergency workers did theirs, and citizens had a clear idea of what would happen when waves reached America.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What now? Most people would probably agree that a useful, well-operating program should be maintained. When the White House proposed to reduce its funding next year, voices of dismay were easy to find. Environmentalist Jeff Ruch said, \"This is like a homeowner trying to economize by disconnecting the smoke detector.\" The \u003ci>Mercury News\u003c/i> editors thundered, \"Nobody wants to find out what an unannounced tsunami might do to America's shores.\" I think those responses are over the top. More realistic was a quote from an emergency management pro: \"Preparedness and public education is perishable. People need to be reminded. It's just like earthquakes.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The people running the program didn't seem as upset, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.mercurynews.com/science/ci_20057646\">the reported details of the plan\u003c/a> appeared to be consistent with an agency tapering off from buildup to maintenance. Still, beneath the concern was a bit of knowledge that's deeply ingrained among earthquake scientists, especially those in California: awareness is short-lived, peaking with significant events and then declining until the next catastrophe. History tells them so.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Early Californians were shaken by earthquakes often. Just since statehood, the Bay Area had damaging quakes (magnitude 6 and greater) in 1861, 1864, 1865, 1866, 1868, 1870, 1881, 1884, 1889, 1890, 1892, 1897, 1898, and then 1906. (See them in \u003ca href=\"http://projects.californiawatch.org/earthquakes/california-earthquake-history/\">this timeline from California Watch\u003c/a>.) Historian Stephen Tobriner has shown that 19th-century San Francisco architects designed their structures in full awareness of earthquakes, although building codes did not reflect the need. The 1906 earthquake was followed by strenuous denial of the hazard on the part of officials and business interests. Building codes did not begin to change until after the Santa Barbara quake of 1925, and the Long Beach quake of 1933 led to the Field Act mandating earthquake-resistant school buildings. Since then, scientists and the state have generally had a good relationship in terms of codes and regulations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Public awareness and mass preparation have been more episodic. In this part of California, large earthquakes virtually disappeared after 1906 until the late 1970s. In the meantime, populations multiplied and memories faded. Since then the tectonic system has been expressing the growing strain that will inevitably spawn the next Big One. It's no wonder that earthquake scientists are staying vigilant. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is a half-life in public awareness, analogous to the half-life of a radioactive isotope, such that measures of concern peak after an event, soon drop, and then taper off more gradually to a background level. (The web-link service bit.ly has documented \u003ca href=\"http://blog.bitly.com/post/9887686919/you-just-shared-a-link-how-long-will-people-pay\">its own version of this half-life\u003c/a>, and marketing researchers incorporate half-life in \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_adstock\">models of advertising\u003c/a>.) Old-timers in seismology can recount waves of government support for their science that crested in the 1960s (in the Cold War context), the 1970s (after the 1971 Whittier quake) and again after our own wake-up event, 1989's Loma Prieta quake. Volcanologists can tell similar stories about \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=bobby-jindal-and-volcano-monitoring-2009-02-25\">volcano monitoring\u003c/a>. The weather service has its ups and downs of government favor, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Will tsunami researchers have to go through cycles like this before they reach steady levels of support? Undoubtedly. A key task is to raise that background level of awareness. The road signs and inundation models and DART networks have a built-in robustness that assures them a lasting effect beyond the annual budget cycle. It's up to the rest of us to keep paying attention.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/01/the-half-life-of-disaster-awareness/pacifica-tsusign/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31903\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/pacifica-tsusign-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"pacifica-tsusign\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31903\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the Sumatra earthquake and tsunami of 2004, the U.S. government quickly expanded funding for the right things. These included the network of \u003ca href=\"http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/\">DART\u003c/a> (Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) seafloor sensors, coastal signage, inundation maps, and procedures to be presented at coastal towns. By 2011, the tsunami program had done a lot of good, and when the giant Tohoku earthquake sent tsunamis across the Pacific, the DART network did its job, emergency workers did theirs, and citizens had a clear idea of what would happen when waves reached America.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What now? Most people would probably agree that a useful, well-operating program should be maintained. When the White House proposed to reduce its funding next year, voices of dismay were easy to find. Environmentalist Jeff Ruch said, \"This is like a homeowner trying to economize by disconnecting the smoke detector.\" The \u003ci>Mercury News\u003c/i> editors thundered, \"Nobody wants to find out what an unannounced tsunami might do to America's shores.\" I think those responses are over the top. More realistic was a quote from an emergency management pro: \"Preparedness and public education is perishable. People need to be reminded. It's just like earthquakes.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The people running the program didn't seem as upset, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.mercurynews.com/science/ci_20057646\">the reported details of the plan\u003c/a> appeared to be consistent with an agency tapering off from buildup to maintenance. Still, beneath the concern was a bit of knowledge that's deeply ingrained among earthquake scientists, especially those in California: awareness is short-lived, peaking with significant events and then declining until the next catastrophe. History tells them so.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Early Californians were shaken by earthquakes often. Just since statehood, the Bay Area had damaging quakes (magnitude 6 and greater) in 1861, 1864, 1865, 1866, 1868, 1870, 1881, 1884, 1889, 1890, 1892, 1897, 1898, and then 1906. (See them in \u003ca href=\"http://projects.californiawatch.org/earthquakes/california-earthquake-history/\">this timeline from California Watch\u003c/a>.) Historian Stephen Tobriner has shown that 19th-century San Francisco architects designed their structures in full awareness of earthquakes, although building codes did not reflect the need. The 1906 earthquake was followed by strenuous denial of the hazard on the part of officials and business interests. Building codes did not begin to change until after the Santa Barbara quake of 1925, and the Long Beach quake of 1933 led to the Field Act mandating earthquake-resistant school buildings. Since then, scientists and the state have generally had a good relationship in terms of codes and regulations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Public awareness and mass preparation have been more episodic. In this part of California, large earthquakes virtually disappeared after 1906 until the late 1970s. In the meantime, populations multiplied and memories faded. Since then the tectonic system has been expressing the growing strain that will inevitably spawn the next Big One. It's no wonder that earthquake scientists are staying vigilant. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There is a half-life in public awareness, analogous to the half-life of a radioactive isotope, such that measures of concern peak after an event, soon drop, and then taper off more gradually to a background level. (The web-link service bit.ly has documented \u003ca href=\"http://blog.bitly.com/post/9887686919/you-just-shared-a-link-how-long-will-people-pay\">its own version of this half-life\u003c/a>, and marketing researchers incorporate half-life in \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_adstock\">models of advertising\u003c/a>.) Old-timers in seismology can recount waves of government support for their science that crested in the 1960s (in the Cold War context), the 1970s (after the 1971 Whittier quake) and again after our own wake-up event, 1989's Loma Prieta quake. Volcanologists can tell similar stories about \u003ca href=\"http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=bobby-jindal-and-volcano-monitoring-2009-02-25\">volcano monitoring\u003c/a>. The weather service has its ups and downs of government favor, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Will tsunami researchers have to go through cycles like this before they reach steady levels of support? Undoubtedly. A key task is to raise that background level of awareness. The road signs and inundation models and DART networks have a built-in robustness that assures them a lasting effect beyond the annual budget cycle. It's up to the rest of us to keep paying attention.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Gigapans: Panoramas that Bring You All the Way There",
"title": "Gigapans: Panoramas that Bring You All the Way There",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31355\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/23/gigapans-panoramas-that-bring-you-all-the-way-there/gigapantop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31355\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapantop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gigapantop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31355\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This clean roadcut exposure of Marin County's finest ribbon chert is documented in a gigapan image that can be enlarged 100 times. Image by Ron Schott.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you've ever wished your camera could take a humongous photo that captures everything, then gigapans are for you. Gigapans are billion-pixel images that are stitched together, like a patchwork quilt, from hundreds of shots made by ordinary cameras. A special mount and software programs the camera to take precisely overlapping images, which are then seamlessly merged into one colossal shot tens of thousands of pixels across.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of us first witnessed the potential of gigapans when photographers compiled them during President Obama's inauguration ceremony on January 20, 2009. \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/gigapans/17217\">This example\u003c/a>, by David Bergman, allows you to zoom in and study every face in the crowd that day, from four former presidents to Jane and Joe Blow (and Newt Gingrich is there too). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are over 50,000 gigapans uploaded at \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/\">gigapan.com\u003c/a>. Their subjects range from the night sky, to cityscapes, to hotel room interiors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Naturally I would want such a thing used for geology. First I would want to see eye candy, like the Grand Canyon. And places I'll never visit, like the South Pole. Scientists have made gigapans like those—how could they resist?—but they've also made real teaching and research tools.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For instance, you and I in the Bay Area can easily drive to the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/21/geological-outings-around-the-bay-marin-headlands/\">Marin Headlands\u003c/a> or elsewhere in Marin County and inspect all the deep-sea red ribbon chert we want. But geology teacher Ron Schott, the leading \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/profiles/rschott\">geological gigapanner\u003c/a>, has captured \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/gigapans/51412\">a fine roadcut exposure\u003c/a> in the image at the top of this post. Now his students in Kansas can zoom into it as close as being there, inches from the rock face:\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31353\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/23/gigapans-panoramas-that-bring-you-all-the-way-there/gigapanzoom/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31353\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapanzoom.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gigapanzoom\" width=\"550\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31353\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapanzoom.jpg 550w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapanzoom-400x291.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Detail near the left edge of the Marin County roadcut. Image by Ron Schott.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Any teacher, anywhere, can assign a lab exercise built around this image that's almost as good as a day trip. Instructors can show students the classic \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/28/geological-outings-around-the-bay-point-ao-nuevo/\">wave-cut platforms of the California coast\u003c/a> in \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/gigapans/40207\">a gigapan\u003c/a> that's every bit as good for teaching as standing on the spot with binoculars—in fact there's \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.org/gigapans/16058/\">a 3D version\u003c/a>, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It gets better. Northern Virginia Community College's Mid-Atlantic Geo-Imagery Collection (M.A.G.I.C.) has great outcrops, but also great \u003ca href=\"http://gigapan.org/gigapans?tags=m.a.g.i.c.&query=m.a.g.i.c.+sand+sediment\">macros of sand\u003c/a>. A petri dish of Hawaii's green sand, for instance, can be blown up to display every gorgeous olivine grain, microscope style. M.A.G.I.C. is the brainchild of Callan Bentley, an NVCC professor who \u003ca href=\"https://blogs.agu.org/mountainbeltway/category/gigapan/\">features gigapans often in his Mountain Beltway blog\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31354\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/23/gigapans-panoramas-that-bring-you-all-the-way-there/gigapansand/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31354\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapansand.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gigapansand\" width=\"550\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31354\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapansand.jpg 550w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapansand-400x291.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">M.A.G.I.C. image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Obama inauguration gigapan hints at another thing scientists can do, which is to archive and document large-scale natural features in detail. A great example from Yosemite Valley is the \u003ca href=\"http://www.xrez.com/case-studies/national-parks/yosemite-extreme-panoramic-imaging-project/\">Extreme Panoramic Imaging Project\u003c/a>, which compiled a photographic dataset of the granite walls of the entire valley by stitching together 20 gigapans into something I can only call a humongapan. Then this image was tied to a 3D terrain model, constructed from laser scans, for real 21st-century analysis. The project has already pinpointed the sources of rockfalls to aid in analyzing where they may come next, helping protect the public from danger. \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/galleries/7749/gigapans/49244\">You can explore the walls of Yosemite in a gigapan of the final product.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "These gigantic, zoomable photographs bring all the glory of great places to your screen. They also bring you geologic lessons of all sizes.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31355\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/23/gigapans-panoramas-that-bring-you-all-the-way-there/gigapantop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31355\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapantop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gigapantop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-31355\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This clean roadcut exposure of Marin County's finest ribbon chert is documented in a gigapan image that can be enlarged 100 times. Image by Ron Schott.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If you've ever wished your camera could take a humongous photo that captures everything, then gigapans are for you. Gigapans are billion-pixel images that are stitched together, like a patchwork quilt, from hundreds of shots made by ordinary cameras. A special mount and software programs the camera to take precisely overlapping images, which are then seamlessly merged into one colossal shot tens of thousands of pixels across.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many of us first witnessed the potential of gigapans when photographers compiled them during President Obama's inauguration ceremony on January 20, 2009. \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/gigapans/17217\">This example\u003c/a>, by David Bergman, allows you to zoom in and study every face in the crowd that day, from four former presidents to Jane and Joe Blow (and Newt Gingrich is there too). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are over 50,000 gigapans uploaded at \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/\">gigapan.com\u003c/a>. Their subjects range from the night sky, to cityscapes, to hotel room interiors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Naturally I would want such a thing used for geology. First I would want to see eye candy, like the Grand Canyon. And places I'll never visit, like the South Pole. Scientists have made gigapans like those—how could they resist?—but they've also made real teaching and research tools.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For instance, you and I in the Bay Area can easily drive to the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/04/21/geological-outings-around-the-bay-marin-headlands/\">Marin Headlands\u003c/a> or elsewhere in Marin County and inspect all the deep-sea red ribbon chert we want. But geology teacher Ron Schott, the leading \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/profiles/rschott\">geological gigapanner\u003c/a>, has captured \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/gigapans/51412\">a fine roadcut exposure\u003c/a> in the image at the top of this post. Now his students in Kansas can zoom into it as close as being there, inches from the rock face:\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31353\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/23/gigapans-panoramas-that-bring-you-all-the-way-there/gigapanzoom/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31353\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapanzoom.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gigapanzoom\" width=\"550\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31353\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapanzoom.jpg 550w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapanzoom-400x291.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Detail near the left edge of the Marin County roadcut. Image by Ron Schott.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Any teacher, anywhere, can assign a lab exercise built around this image that's almost as good as a day trip. Instructors can show students the classic \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2011/07/28/geological-outings-around-the-bay-point-ao-nuevo/\">wave-cut platforms of the California coast\u003c/a> in \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/gigapans/40207\">a gigapan\u003c/a> that's every bit as good for teaching as standing on the spot with binoculars—in fact there's \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.org/gigapans/16058/\">a 3D version\u003c/a>, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It gets better. Northern Virginia Community College's Mid-Atlantic Geo-Imagery Collection (M.A.G.I.C.) has great outcrops, but also great \u003ca href=\"http://gigapan.org/gigapans?tags=m.a.g.i.c.&query=m.a.g.i.c.+sand+sediment\">macros of sand\u003c/a>. A petri dish of Hawaii's green sand, for instance, can be blown up to display every gorgeous olivine grain, microscope style. M.A.G.I.C. is the brainchild of Callan Bentley, an NVCC professor who \u003ca href=\"https://blogs.agu.org/mountainbeltway/category/gigapan/\">features gigapans often in his Mountain Beltway blog\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31354\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 550px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/23/gigapans-panoramas-that-bring-you-all-the-way-there/gigapansand/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-31354\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapansand.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gigapansand\" width=\"550\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-31354\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapansand.jpg 550w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/gigapansand-400x291.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">M.A.G.I.C. image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Obama inauguration gigapan hints at another thing scientists can do, which is to archive and document large-scale natural features in detail. A great example from Yosemite Valley is the \u003ca href=\"http://www.xrez.com/case-studies/national-parks/yosemite-extreme-panoramic-imaging-project/\">Extreme Panoramic Imaging Project\u003c/a>, which compiled a photographic dataset of the granite walls of the entire valley by stitching together 20 gigapans into something I can only call a humongapan. Then this image was tied to a 3D terrain model, constructed from laser scans, for real 21st-century analysis. The project has already pinpointed the sources of rockfalls to aid in analyzing where they may come next, helping protect the public from danger. \u003ca href=\"http://www.gigapan.com/galleries/7749/gigapans/49244\">You can explore the walls of Yosemite in a gigapan of the final product.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Our Corner of Cascadia",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30814\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/16/our-corner-of-cascadia/cacascadiatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30814\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAcascadiatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30814\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The coastal region of northernmost California, including the Klamath Range shown here, is in the Cascadia subduction zone, America's geological analog of Sumatra. Photo by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On Monday the 13th, California's largest earthquake in two years, a magnitude 5.6 event, occurred way up in the state's northwest. That's the \u003ci>real\u003c/i> \"earthquake country\" in our state. California has had eight earthquakes of magnitude 5.6 or larger in the last 10 years, and half of them were up there. I think of the area as our Alaska—cold, remote, wet, foggy and rocky. Geologists call it part of Cascadia. What's that?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cascadia refers to the country overlying the Cascadia subduction zone, where a small tectonic plate, the Juan de Fuca plate, is working its way beneath the west coast of North America. From north to south it extends from Canada's Vancouver Island all the way through Washington and Oregon and into California, ending at Cape Mendocino. From west to east it follows the Juan de Fuca plate from the offshore fault where it first plunges beneath the seafloor to approximately the long volcanic chain of the High Cascades. I've marked it on this earthquake map along with \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsus/Quakes/nc71734741.html\">the February 13 earthquake\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30812\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 577px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/16/our-corner-of-cascadia/cacascadiausgsmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30812\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaUSGSmap.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAcascadiaUSGSmap\" width=\"577\" height=\"544\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30812\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">U.S. Geological Survey map\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Only a little of Cascadia extends into California, but this whole subduction zone could rupture at once in a colossal earthquake the size of Japan's in March 2011 or Sumatra's in December 2004; that is, a giant magnitude 9 event. Such a Cascadia subduction quake happened last in January 1700. We aren't sure whether the rupture came as far south as California then, but the next one certainly could.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>None of California's other faults are capable of earthquakes that size . . . not even one-tenth that size. Not even the San Andreas fault. An earthquake's energy comes from the amount of rock that can take up stress, and the San Andreas is a vertical ribbon little more than 20 kilometers wide from the ground down. Like a strand of fettucine, it doesn't add up to much no matter how long it gets. Magnitude 8 is considered an absolute maximum for most of California, a very large quake but still only about 3 percent of a magnitude 9 in total energy. In Cascadia, however, the subduction-zone fault is a slanted ribbon with much more surface area—a lasagna noodle. The tectonic geometry is the same as in Japan and Sumatra. Chile, where magnitude 9 events have also occurred, is the same. So is Alaska, where a 9.2 quake occurred in 1964. That's another reason I think of this part of California as our Alaska.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Northwestern California releases more seismic energy than any other part of the state. The map below shows about 60 earthquakes of magnitude 5 and greater in the last 40 years. Six of these reached magnitude 7.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30813\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/16/our-corner-of-cascadia/cacascadiaeqs/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30813\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaEQs.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAcascadiaEQs\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30813\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaEQs.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaEQs-400x333.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of magnitude 5 and larger events since 1973, plus 1923 quake (M7.2). Data from USGS displayed on Google Earth.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>You may notice that most of the events occurred offshore, beyond the subduction zone (which runs just west of the box with the magnitude key). These arise from cracking within the Juan de Fuca plate as it approaches the coast. There's very little activity inland, along the subduction zone itself. That part of the fault is considered to be locked, building up strain and growing closer to failure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>People in that part of California are actually better prepared for earthquakes than the rest of us. First, history leaves them unsurprised by moderate earthquakes like Monday's. Second, like people elsewhere in Cascadia they have been preparing for subduction-quake tsunamis with signage on the beaches. Third, the people have always lived with floods and slides and are more self-reliant than we are. In all these ways, they're just like Alaskans.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "A moderate earthquake this week in northwestern California is a reminder that part of our state lies in Cascadia, our tectonic analog of Sumatra and Japan.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30814\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/16/our-corner-of-cascadia/cacascadiatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30814\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAcascadiatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30814\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The coastal region of northernmost California, including the Klamath Range shown here, is in the Cascadia subduction zone, America's geological analog of Sumatra. Photo by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On Monday the 13th, California's largest earthquake in two years, a magnitude 5.6 event, occurred way up in the state's northwest. That's the \u003ci>real\u003c/i> \"earthquake country\" in our state. California has had eight earthquakes of magnitude 5.6 or larger in the last 10 years, and half of them were up there. I think of the area as our Alaska—cold, remote, wet, foggy and rocky. Geologists call it part of Cascadia. What's that?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Cascadia refers to the country overlying the Cascadia subduction zone, where a small tectonic plate, the Juan de Fuca plate, is working its way beneath the west coast of North America. From north to south it extends from Canada's Vancouver Island all the way through Washington and Oregon and into California, ending at Cape Mendocino. From west to east it follows the Juan de Fuca plate from the offshore fault where it first plunges beneath the seafloor to approximately the long volcanic chain of the High Cascades. I've marked it on this earthquake map along with \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsus/Quakes/nc71734741.html\">the February 13 earthquake\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30812\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 577px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/16/our-corner-of-cascadia/cacascadiausgsmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30812\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaUSGSmap.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAcascadiaUSGSmap\" width=\"577\" height=\"544\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30812\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">U.S. Geological Survey map\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Only a little of Cascadia extends into California, but this whole subduction zone could rupture at once in a colossal earthquake the size of Japan's in March 2011 or Sumatra's in December 2004; that is, a giant magnitude 9 event. Such a Cascadia subduction quake happened last in January 1700. We aren't sure whether the rupture came as far south as California then, but the next one certainly could.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>None of California's other faults are capable of earthquakes that size . . . not even one-tenth that size. Not even the San Andreas fault. An earthquake's energy comes from the amount of rock that can take up stress, and the San Andreas is a vertical ribbon little more than 20 kilometers wide from the ground down. Like a strand of fettucine, it doesn't add up to much no matter how long it gets. Magnitude 8 is considered an absolute maximum for most of California, a very large quake but still only about 3 percent of a magnitude 9 in total energy. In Cascadia, however, the subduction-zone fault is a slanted ribbon with much more surface area—a lasagna noodle. The tectonic geometry is the same as in Japan and Sumatra. Chile, where magnitude 9 events have also occurred, is the same. So is Alaska, where a 9.2 quake occurred in 1964. That's another reason I think of this part of California as our Alaska.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Northwestern California releases more seismic energy than any other part of the state. The map below shows about 60 earthquakes of magnitude 5 and greater in the last 40 years. Six of these reached magnitude 7.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30813\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/16/our-corner-of-cascadia/cacascadiaeqs/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30813\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaEQs.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"CAcascadiaEQs\" width=\"600\" height=\"500\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30813\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaEQs.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/CAcascadiaEQs-400x333.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of magnitude 5 and larger events since 1973, plus 1923 quake (M7.2). Data from USGS displayed on Google Earth.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>You may notice that most of the events occurred offshore, beyond the subduction zone (which runs just west of the box with the magnitude key). These arise from cracking within the Juan de Fuca plate as it approaches the coast. There's very little activity inland, along the subduction zone itself. That part of the fault is considered to be locked, building up strain and growing closer to failure.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>People in that part of California are actually better prepared for earthquakes than the rest of us. First, history leaves them unsurprised by moderate earthquakes like Monday's. Second, like people elsewhere in Cascadia they have been preparing for subduction-quake tsunamis with signage on the beaches. Third, the people have always lived with floods and slides and are more self-reliant than we are. In all these ways, they're just like Alaskans.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "What Can Lake Vostok Tell Us About Europa?",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30340\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europatop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30340\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europatop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europatop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30340\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Europa has a thick crust of ice over an ocean. Lake Vostok, miles beneath the Antarctic ice, is similar. But lessons from one may not apply to the other. NASA image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>It was a thrill to learn that on Sunday, Russian scientists managed to poke a drill tip through miles of Antarctic ice into Lake Vostok. Samples of water from this extreme environment promise to provide one of biology's severest tests of life on Earth. Scientists are talking up the possibility that this experiment, the first of several in progress in Antarctica, could tell us more about possible life on the icy satellite of Jupiter named Europa. Is that a stretch? \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We're asking different questions here. At Vostok, we want to know if life has survived; at Europa we want to know if life could have arisen. In that context I think that Vostok and Europa are worlds apart; their similarities are superficial. Let's look at the two places in a bit more detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Lake Vostok is a large tectonic basin, rather like Lake Tahoe, that happened to be overrun some 15 million years ago by the growing Antarctic ice cap. It has been sealed in profound darkness and freezing cold ever since, with the ice flowing slowly over it. Here's a diagram of the situation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30341\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/vostok/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30341\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"vostok\" width=\"640\" height=\"407\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30341\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/vostok-400x254.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">National Science Foundation image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The lake is kept unfrozen because of a trickle of heat from the Earth's crust beneath plus the effect of great pressure in depressing the freezing point. Ice melts at the upstream end and lake water freezes at the downstream end, so on the geological time scale there's an exchange of water, and the water itself must be charged with air carried in by the ice. But the amount of minerals and nutrients entering the lake this way must be astronomically small. Somewhat larger amounts may come from the rock and sediment of the lake's floor, but the picture is still disheartening.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet we have found life everywhere on Earth, from temperatures above the boiling point to below freezing. Microbes are recovered from within the ice cap itself. I believe that the microbes originally sealed into Lake Vostok survive today, because that's the way to bet on this planet. However, from everything we know, life could never have \u003ci>arisen\u003c/i> in such a place. The raw ingredients and energy required are absent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Is that true for Europa? It's colder on its warmest day than anywhere on Earth, true. But Europa should have much more of the assets for life than Vostok.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Europa is an old world that formed along with the rest of the planets. Like Earth, Europa separated into a dense interior and a light shell, only with a greater share of water. Its rocks, like those of the early Earth, had lots of natural radioactivity that must have generated enough heat to keep part of the overlying water melted throughout its history. (More recently, Jupiter's four major satellites have fallen into mutually resonant orbits that wring them with changing tidal forces. The innermost moon, Io, is heated to volcanism this way, and Europa and Ganymede are heated to lesser extents.) The heat must have expressed itself in hydrothermal vents, too, exactly like Earth's seafloor \"black smoker\" vents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a word, as far as planetary scientists can tell Europa should have started out with the same setting that is commonly thought to have spawned life on Earth. The first structures that served as cell membranes could have arisen at hydrothermal vents, which would exist on Europa just as they do on Earth: springs of hot, chemically active water on the floor of a big cold sea. The water itself should contain ammonia, sulfates, even hydrocarbons. All of this is straightforward modeling based on what we already know about the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30342\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/09/vostok-and-europa/europacrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30342\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"europacrust\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30342\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/europacrust-400x244.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the icy crust of Europa. Jet Propulsion Laboratory image\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Planetary modelers are finding that the thick ice shell of Europa should have some interesting activity, too. The eerie striped pattern of Europa's surface shows that the ice fractures regularly due to tidal forces. When that happens, water would rise and its dissolved gases would come out in bubbles. These \"Perrier ocean\" eruptions would spray over the surface, where the ice and its organic compounds would bake and polymerize and react in the radiation from Jupiter and the Sun. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Eventually, after approximately a billion years, the entire icy crust would become replaced with ice bearing this baked material. And at that point you would have a nutrient cycle. In sum, it's quite plausible for life to arise and persist on Europa where it's quite impossible in Lake Vostok. If we ever get a spacecraft to Europa—proposals keep being submitted—our experience drilling to Vostok would help us drill through Europa's crust. But a more elegant proposal is to simply swoop over Europa in low orbit and scoop up bits of dust from its icy surface raised by micrometeorite impacts. Just like on Earth, if life is on Europa its signs should be everywhere.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "What Are Seismic Waves?",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">Earthquakes release waves of energy called seismic waves. They travel through the interior and near the surface of the Earth.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cb>P-waves, or primary waves, \u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">are the fastest moving type of wave and the first detected by seismographs. They are also called compressional or longitudinal waves, and push and pull the ground in the direction the wave is traveling. They usually cause very little damage.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cb>S-waves, or secondary waves \u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">travel more slowly than P waves. These waves travel in the same direction, but they shake the ground back and forth perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling. S-waves are more dangerous than P-waves because they have greater amplitude and produce vertical and horizontal motion of the ground surface.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">The slowest waves, \u003c/span>\u003cb>surface waves\u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">, arrive last. They travel only along the surface of the Earth. There are two types of surface waves: Love and Rayleigh waves. \u003c/span>\u003cb>Love waves\u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> move back and forth horizontally. \u003c/span>\u003cb>Rayleigh waves\u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> cause both vertical and horizontal ground motion. These can be the most destructive waves as they roll along, causing the ground to rise and fall as they pass.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter wp-image-141921 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012.jpg\" alt=\"seismicwaves-web_copyright 2012\" width=\"901\" height=\"900\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012.jpg 901w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-400x400.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-800x799.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-768x767.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 901px) 100vw, 901px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>This post is part of \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/earthquakes\">Exploring Earthquakes\u003c/a>, a rich collection of resources co-presented by the California Academy of Sciences and KQED. This material is also available as a free \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/book/earthquake/id552255768?mt=11\">iBooks textbook\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/earthquake/id552092722\">iTunes U course\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Don’t miss \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/earthquake-life-on-a-dynamic-planet\">Earthquake\u003c/a>, an interactive exhibit at the Academy exploring the seismic forces that impact us today and featuring the Shake House, an earthquake simulator.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">Earthquakes release waves of energy called seismic waves. They travel through the interior and near the surface of the Earth.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cb>P-waves, or primary waves, \u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">are the fastest moving type of wave and the first detected by seismographs. They are also called compressional or longitudinal waves, and push and pull the ground in the direction the wave is traveling. They usually cause very little damage.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cb>S-waves, or secondary waves \u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">travel more slowly than P waves. These waves travel in the same direction, but they shake the ground back and forth perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling. S-waves are more dangerous than P-waves because they have greater amplitude and produce vertical and horizontal motion of the ground surface.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">The slowest waves, \u003c/span>\u003cb>surface waves\u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">, arrive last. They travel only along the surface of the Earth. There are two types of surface waves: Love and Rayleigh waves. \u003c/span>\u003cb>Love waves\u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> move back and forth horizontally. \u003c/span>\u003cb>Rayleigh waves\u003c/b>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> cause both vertical and horizontal ground motion. These can be the most destructive waves as they roll along, causing the ground to rise and fall as they pass.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter wp-image-141921 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012.jpg\" alt=\"seismicwaves-web_copyright 2012\" width=\"901\" height=\"900\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012.jpg 901w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-400x400.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-800x799.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-768x767.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/seismicwaves-web_copyright-2012-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 901px) 100vw, 901px\">\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>This post is part of \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/earthquakes\">Exploring Earthquakes\u003c/a>, a rich collection of resources co-presented by the California Academy of Sciences and KQED. This material is also available as a free \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/book/earthquake/id552255768?mt=11\">iBooks textbook\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/earthquake/id552092722\">iTunes U course\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Don’t miss \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/earthquake-life-on-a-dynamic-planet\">Earthquake\u003c/a>, an interactive exhibit at the Academy exploring the seismic forces that impact us today and featuring the Shake House, an earthquake simulator.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Career Spotlight: Q & A with Geophysicist Mary Lou Zoback",
"title": "Career Spotlight: Q & A with Geophysicist Mary Lou Zoback",
"headTitle": "Career Spotlight | QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31648\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 160px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31648\" title=\"Zoback_bio160\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"160\" height=\"160\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160.jpg 160w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mary Lou Zoback\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Mary Lou Zoback is a seismologist and Consulting Professor in the Environmental Earth System Science Department at Stanford University. From 2006-20011 she was Vice President for Earthquake Risk Applications with Risk Management Solutions, a private catastrophe modeling firm serving the insurance industry.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Zoback previously was a senior research scientist at the USGS in Menlo Park, CA and served as Chief Scientist of the Western Earthquake Hazards team.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Dr. Zoback is a member of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences, past President of the Geological Society of America, and past chair of the Advisory Committee for San Francisco’s Community Action Plan for Seismic Safety (CAPSS) program. She is currently a member of the National Academy of Sciences’ Disaster Roundtable.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\n\u003ch3>In the Classroom: Earthquake Careers Investigation\u003c/h3>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Dr. Zoback is a geophysicist. Using her interview and the webpage from USGS, \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/become.php\">Become a Geophysicist...a What?\u003c/a>, have students answer the following questions:\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What kinds of things do geophysicists study?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What is Dr. Zoback’s area of expertise?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Geophysicists can specialize in a range of earth science-related topics. Is there one that looks most interesting to you? What about this career seems the most exciting? What type of activities do they do? Where do they travel?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What other jobs or careers could be related to earthquakes, even outside of the sciences? How might engineers or health workers have jobs related to earthquakes?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is your area of expertise?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: I am a geophysicist and study the forces in the earth’s crust that cause earthquakes. I got interested in geophysics when I was studying in college. It was the early 1970s and the theory of plate tectonics had just burst on the scene. Before plate tectonics, some scientists had proposed the theory of continental drift, recognizing that present-day continents could be “fit together” as pieces of pre-existing larger land masses, or \"supercontinents\". However, this theory did not explain how the oceans formed or how the continents broke up and moved apart. Plate tectonics, on the other hand, was a wonderful unifying theory based on geophysical evidence including the location of earthquakes, the bathymetry (depth and structure) of the ocean floor, and variations in the earth’s magnetic field. Plate tectonics had new ocean crust forming at underwater ridges and moving continents apart while at the same time old ocean crust was being consumed at “trenches” where this crust plunged deep into the earth’s mantle, generating big earthquakes and melting to form volcanoes. The Pacific “ring of fire” of volcanoes and earthquakes rimming the margin of the Pacific all of a sudden made sense. It was an exciting time as scientists all over the world were rapidly finding additional evidence supporting the new theory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31655\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/faults.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31655\" title=\"faults-thumb320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/faults-thumb320.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"180\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Earthquakes and faults in the San Francisco Bay Area (1970-2003). Click on thumbnail to see full size version. Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of those supporting observations is right here in California. For years geologists had recognized that there were very different rocks on either side of the San Andreas Fault, and had determined that fault was strike-slip, or that the two blocks on either side of the fault slid horizontally with respect to one another. In particular, they had mapped some very distinctive volcanic rocks along the fault, but separated about 200 miles. How can that be? Because if the fault had actually slipped horizontally 200 miles, where were the ends of the fault and what was happening there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologists knew that this fault ended in the Pacific Ocean to the north and into the Gulf of California to the south. In plate tectonic theory the San Andreas is known as a transform fault, part of the plate boundary of the North American plate. Over geologic time plate boundaries form and reform, and at the ends of transform faults the motion transforms to a different kind of plate boundary, usually associated with a major bend in the fault system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is a geophysicist?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Geophysics really merges the study of geology -- the study of the earth’s surface, the rocks, the processes that created it -- with the physical understanding of the forces acting on it, as well as the physical properties, like the gravity and magnetic fields, of the earth’s interior.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: Geophysics really merges the study of geology -- the study of the Earth’s surface, the rocks, the processes that created it -- with the physical understanding of the forces acting on it, as well as the physical properties, like the gravity and magnetic fields, of the Earth’s interior. And I think I was really drawn to the field because I saw a chance to use a more physical and mechanical approach to understanding the earth. It’s more of an engineering approach. We now pretty much understand the earthquakes along plate boundaries like the San Andreas. As the plates move past one another, the stresses in the earth’s crust result in earthquakes, but we still don't understand so well what happens in \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraplate_earthquake\">the middle of plates\u003c/a> and why we can potentially have really large earthquakes there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is magnitude?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: Earthquake magnitude is a number that describes the relative size of an earthquake. I think one of the biggest confusions in the public’s mind is understanding what earthquake magnitude is and why seismologists give different magnitudes for the same earthquake. Often the media refers to a Richter magnitude, and I think there’s a sense among the public that there’s some “scale” around, [that there’s] a Richter “ruler” that people use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31663\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/hayward-fault.png\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31663\" title=\"hayward-fault320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/hayward-fault320.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"237\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of the Hayward Fault. Click on the image for a full-size map.Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In fact, the Richter magnitude was based on actually measuring the maximum motion of seismic waves as recorded on early seismographs. And that worked fine for small earthquakes in California. But those early instruments couldn’t record really large earthquakes, their recording pens literally pegged out. When we started getting modern digital instruments, all of a sudden we had enough bandwidth to record really large ground motions as well as the small motions with great accuracy. Seismologist then found that the Richter magnitude and other magnitudes related just to maximum motions of different parts of the seismic wave did not adequately measure the size of very large earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seismologist needed a better measure of magnitude. Today most seismologists and geologists have agreed to use a \u003cstrong>moment magnitude scale, \u003c/strong>which is based on the “seismic moment”. The seismic moment of an earthquake is related to the amount of energy released. It can be determined directly by the area (length X width) of the fault that broke, and the amount of \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=displacement\">displacement\u003c/a> on it. It’s also measured by looking at changes in the frequency content of the seismogram. So there’s two different ways of measuring it, and we get pretty consistent measurements.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the forecast for the Hayward Fault event?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: A whole California-wide earthquake forecast came out in 2008, and the Hayward Fault was identified as the second most dangerous fault in the state of California. They assigned about a 30% likelihood of a magnitude 6.7 or larger earthquake in the next 30 years. The highest likelihood was in Southern California, along the Southern San Andreas, where they estimated about a 60% chance of such an earthquake. On that stretch of the southern San Andreas Fault, we’ve got geologic evidence that on average, there’s been a big earthquake every 100 years over the last several thousand years. And we know from historic records that there hasn’t been one there for 300 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the length between the Hayward and the Calaveras Fault?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31670\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31670\" title=\"haycal_3d320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d320.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"310\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d320.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d320-32x32.jpg 32w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 320px) 100vw, 320px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">3-D view of the Hayward-Calaveras Fault junction. Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: The Bay Area has a whole series of sub-parallel faults. And traditionally, we had mapped the Calaveras Fault to the south, and then we had mapped the Hayward Fault further north, trending more northwesterly. And they seem to come close together, within a few miles, but never really completely join.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, some recent studies by scientists at the USGS looked at some very precisely located small earthquakes, and found a really surprising result. Although at the surface you can’t see any connection between the two faults, at depth these small earthquakes indicate the faults are actually connected. Now that’s really important because typically the size of an earthquake depends on the length of the fault that ruptures. And the maximum earthquake we could have if the entire Hayward Fault ruptured is about magnitude 7.1. But if you add an earthquake that would continue on to the Calaveras Fault, you could get a substantially large earthquake, maybe about a 7.4, which would have devastating impact across the region.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the range of damage?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: What we’ve also learned from recent earthquakes is that the actual rupture on the fault plane -- that is, the area of the fault that is slipping rapidly during an earthquake -- that rupture doesn’t happen all at once. It progresses along the fault. And what we’ve learned recently is that in the direction that the rupture progresses, you actually focus seismic energy in that direction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s important because if the earthquake began to the north, say near Point Pinole on the Hayward Fault and ruptured south, it would be pushing energy into San Jose and into the valleys that underlie San Jose. What could happen then is that seismic energy could get trapped in those valleys and just bounce back and forth, so it really extends the length of time of shaking and it actually amplifies the seismic waves, causing much greater damage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This phenomenon, which we call directivity, also indicates that the 1906 earthquake, as bad as it was, was probably a best-case scenario for an earthquake of that size in the Bay Area. The reason is that the 1906 earthquake began offshore from San Francisco, and it ruptured in two directions at once. It ruptured to the northwest and to the southeast. Both of those ruptures carried energy out of the Bay Area away from the main population center. We’ve been doing 3-D computer modeling to reproduce the 1906 shaking pattern and other potential future earthquakes. The modelers found that if that same earthquake began near Cape Mendocino on the San Andreas and ruptured southward, we’d have tremendous impact in the Bay Area, as all that seismic energy got focused and pushed into the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: Why is there expected such a major offset?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: The size of a potential earthquake depends on the length of fault that ruptures. The longer the fault, the larger the earthquake and the greater the potential offset. In 1906, the San Andreas ruptured 300 miles with a maximum horizontal offset of about 28 feet; that was a huge earthquake. The Loma Prieta earthquake only ruptured 25 miles with a maximum offset of less than seven feet. The Hayward fault will be something in between, with an offset of six to perhaps ten feet. The fact that we have a very long fault and we have a lot of evidence that that fault moved in the past in something like a magnitude 7.0 event, and that’s based on the fact that we can actually see evidence of past surface ruptures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What are the lengths of time between ruptures? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: By literally digging trenches across faults, we get the past history of fault movement by looking at offset soil layers. We’ve been fortunate that for the Hayward Fault that we have a very good record that goes back about 2,000 years (if we dig any deeper in the soil we hit the water table). By dating the different layers of soil that are offset, geologists have been able to come up with an average -- what we call recurrence or repeat time -- for that earthquake. It’s roughly about 140 to 150 years. The last big event was in 1868, so we can do the math and find out that there is a high likelihood of a repeat of that event close to the 140\u003csup>th\u003c/sup> anniversary of that big quake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: Why is the Hayward Fault so dangerous?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: Two reasons: it has potential for very large earthquakes, and it runs right through a very built-up area. Unfortunately, in the Bay Area, we’ve got an awful lot of older residential buildings. We typically find these in the downtown areas of San Francisco, Oakland or Berkeley. Many of these older buildings are what we call “soft stories,” where the ground floor is an open space, typically a garage. When the whole ground floor is open and you get very strong horizontal shaking in an earthquake, the building starts moving backwards and forwards, and often that soft first story collapses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of the people that were killed in Los Angeles in 1994 were killed in relatively new apartment buildings that also had open garage space on the ground floor, similar to the older buildings. There are also old concrete frame buildings built largely in the 1960s. These have insufficient steel reinforcing in the concrete frames and many may be collapse threats. Now, not all of them will collapse, but many of them will be damaged severely and unusable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the next Hayward Fault earthquake there’s going to be an awful lot of damage and destruction. Major roadways will be shut down, the soft water-saturated sandy deposits along the margin of the Bay are likely to liquefy, ripping apart the roads. These areas are also where we have airports as well as approaches to bridges. I think we can we assume transportation networks will have major disruptions and some destroyed. Water pipelines crossing the Hayward Fault may rupture and will likely be shut down for some time. There will also be fires because underground gas lines will rupture. There won’t be enough water to fight the fires. Power will be down. Communications will be down. There won’t be Internet, at least for a while, most likely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Transportation systems in addition to the roads will be disrupted. The BART train crosses the Hayward Fault twice, and actually a number of the stations are right along the fault. [The Transbay Tube] runs underneath the Bay; BART went to the public a couple of years ago to ask for a bond measure for a retrofit, admitting that they feel it’s likely the Tube would fail. By failing, they felt it would crack possibly allowing water to flood into the Tube, which would not be good if people were in there. The Hayward Fault also runs right across the opening of the Caldecott Tunnel in Oakland. All these things are going to be offset five, seven, eight feet laterally, so they’re not going to be functioning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the risk of post-earthquake fires?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: In 1906, most of the damage was caused by fires. But fire following earthquakes is always a huge threat here. We have lots of pipelines that are running underground, both gas and water. We have a bay, surrounded by wet, sandy soil, and when subjected to very strong shaking, that sandy soil liquefies, literally turns to something like quicksand and that flows and literally rips pipes apart. So you have gas pipe leaks -- you have a trigger for a fire to start. You have water pipe leaks, so it really hampers your ability to fight the fire. Another significant factor is that much of our buildings both residential and commercial are wood frame, which burns easily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: How many people would be exposed to an event?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK: \u003c/strong>If we actually look at what we call the footprint of this earthquake -- the area that would be strongly impacted -- that includes roughly 5 million people in the counties around the Bay Area. And if you look at the total value of the buildings, their contents, we’re talking about something like $1.4 trillion -- a huge number. So the losses are relative to that value.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: Why do you live here?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31676\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 169px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/show_picture320.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-31676\" title=\"show_picture320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/show_picture320-169x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"169\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Aftermath of the Loma Prieta earthquake in San Francisco on October 17, 1989. Roadbed collapse near the interface of the cantilever and truss sections of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: I think all of us get this question: “Why do you live here knowing all of this?” Well, we’re all making decisions every day about what risk we’re willing to accept. And it’s far riskier for us to drive on Highway 101 on a daily basis than to worry about an earthquake, because the likelihood of being involved in an accident is much higher. I think the difference, though, is that we all think we can manage our own personal risk, in how we drive, and that sort of thing. We can’t control when the next earthquake will occur or how large it’ll be. And I think the distressing thing is that when we start thinking about the ramifications and the true impacts, it’s so frightening that most of us are in denial, which means that we don't bother to take steps to get prepared, we are sort of betting that it’s not going happen to us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What advice would you give to Bay Area residents?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: I hope one outcome of the publicity about the earthquake threat in the Bay Area is not that people say, “It’s too awful to think about, I can’t deal with it,” but rather I hope that most of us are thinking about what we can do to control our own situation. Take charge of your safety, and be prepared. You don’t want to lose your home as a result of a natural disaster, because then you’ve lost everything.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s an awful lot that we can all do to make our situations better. Have the necessary supplies. Expect that you are going to be responsible for your family and your neighbors. Have a plan for your family to reunite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently there’s been a lot of talk among seismologists and engineers that probably the best goal for the Bay Area would be to have most people be able to shelter in place, that means that rather than go to shelters where we’ve seen horrific situations, stay in your home. It may be more like camping out, you may not have water and you may not have electricity. But they can drop off water and Porta-Johns at the end of your block. If your home survived the earthquake, you’re generally better off sheltering in place than wandering around, trying to find a shelter and being separated from all your possessions.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31648\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 160px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31648\" title=\"Zoback_bio160\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"160\" height=\"160\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160.jpg 160w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/Zoback_bio160-75x75.jpg 75w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mary Lou Zoback\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Mary Lou Zoback is a seismologist and Consulting Professor in the Environmental Earth System Science Department at Stanford University. From 2006-20011 she was Vice President for Earthquake Risk Applications with Risk Management Solutions, a private catastrophe modeling firm serving the insurance industry.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Zoback previously was a senior research scientist at the USGS in Menlo Park, CA and served as Chief Scientist of the Western Earthquake Hazards team.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Dr. Zoback is a member of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences, past President of the Geological Society of America, and past chair of the Advisory Committee for San Francisco’s Community Action Plan for Seismic Safety (CAPSS) program. She is currently a member of the National Academy of Sciences’ Disaster Roundtable.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\n\u003ch3>In the Classroom: Earthquake Careers Investigation\u003c/h3>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Dr. Zoback is a geophysicist. Using her interview and the webpage from USGS, \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/become.php\">Become a Geophysicist...a What?\u003c/a>, have students answer the following questions:\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What kinds of things do geophysicists study?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What is Dr. Zoback’s area of expertise?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Geophysicists can specialize in a range of earth science-related topics. Is there one that looks most interesting to you? What about this career seems the most exciting? What type of activities do they do? Where do they travel?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What other jobs or careers could be related to earthquakes, even outside of the sciences? How might engineers or health workers have jobs related to earthquakes?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is your area of expertise?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: I am a geophysicist and study the forces in the earth’s crust that cause earthquakes. I got interested in geophysics when I was studying in college. It was the early 1970s and the theory of plate tectonics had just burst on the scene. Before plate tectonics, some scientists had proposed the theory of continental drift, recognizing that present-day continents could be “fit together” as pieces of pre-existing larger land masses, or \"supercontinents\". However, this theory did not explain how the oceans formed or how the continents broke up and moved apart. Plate tectonics, on the other hand, was a wonderful unifying theory based on geophysical evidence including the location of earthquakes, the bathymetry (depth and structure) of the ocean floor, and variations in the earth’s magnetic field. Plate tectonics had new ocean crust forming at underwater ridges and moving continents apart while at the same time old ocean crust was being consumed at “trenches” where this crust plunged deep into the earth’s mantle, generating big earthquakes and melting to form volcanoes. The Pacific “ring of fire” of volcanoes and earthquakes rimming the margin of the Pacific all of a sudden made sense. It was an exciting time as scientists all over the world were rapidly finding additional evidence supporting the new theory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31655\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/faults.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31655\" title=\"faults-thumb320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/faults-thumb320.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"180\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Earthquakes and faults in the San Francisco Bay Area (1970-2003). Click on thumbnail to see full size version. Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>One of those supporting observations is right here in California. For years geologists had recognized that there were very different rocks on either side of the San Andreas Fault, and had determined that fault was strike-slip, or that the two blocks on either side of the fault slid horizontally with respect to one another. In particular, they had mapped some very distinctive volcanic rocks along the fault, but separated about 200 miles. How can that be? Because if the fault had actually slipped horizontally 200 miles, where were the ends of the fault and what was happening there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Geologists knew that this fault ended in the Pacific Ocean to the north and into the Gulf of California to the south. In plate tectonic theory the San Andreas is known as a transform fault, part of the plate boundary of the North American plate. Over geologic time plate boundaries form and reform, and at the ends of transform faults the motion transforms to a different kind of plate boundary, usually associated with a major bend in the fault system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is a geophysicist?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignleft\">Geophysics really merges the study of geology -- the study of the earth’s surface, the rocks, the processes that created it -- with the physical understanding of the forces acting on it, as well as the physical properties, like the gravity and magnetic fields, of the earth’s interior.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: Geophysics really merges the study of geology -- the study of the Earth’s surface, the rocks, the processes that created it -- with the physical understanding of the forces acting on it, as well as the physical properties, like the gravity and magnetic fields, of the Earth’s interior. And I think I was really drawn to the field because I saw a chance to use a more physical and mechanical approach to understanding the earth. It’s more of an engineering approach. We now pretty much understand the earthquakes along plate boundaries like the San Andreas. As the plates move past one another, the stresses in the earth’s crust result in earthquakes, but we still don't understand so well what happens in \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraplate_earthquake\">the middle of plates\u003c/a> and why we can potentially have really large earthquakes there.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is magnitude?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: Earthquake magnitude is a number that describes the relative size of an earthquake. I think one of the biggest confusions in the public’s mind is understanding what earthquake magnitude is and why seismologists give different magnitudes for the same earthquake. Often the media refers to a Richter magnitude, and I think there’s a sense among the public that there’s some “scale” around, [that there’s] a Richter “ruler” that people use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31663\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/hayward-fault.png\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31663\" title=\"hayward-fault320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/hayward-fault320.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"237\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of the Hayward Fault. Click on the image for a full-size map.Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In fact, the Richter magnitude was based on actually measuring the maximum motion of seismic waves as recorded on early seismographs. And that worked fine for small earthquakes in California. But those early instruments couldn’t record really large earthquakes, their recording pens literally pegged out. When we started getting modern digital instruments, all of a sudden we had enough bandwidth to record really large ground motions as well as the small motions with great accuracy. Seismologist then found that the Richter magnitude and other magnitudes related just to maximum motions of different parts of the seismic wave did not adequately measure the size of very large earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seismologist needed a better measure of magnitude. Today most seismologists and geologists have agreed to use a \u003cstrong>moment magnitude scale, \u003c/strong>which is based on the “seismic moment”. The seismic moment of an earthquake is related to the amount of energy released. It can be determined directly by the area (length X width) of the fault that broke, and the amount of \u003ca href=\"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=displacement\">displacement\u003c/a> on it. It’s also measured by looking at changes in the frequency content of the seismogram. So there’s two different ways of measuring it, and we get pretty consistent measurements.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the forecast for the Hayward Fault event?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: A whole California-wide earthquake forecast came out in 2008, and the Hayward Fault was identified as the second most dangerous fault in the state of California. They assigned about a 30% likelihood of a magnitude 6.7 or larger earthquake in the next 30 years. The highest likelihood was in Southern California, along the Southern San Andreas, where they estimated about a 60% chance of such an earthquake. On that stretch of the southern San Andreas Fault, we’ve got geologic evidence that on average, there’s been a big earthquake every 100 years over the last several thousand years. And we know from historic records that there hasn’t been one there for 300 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the length between the Hayward and the Calaveras Fault?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31670\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 320px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-31670\" title=\"haycal_3d320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d320.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"320\" height=\"310\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d320.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/haycal_3d320-32x32.jpg 32w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 320px) 100vw, 320px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">3-D view of the Hayward-Calaveras Fault junction. Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: The Bay Area has a whole series of sub-parallel faults. And traditionally, we had mapped the Calaveras Fault to the south, and then we had mapped the Hayward Fault further north, trending more northwesterly. And they seem to come close together, within a few miles, but never really completely join.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, some recent studies by scientists at the USGS looked at some very precisely located small earthquakes, and found a really surprising result. Although at the surface you can’t see any connection between the two faults, at depth these small earthquakes indicate the faults are actually connected. Now that’s really important because typically the size of an earthquake depends on the length of the fault that ruptures. And the maximum earthquake we could have if the entire Hayward Fault ruptured is about magnitude 7.1. But if you add an earthquake that would continue on to the Calaveras Fault, you could get a substantially large earthquake, maybe about a 7.4, which would have devastating impact across the region.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the range of damage?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: What we’ve also learned from recent earthquakes is that the actual rupture on the fault plane -- that is, the area of the fault that is slipping rapidly during an earthquake -- that rupture doesn’t happen all at once. It progresses along the fault. And what we’ve learned recently is that in the direction that the rupture progresses, you actually focus seismic energy in that direction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That’s important because if the earthquake began to the north, say near Point Pinole on the Hayward Fault and ruptured south, it would be pushing energy into San Jose and into the valleys that underlie San Jose. What could happen then is that seismic energy could get trapped in those valleys and just bounce back and forth, so it really extends the length of time of shaking and it actually amplifies the seismic waves, causing much greater damage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This phenomenon, which we call directivity, also indicates that the 1906 earthquake, as bad as it was, was probably a best-case scenario for an earthquake of that size in the Bay Area. The reason is that the 1906 earthquake began offshore from San Francisco, and it ruptured in two directions at once. It ruptured to the northwest and to the southeast. Both of those ruptures carried energy out of the Bay Area away from the main population center. We’ve been doing 3-D computer modeling to reproduce the 1906 shaking pattern and other potential future earthquakes. The modelers found that if that same earthquake began near Cape Mendocino on the San Andreas and ruptured southward, we’d have tremendous impact in the Bay Area, as all that seismic energy got focused and pushed into the Bay Area.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: Why is there expected such a major offset?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: The size of a potential earthquake depends on the length of fault that ruptures. The longer the fault, the larger the earthquake and the greater the potential offset. In 1906, the San Andreas ruptured 300 miles with a maximum horizontal offset of about 28 feet; that was a huge earthquake. The Loma Prieta earthquake only ruptured 25 miles with a maximum offset of less than seven feet. The Hayward fault will be something in between, with an offset of six to perhaps ten feet. The fact that we have a very long fault and we have a lot of evidence that that fault moved in the past in something like a magnitude 7.0 event, and that’s based on the fact that we can actually see evidence of past surface ruptures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What are the lengths of time between ruptures? \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: By literally digging trenches across faults, we get the past history of fault movement by looking at offset soil layers. We’ve been fortunate that for the Hayward Fault that we have a very good record that goes back about 2,000 years (if we dig any deeper in the soil we hit the water table). By dating the different layers of soil that are offset, geologists have been able to come up with an average -- what we call recurrence or repeat time -- for that earthquake. It’s roughly about 140 to 150 years. The last big event was in 1868, so we can do the math and find out that there is a high likelihood of a repeat of that event close to the 140\u003csup>th\u003c/sup> anniversary of that big quake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: Why is the Hayward Fault so dangerous?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: Two reasons: it has potential for very large earthquakes, and it runs right through a very built-up area. Unfortunately, in the Bay Area, we’ve got an awful lot of older residential buildings. We typically find these in the downtown areas of San Francisco, Oakland or Berkeley. Many of these older buildings are what we call “soft stories,” where the ground floor is an open space, typically a garage. When the whole ground floor is open and you get very strong horizontal shaking in an earthquake, the building starts moving backwards and forwards, and often that soft first story collapses.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of the people that were killed in Los Angeles in 1994 were killed in relatively new apartment buildings that also had open garage space on the ground floor, similar to the older buildings. There are also old concrete frame buildings built largely in the 1960s. These have insufficient steel reinforcing in the concrete frames and many may be collapse threats. Now, not all of them will collapse, but many of them will be damaged severely and unusable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the next Hayward Fault earthquake there’s going to be an awful lot of damage and destruction. Major roadways will be shut down, the soft water-saturated sandy deposits along the margin of the Bay are likely to liquefy, ripping apart the roads. These areas are also where we have airports as well as approaches to bridges. I think we can we assume transportation networks will have major disruptions and some destroyed. Water pipelines crossing the Hayward Fault may rupture and will likely be shut down for some time. There will also be fires because underground gas lines will rupture. There won’t be enough water to fight the fires. Power will be down. Communications will be down. There won’t be Internet, at least for a while, most likely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Transportation systems in addition to the roads will be disrupted. The BART train crosses the Hayward Fault twice, and actually a number of the stations are right along the fault. [The Transbay Tube] runs underneath the Bay; BART went to the public a couple of years ago to ask for a bond measure for a retrofit, admitting that they feel it’s likely the Tube would fail. By failing, they felt it would crack possibly allowing water to flood into the Tube, which would not be good if people were in there. The Hayward Fault also runs right across the opening of the Caldecott Tunnel in Oakland. All these things are going to be offset five, seven, eight feet laterally, so they’re not going to be functioning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What is the risk of post-earthquake fires?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: In 1906, most of the damage was caused by fires. But fire following earthquakes is always a huge threat here. We have lots of pipelines that are running underground, both gas and water. We have a bay, surrounded by wet, sandy soil, and when subjected to very strong shaking, that sandy soil liquefies, literally turns to something like quicksand and that flows and literally rips pipes apart. So you have gas pipe leaks -- you have a trigger for a fire to start. You have water pipe leaks, so it really hampers your ability to fight the fire. Another significant factor is that much of our buildings both residential and commercial are wood frame, which burns easily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: How many people would be exposed to an event?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK: \u003c/strong>If we actually look at what we call the footprint of this earthquake -- the area that would be strongly impacted -- that includes roughly 5 million people in the counties around the Bay Area. And if you look at the total value of the buildings, their contents, we’re talking about something like $1.4 trillion -- a huge number. So the losses are relative to that value.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: Why do you live here?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_31676\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 169px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/show_picture320.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-31676\" title=\"show_picture320\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/show_picture320-169x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"169\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Aftermath of the Loma Prieta earthquake in San Francisco on October 17, 1989. Roadbed collapse near the interface of the cantilever and truss sections of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. Credit: USGS.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: I think all of us get this question: “Why do you live here knowing all of this?” Well, we’re all making decisions every day about what risk we’re willing to accept. And it’s far riskier for us to drive on Highway 101 on a daily basis than to worry about an earthquake, because the likelihood of being involved in an accident is much higher. I think the difference, though, is that we all think we can manage our own personal risk, in how we drive, and that sort of thing. We can’t control when the next earthquake will occur or how large it’ll be. And I think the distressing thing is that when we start thinking about the ramifications and the true impacts, it’s so frightening that most of us are in denial, which means that we don't bother to take steps to get prepared, we are sort of betting that it’s not going happen to us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Q: What advice would you give to Bay Area residents?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>MARY LOU ZOBACK\u003c/strong>: I hope one outcome of the publicity about the earthquake threat in the Bay Area is not that people say, “It’s too awful to think about, I can’t deal with it,” but rather I hope that most of us are thinking about what we can do to control our own situation. Take charge of your safety, and be prepared. You don’t want to lose your home as a result of a natural disaster, because then you’ve lost everything.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s an awful lot that we can all do to make our situations better. Have the necessary supplies. Expect that you are going to be responsible for your family and your neighbors. Have a plan for your family to reunite.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recently there’s been a lot of talk among seismologists and engineers that probably the best goal for the Bay Area would be to have most people be able to shelter in place, that means that rather than go to shelters where we’ve seen horrific situations, stay in your home. It may be more like camping out, you may not have water and you may not have electricity. But they can drop off water and Porta-Johns at the end of your block. If your home survived the earthquake, you’re generally better off sheltering in place than wandering around, trying to find a shelter and being separated from all your possessions.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Although the ground beneath us seems solid, it’s actually in constant motion. We usually don’t see it, but we can experience it through earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earth's crust is broken up into irregular pieces called tectonic plates. These large pieces of crust were formed by the combination of gravity and rising heat from Earth's core. There are seven major plates and many smaller ones, all moving in relation to each other. The lithosphere refers to the crust and upper mantle that make up these plates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As tectonic plates move past each other along fault zones, they sometimes get stuck. Pressure builds, and when the plates finally give and slip, energy is released as seismic waves, causing the ground to shake. This is an earthquake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The focus is the place inside Earth’s crust where an earthquake originates. The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is the epicenter. When energy is released at the focus, seismic waves travel outward from that point in all directions. There are different types of seismic waves, each one traveling at varying speeds and motions. It's these waves that you feel during an earthquake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fault\u003c/strong>: A fracture in the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Epicenter\u003c/strong>: The point at the surface of the Earth above the focus\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Plates\u003c/strong>: Massive rocks that make up the outer layer of the Earth’s surface and whose movement along faults triggers earthquakes\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Seismic waves\u003c/strong>: Waves that transmit the energy released by an earthquake\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Focus (Hypocenter)\u003c/strong>: The point within the Earth where an earthquake rupture starts\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_77067\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-77067\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-1440x810.jpg\" alt=\"Click on the image above to enlarge and/or print. This image by KQED is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-77067\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-800x450.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Click on the image above to enlarge and/or print. This image by KQED is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>This post is part of \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/earthquakes\">Exploring Earthquakes\u003c/a>, a rich collection of resources co-presented by the California Academy of Sciences and KQED. This material is also available as a free \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/book/earthquake/id552255768?mt=11\">iBooks textbook\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/earthquake/id552092722\">iTunes U course\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Don’t miss \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/earthquake-life-on-a-dynamic-planet\">Earthquake\u003c/a>, an interactive exhibit at the Academy exploring the seismic forces that impact us today and featuring the Shake House, an earthquake simulator.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Although the ground beneath us seems solid, it’s actually in constant motion. We usually don’t see it, but we can experience it through earthquakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earth's crust is broken up into irregular pieces called tectonic plates. These large pieces of crust were formed by the combination of gravity and rising heat from Earth's core. There are seven major plates and many smaller ones, all moving in relation to each other. The lithosphere refers to the crust and upper mantle that make up these plates.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As tectonic plates move past each other along fault zones, they sometimes get stuck. Pressure builds, and when the plates finally give and slip, energy is released as seismic waves, causing the ground to shake. This is an earthquake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The focus is the place inside Earth’s crust where an earthquake originates. The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus is the epicenter. When energy is released at the focus, seismic waves travel outward from that point in all directions. There are different types of seismic waves, each one traveling at varying speeds and motions. It's these waves that you feel during an earthquake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fault\u003c/strong>: A fracture in the rocks that make up the Earth’s crust\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Epicenter\u003c/strong>: The point at the surface of the Earth above the focus\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Plates\u003c/strong>: Massive rocks that make up the outer layer of the Earth’s surface and whose movement along faults triggers earthquakes\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Seismic waves\u003c/strong>: Waves that transmit the energy released by an earthquake\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>Focus (Hypocenter)\u003c/strong>: The point within the Earth where an earthquake rupture starts\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_77067\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake.jpg\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-77067\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-1440x810.jpg\" alt=\"Click on the image above to enlarge and/or print. This image by KQED is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-77067\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-1440x810.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-800x450.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-1180x664.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/infographic_anatomyofanearthquake-960x540.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Click on the image above to enlarge and/or print. This image by KQED is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>This post is part of \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/earthquakes\">Exploring Earthquakes\u003c/a>, a rich collection of resources co-presented by the California Academy of Sciences and KQED. This material is also available as a free \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/book/earthquake/id552255768?mt=11\">iBooks textbook\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/earthquake/id552092722\">iTunes U course\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Don’t miss \u003ca href=\"https://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/earthquake-life-on-a-dynamic-planet\">Earthquake\u003c/a>, an interactive exhibit at the Academy exploring the seismic forces that impact us today and featuring the Shake House, an earthquake simulator.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Napa Glass Mountain",
"title": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Napa Glass Mountain",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30065\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidiantop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30065\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiantop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidiantop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30065\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A nodule of Napa Glass Mountain obsidian, etched by hydration during its long burial, reveals signs of its origin as a thick, sticky lava. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Napa Valley is an intriguing place even if wine doesn't interest you. Its very geography has an intangible personality. Running north-south, the valley is lit differently throughout the course of the day. It has the flat valley floor along the Napa River that you'd expect in a major agricultural region, but odd rocky hills are scattered about the valley with the irregularity of tossed pebbles. On behalf of Napa Valley winegrowers, geologists have studied the underlying soils and rocks, tracing from them a history of tectonic upheaval, recent volcanism and gigantic landslides.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The western side of the valley is the Mayacamas Mountains, here made up largely of marine sedimentary rocks of the Franciscan and Great Valley complexes (100 to 150 million years old). The eastern side is the Vaca Mountains, which consists mostly of much younger lavas of the Sonoma Volcanics (less than 5 m.y.). Here it is in a simplified geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30067\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/napavalleymap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30067\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/napavalleymap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"napavalleymap\" width=\"500\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30067\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/napavalleymap.png 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/napavalleymap-400x360.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The valley floor consists of recent sediments (Q) while young volcanics (T) and older sedimentary rocks line its sides. From USGS Scientific Investigations Map 2956.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Each set of rocks responds its own way to California climate and yields its own set of soils, and the floodplain between them mixes the two in different blends. Its wide range of soils and settings is part of what makes the Napa Valley such an endless playground for winegrowers. The same was true in prehistoric times, when the valley was a rich habitat for the Wappo and Patwin tribes and other peoples before them. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And this brings us to Napa Glass Mountain. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The natives made their cutting and scraping tools as needed, chipping them from stone of a few select kinds. The best toolstone is obsidian—a glasslike lava without crystals or bubbles that would mar the sharp edges and flat faces of an effective tool. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Obsidian is uncommon. To make it, a lava must have both a very high silica content and a low water content; it also helps to cool quickly. High-silica lava is classified as rhyolite and the Sonoma Volcanics field has plenty, but few rhyolites yield obsidian. Notable sources for the natives in this part of California were Annadel near Santa Rosa, Borax Lake near Clear Lake, and Napa Glass Mountain, which is just north of the town of St. Helena. Toolstone was an important trade item, and archaeologists map its distribution in ancient sites as clues to prehistoric commerce.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Napa obsidian is a stone of a luscious pure black, and you can see it in a large roadcut on the Silverado Trail north of St. Helena at the narrowest point of the Napa River's floodplain. Here's a closeup geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30066\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/glassmtnmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30066\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/glassmtnmap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"glassmtnmap\" width=\"600\" height=\"350\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30066\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/glassmtnmap.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/glassmtnmap-400x233.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pinkish units are part of the Sonoma Volcanics (Tsa, Tsr, etc.), gray units are Franciscan rocks, units with \"Q\" are recent sediments. From USGS Scientific Investigations Map 2956.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The roadcut is just north of the intersection with Lodi Lane; you can park on either side of the road but be careful of traffic. The exposure is tall and shows the crude bedding of the mixed ash and lava beds, now highly weathered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidiancrop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30069\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiancrop.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidiancrop\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-30069\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiancrop.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiancrop-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Obsidian occurs scattered in a whitish matrix in fractured lumps up to a meter long. The matrix may be altered material that was once obsidian, and/or it may consist of fine rhyolite ash—I have not studied it closely enough to hazard a guess. Parts of it may actually be perlite, a lightweight stone that forms where rhyolite reacts with internal water. Obsidian does not last long in the geologic record because its crystal-free substance is prone to attack by chemical weathering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidianpod/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30070\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianpod.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidianpod\" width=\"600\" height=\"442\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-30070\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianpod.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianpod-400x295.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You don't need to dig into the cliffs; let other people who actually use obsidian do that risky operation. Instead, poke around your feet and look for bits like these.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidianbits/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30068\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianbits.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidianbits\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-30068\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianbits.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianbits-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outsides are rough and coated with white hydration rinds, but inside they display their creamy texture and lustrous conchoidal fracture, the properties that make obsidian the ideal toolstone. Don't be greedy. And be ready to tell passers-by, like the curious police officer I spoke to during my last visit, what this cool place is all about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More:\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_igrocks/ig/obsidian/\">Obsidian photo gallery\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicperlite.htm\">Perlite\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicrhyolite.htm\">Rhyolite\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/stone_age_tech/a/stonetools.htm\">Stone Tools\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "A Napa Valley roadcut was once a strategic resource center for the local inhabitants. Today it still draws visitors seeking out that resource: obsidian.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30065\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidiantop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30065\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiantop-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidiantop\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-30065\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A nodule of Napa Glass Mountain obsidian, etched by hydration during its long burial, reveals signs of its origin as a thick, sticky lava. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Napa Valley is an intriguing place even if wine doesn't interest you. Its very geography has an intangible personality. Running north-south, the valley is lit differently throughout the course of the day. It has the flat valley floor along the Napa River that you'd expect in a major agricultural region, but odd rocky hills are scattered about the valley with the irregularity of tossed pebbles. On behalf of Napa Valley winegrowers, geologists have studied the underlying soils and rocks, tracing from them a history of tectonic upheaval, recent volcanism and gigantic landslides.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The western side of the valley is the Mayacamas Mountains, here made up largely of marine sedimentary rocks of the Franciscan and Great Valley complexes (100 to 150 million years old). The eastern side is the Vaca Mountains, which consists mostly of much younger lavas of the Sonoma Volcanics (less than 5 m.y.). Here it is in a simplified geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30067\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/napavalleymap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30067\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/napavalleymap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"napavalleymap\" width=\"500\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30067\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/napavalleymap.png 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/napavalleymap-400x360.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The valley floor consists of recent sediments (Q) while young volcanics (T) and older sedimentary rocks line its sides. From USGS Scientific Investigations Map 2956.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Each set of rocks responds its own way to California climate and yields its own set of soils, and the floodplain between them mixes the two in different blends. Its wide range of soils and settings is part of what makes the Napa Valley such an endless playground for winegrowers. The same was true in prehistoric times, when the valley was a rich habitat for the Wappo and Patwin tribes and other peoples before them. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And this brings us to Napa Glass Mountain. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The natives made their cutting and scraping tools as needed, chipping them from stone of a few select kinds. The best toolstone is obsidian—a glasslike lava without crystals or bubbles that would mar the sharp edges and flat faces of an effective tool. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Obsidian is uncommon. To make it, a lava must have both a very high silica content and a low water content; it also helps to cool quickly. High-silica lava is classified as rhyolite and the Sonoma Volcanics field has plenty, but few rhyolites yield obsidian. Notable sources for the natives in this part of California were Annadel near Santa Rosa, Borax Lake near Clear Lake, and Napa Glass Mountain, which is just north of the town of St. Helena. Toolstone was an important trade item, and archaeologists map its distribution in ancient sites as clues to prehistoric commerce.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Napa obsidian is a stone of a luscious pure black, and you can see it in a large roadcut on the Silverado Trail north of St. Helena at the narrowest point of the Napa River's floodplain. Here's a closeup geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_30066\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/glassmtnmap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30066\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/glassmtnmap.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"glassmtnmap\" width=\"600\" height=\"350\" class=\"size-full wp-image-30066\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/glassmtnmap.png 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/glassmtnmap-400x233.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pinkish units are part of the Sonoma Volcanics (Tsa, Tsr, etc.), gray units are Franciscan rocks, units with \"Q\" are recent sediments. From USGS Scientific Investigations Map 2956.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The roadcut is just north of the intersection with Lodi Lane; you can park on either side of the road but be careful of traffic. The exposure is tall and shows the crude bedding of the mixed ash and lava beds, now highly weathered.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidiancrop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30069\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiancrop.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidiancrop\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-30069\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiancrop.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidiancrop-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Obsidian occurs scattered in a whitish matrix in fractured lumps up to a meter long. The matrix may be altered material that was once obsidian, and/or it may consist of fine rhyolite ash—I have not studied it closely enough to hazard a guess. Parts of it may actually be perlite, a lightweight stone that forms where rhyolite reacts with internal water. Obsidian does not last long in the geologic record because its crystal-free substance is prone to attack by chemical weathering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidianpod/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30070\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianpod.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidianpod\" width=\"600\" height=\"442\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-30070\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianpod.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianpod-400x295.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You don't need to dig into the cliffs; let other people who actually use obsidian do that risky operation. Instead, poke around your feet and look for bits like these.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/02/02/geological-outings-around-the-bay-napa-glass-mountain/obsidianbits/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-30068\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianbits.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"obsidianbits\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-30068\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianbits.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/02/obsidianbits-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outsides are rough and coated with white hydration rinds, but inside they display their creamy texture and lustrous conchoidal fracture, the properties that make obsidian the ideal toolstone. Don't be greedy. And be ready to tell passers-by, like the curious police officer I spoke to during my last visit, what this cool place is all about.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More:\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/more_igrocks/ig/obsidian/\">Obsidian photo gallery\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicperlite.htm\">Perlite\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/rocks/ig/igrockindex/rocpicrhyolite.htm\">Rhyolite\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/stone_age_tech/a/stonetools.htm\">Stone Tools\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Mount Vaca and the Monticello Dam",
"title": "Geological Outings Around the Bay: Mount Vaca and the Monticello Dam",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29810\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/devilsgate/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29810\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"devilsgate\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-29810\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Monticello Dam occupies Devils Gate, a deep cleft in the massive sandstones of the Great Valley Sequence. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This outing visits two great landmarks of the northeastern Bay Area—one highly visible, the other well hidden. Both feature the same body of rock: the mighty Great Valley Sequence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of Northern California's bedrock is part of just three large bodies: the granite of the Sierra, the metamorphic rocks of the Coast Range, and the sedimentary rocks of the Central Valley. All three are parts of one entity: a former subduction zone. Picture the Pacific seafloor plate being carried eastward against the North American continental plate and plunging underneath it—subduction. (That's the exact situation today in the Pacific Northwest, and along the whole west coast of South America.) The descending oceanic plate releases fluids into the continental plate above it, which generate magma and big chains of volcanoes. At the same time, the continent scrapes off pieces of the plunging oceanic plate like the bottom of an escalator gathers trash. The volcanoes quickly erode into sediment, which washes offshore in thick beds of sand, boulders and silt. The Sierra is the exposed roots of the volcano belt, the Franciscan Complex is the scraped-off stuff, and the Great Valley Sequence is the offshore sediment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That all happened long ago, and since then the San Andreas fault has slowly ripped apart the neatly organized subduction zone. At the same time, pressure across the fault has pushed up the Coast Range and curled up the edge of the thick blanket of sedimentary rock in the Central Valley. The arrangement is still close to its original simplicity north of the Bay Area, as this map shows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29813\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/gtvalymap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29813\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvalymap.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"gtvalymap\" width=\"640\" height=\"404\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29813\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Modified from USGS Open-File Report 90-226\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Below is a closer view of the setting for today's outing. The south end of that long ribbon of Great Valley Sequence rocks is the Vaca Mountains, and the highest part of the range is a sharp hogback called Blue Ridge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29816\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/vacamap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29816\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacamap.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"vacamap\" width=\"640\" height=\"531\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29816\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacamap.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacamap-400x332.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">From USGS map MF-2403, \"Geologic Map of the Northeastern San Francisco Bay Region\"\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Mount Vaca is its highest point, at the west edge of the leftmost green ribbon to the left of the \"i\" in \"Ridge.\" If you follow that geologic boundary north, it meets the dam that created Lake Berryessa, Monticello Dam. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blue Ridge is a massive landmark wherever you are in the Napa County hills or the southern Sacramento Valley. It's high, long and straight. West of Winters its profile is interrupted by a big notch. This is the Berryessa water gap, carved by the waters of Putah Creek as the ridge rose across it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You reach Mount Vaca by taking Pleasants Valley Road north from Fairfield. Two very steep roads go up the mountain, Gates Canyon and Mix Canyon roads. Take Mix Canyon Road (trust me, don't take Gates) and watch carefully for cyclists and descending vehicles. Soon you'll start seeing Great Valley rocks like this thick-bedded sandstone, tilted almost vertical. The sequence is estimated to be about 13 kilometers thick, representing some 80 million years of steady erosion of the Sierra highland into a nearby shallow sea (a foreland basin). The basin steadily sank from the load, like the Louisiana coast does under the sediment load from the Mississippi River.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29814\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/gtvlyss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29814\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvlySS.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gtvlySS\" width=\"600\" height=\"430\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29814\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvlySS.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvlySS-400x287.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The rocks grow younger from west (right) to east (left).\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At the top of Mix Canyon Road, a spur marked \"Private\" goes left. Go ahead and take it to reach Mount Vaca. The right-hand way, Blue Ridge Road, is also highly scenic. Two-wheel drive is OK, but drive cautiously. The views from along the top of Blue Ridge are fantastic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/diablofromvaca/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29811\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/diablofromvaca.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"diablofromvaca\" width=\"600\" height=\"365\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29811\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/diablofromvaca.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/diablofromvaca-400x243.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29809\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/vacavines/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29809\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacavines.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"vacavines\" width=\"600\" height=\"414\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29809\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacavines.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacavines-400x276.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Grapevines and Mount Tamalpais from Blue Ridge. At about 2600 feet, this may be the highest vineyard in California.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The ridgeline rocks are massively bedded sandstone of the Venado Formation, roughly 91 million years old. We'll get a better look at them next, at Devil's Gate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Return down to Pleasants Valley Road and resume heading north. Notice the recent downcutting of the stream here. Turn west on state route 128 and head up the canyon of Putah Creek. Instead of climbing Blue Ridge, we're cutting through it. Devil's Gate is the deepest part of the canyon, where the stream crosses the Venado Formation, and the best spot to build the Monticello Dam.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/devilsgate/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29810\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"devilsgate\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-29810\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On both sides of the dam, the Venado is beautifully exposed. This is the natural exposure on the far side of the dam. Roadcuts on the near side expose the Venado in real detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/monticellowall/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29815\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/monticellowall.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"monticellowall\" width=\"600\" height=\"403\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-29815\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/monticellowall.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/monticellowall-400x269.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Lake Berryessa is high, you may be treated to the sight of the dam's \"Glory Hole\" overflow structure, an endless circular waterfall that I photographed in action in May 2006.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/gloryhole/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29812\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gloryhole.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gloryhole\" width=\"600\" height=\"461\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-29812\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gloryhole.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gloryhole-400x307.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Visit two great landmarks of the northeastern Bay Area—one highly visible, the other well hidden—featuring the same body of rock.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29810\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/devilsgate/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29810\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"devilsgate\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-29810\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Monticello Dam occupies Devils Gate, a deep cleft in the massive sandstones of the Great Valley Sequence. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>This outing visits two great landmarks of the northeastern Bay Area—one highly visible, the other well hidden. Both feature the same body of rock: the mighty Great Valley Sequence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of Northern California's bedrock is part of just three large bodies: the granite of the Sierra, the metamorphic rocks of the Coast Range, and the sedimentary rocks of the Central Valley. All three are parts of one entity: a former subduction zone. Picture the Pacific seafloor plate being carried eastward against the North American continental plate and plunging underneath it—subduction. (That's the exact situation today in the Pacific Northwest, and along the whole west coast of South America.) The descending oceanic plate releases fluids into the continental plate above it, which generate magma and big chains of volcanoes. At the same time, the continent scrapes off pieces of the plunging oceanic plate like the bottom of an escalator gathers trash. The volcanoes quickly erode into sediment, which washes offshore in thick beds of sand, boulders and silt. The Sierra is the exposed roots of the volcano belt, the Franciscan Complex is the scraped-off stuff, and the Great Valley Sequence is the offshore sediment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That all happened long ago, and since then the San Andreas fault has slowly ripped apart the neatly organized subduction zone. At the same time, pressure across the fault has pushed up the Coast Range and curled up the edge of the thick blanket of sedimentary rock in the Central Valley. The arrangement is still close to its original simplicity north of the Bay Area, as this map shows.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29813\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/gtvalymap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29813\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvalymap.gif\" alt=\"\" title=\"gtvalymap\" width=\"640\" height=\"404\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29813\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Modified from USGS Open-File Report 90-226\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Below is a closer view of the setting for today's outing. The south end of that long ribbon of Great Valley Sequence rocks is the Vaca Mountains, and the highest part of the range is a sharp hogback called Blue Ridge.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29816\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/vacamap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29816\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacamap.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"vacamap\" width=\"640\" height=\"531\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29816\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacamap.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacamap-400x332.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">From USGS map MF-2403, \"Geologic Map of the Northeastern San Francisco Bay Region\"\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Mount Vaca is its highest point, at the west edge of the leftmost green ribbon to the left of the \"i\" in \"Ridge.\" If you follow that geologic boundary north, it meets the dam that created Lake Berryessa, Monticello Dam. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blue Ridge is a massive landmark wherever you are in the Napa County hills or the southern Sacramento Valley. It's high, long and straight. West of Winters its profile is interrupted by a big notch. This is the Berryessa water gap, carved by the waters of Putah Creek as the ridge rose across it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You reach Mount Vaca by taking Pleasants Valley Road north from Fairfield. Two very steep roads go up the mountain, Gates Canyon and Mix Canyon roads. Take Mix Canyon Road (trust me, don't take Gates) and watch carefully for cyclists and descending vehicles. Soon you'll start seeing Great Valley rocks like this thick-bedded sandstone, tilted almost vertical. The sequence is estimated to be about 13 kilometers thick, representing some 80 million years of steady erosion of the Sierra highland into a nearby shallow sea (a foreland basin). The basin steadily sank from the load, like the Louisiana coast does under the sediment load from the Mississippi River.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29814\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/gtvlyss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29814\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvlySS.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gtvlySS\" width=\"600\" height=\"430\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29814\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvlySS.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gtvlySS-400x287.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The rocks grow younger from west (right) to east (left).\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At the top of Mix Canyon Road, a spur marked \"Private\" goes left. Go ahead and take it to reach Mount Vaca. The right-hand way, Blue Ridge Road, is also highly scenic. Two-wheel drive is OK, but drive cautiously. The views from along the top of Blue Ridge are fantastic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/diablofromvaca/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29811\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/diablofromvaca.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"diablofromvaca\" width=\"600\" height=\"365\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29811\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/diablofromvaca.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/diablofromvaca-400x243.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29809\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/vacavines/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29809\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacavines.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"vacavines\" width=\"600\" height=\"414\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29809\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacavines.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/vacavines-400x276.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Grapevines and Mount Tamalpais from Blue Ridge. At about 2600 feet, this may be the highest vineyard in California.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The ridgeline rocks are massively bedded sandstone of the Venado Formation, roughly 91 million years old. We'll get a better look at them next, at Devil's Gate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Return down to Pleasants Valley Road and resume heading north. Notice the recent downcutting of the stream here. Turn west on state route 128 and head up the canyon of Putah Creek. Instead of climbing Blue Ridge, we're cutting through it. Devil's Gate is the deepest part of the canyon, where the stream crosses the Venado Formation, and the best spot to build the Monticello Dam.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/devilsgate/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29810\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"devilsgate\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-29810\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/devilsgate-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On both sides of the dam, the Venado is beautifully exposed. This is the natural exposure on the far side of the dam. Roadcuts on the near side expose the Venado in real detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/monticellowall/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29815\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/monticellowall.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"monticellowall\" width=\"600\" height=\"403\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-29815\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/monticellowall.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/monticellowall-400x269.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Lake Berryessa is high, you may be treated to the sight of the dam's \"Glory Hole\" overflow structure, an endless circular waterfall that I photographed in action in May 2006.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/26/geological-outings-around-the-bay-mount-vaca-and-the-monticello-dam/gloryhole/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29812\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gloryhole.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"gloryhole\" width=\"600\" height=\"461\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-29812\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gloryhole.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/gloryhole-400x307.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Treasure from the Sky",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29538\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/meteoritetop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29538\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritetop.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"meteoritetop\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29538\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritetop.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritetop-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">To those who know rocks, this chondrite meteorite could not be mistaken for an Earthly stone. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The other week I mentioned, in \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/12/confounding-concretions/\">talking about concretions\u003c/a>, that people can be fixated on the idea that they have found a dinosaur egg or meteorite. This last week meteorites featured in two news stories, one excitingly true and the other almost certainly bogus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The exciting story was about a set of meteorites recovered in the desert of Morocco, a few months after their fall from space had been recorded. That doesn't happen very often—once meteors arrive in the atmosphere, their unguided trajectory means that a rather large area must be searched to find them. What was extraordinary was that these rocks were from Mars, \u003ca href=\"http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hH-S9IfUThOHwaT8hY2e2W_x8FbQ\">certified as such this week by an expert scientific panel\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorite hunting has become a cottage industry in the Sahara Desert, where conditions are ideal for space rocks to be preserved and for practiced observers to spot them. The locals who found the new Martian rocks sold them to dealers, who in turn marked up the price to almost a thousand dollars per gram even before the meteorites were formally certified as Martian.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorites are most easily found in two places on Earth, the Sahara and Antarctica. In the case of Antarctica, they fall on the ice cap, where no other rocks exist at all. Movements of the ice can concentrate these meteorites, including the rarest stones from Mars and the Moon, in certain areas that are surveyed regularly and exclusively by scientists. That's good for science. For its part, the Sahara is good for the rest of us who can acquire these rarities for our own pleasure. And scientists can still study Saharan stones because meteorite hunters must donate pieces of their finds to a museum to qualify for authentication, without which the stones have no value. It's a tidy system with little impact on the environment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The California deserts are also promising places for meteorite hunters. At least one Martian stone has already come from the Mojave. Meteorite hunting is simple in principle, yes, but far from a casual hobby. First you acquire a very intimate knowledge of the rocks that belong there, and then you examine approximately a million rocks to find one that doesn't belong there. And with that, you \u003ci>start\u003c/i> to learn about meteorites. I love rocks inordinately, but I think I would still go mad. Dr. Randy Korotev is a genuine meteorite expert at Washington University who gets torrents of email from would-be meteorite finders. On \u003ca href=\"http://meteorites.wustl.edu/what_to_do.htm\">his excellent \"What to Do\" page\u003c/a>, he says that of over 2000 serious inquiries over the years, only eight people had real meteorites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Easier to dream of fabulous wealth falling into your back yard. That dream, fed by an extremely rare handful of true stories, can blind people to the obvious. And that leads me to the Castro Valley man who got a reporter to feature his story \u003ca href=\"http://www.mercurynews.com/news/ci_19738810\">in the \u003ci>San Jose Mercury News\u003c/i> last week\u003c/a>. His story did not even point to a meteorite, let alone prove it. He said he responded to his dog's barking and found a fresh pit in his back yard with a smoking, red-hot stone in it. That scenario is a old urban legend about meteorites that is never true. He said he talked to experts from Lawrence Livermore National Lab, who had him hold a magnet against the stone and try to cut off a piece of it. He claimed that after finding it both non-magnetic and hard enough to break a hacksaw blade, those experts told him that was positive evidence. None of that is what an expert would say. And the object he showed a photographer had a silvery color and finish (which could not be iron because it was non-magnetic), and a multiply-layered structure that is very common in Earth rocks. In short, it looked nothing like a fresh meteorite and everything like an ordinary metamorphic rock. But he was fervent enough in his belief to fool a reporter, and at least one editor, into running the story anyway. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29539\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/meteoritecrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29539\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritecrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"meteoritecrust\" width=\"600\" height=\"427\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29539\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritecrust.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritecrust-400x285.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This is the back side of the chondrite shown at the top. Note the dark fusion crust and the hollows, called regmaglypts, carved by erosion in passing through the Earth's atmosphere. And a magnet sticks to it because it has small grains of iron metal throughout it.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Easier to save up some of your birthday money and buy a nice little meteorite at a rock show from a large, well-run dealership. My advice is to wait until the afternoon of the last day for the best price; dealers hate to pack up their inventory. That's how I got my 1/3-pound chunk of meteoritic nickel-iron from the Sikhote-Alin fall. There's nothing like the feeling of this ancient space metal in your hand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29540\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/meteoriteiron/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29540\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoriteiron.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"meteoriteiron\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29540\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoriteiron.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoriteiron-400x307.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Sikhote-Alin fall occurred in eastern Siberia in 1947. Specimens like this are readily available.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've written \u003ca href=\"http://www.imca.cc/mars/martian-meteorites.htm\">more about Martian and lunar meteorites\u003c/a> on my About.com site. I also have a \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/meteorites/ig/meteorites/\">photo gallery\u003c/a> there. Dr. Tony Irving has a deep and erudite \u003ca href=\"http://www.imca.cc/mars/martian-meteorites.htm\">page on Martian meteorites\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29538\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/meteoritetop/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29538\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritetop.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"meteoritetop\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29538\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritetop.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritetop-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">To those who know rocks, this chondrite meteorite could not be mistaken for an Earthly stone. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The other week I mentioned, in \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/12/confounding-concretions/\">talking about concretions\u003c/a>, that people can be fixated on the idea that they have found a dinosaur egg or meteorite. This last week meteorites featured in two news stories, one excitingly true and the other almost certainly bogus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The exciting story was about a set of meteorites recovered in the desert of Morocco, a few months after their fall from space had been recorded. That doesn't happen very often—once meteors arrive in the atmosphere, their unguided trajectory means that a rather large area must be searched to find them. What was extraordinary was that these rocks were from Mars, \u003ca href=\"http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hH-S9IfUThOHwaT8hY2e2W_x8FbQ\">certified as such this week by an expert scientific panel\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorite hunting has become a cottage industry in the Sahara Desert, where conditions are ideal for space rocks to be preserved and for practiced observers to spot them. The locals who found the new Martian rocks sold them to dealers, who in turn marked up the price to almost a thousand dollars per gram even before the meteorites were formally certified as Martian.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meteorites are most easily found in two places on Earth, the Sahara and Antarctica. In the case of Antarctica, they fall on the ice cap, where no other rocks exist at all. Movements of the ice can concentrate these meteorites, including the rarest stones from Mars and the Moon, in certain areas that are surveyed regularly and exclusively by scientists. That's good for science. For its part, the Sahara is good for the rest of us who can acquire these rarities for our own pleasure. And scientists can still study Saharan stones because meteorite hunters must donate pieces of their finds to a museum to qualify for authentication, without which the stones have no value. It's a tidy system with little impact on the environment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The California deserts are also promising places for meteorite hunters. At least one Martian stone has already come from the Mojave. Meteorite hunting is simple in principle, yes, but far from a casual hobby. First you acquire a very intimate knowledge of the rocks that belong there, and then you examine approximately a million rocks to find one that doesn't belong there. And with that, you \u003ci>start\u003c/i> to learn about meteorites. I love rocks inordinately, but I think I would still go mad. Dr. Randy Korotev is a genuine meteorite expert at Washington University who gets torrents of email from would-be meteorite finders. On \u003ca href=\"http://meteorites.wustl.edu/what_to_do.htm\">his excellent \"What to Do\" page\u003c/a>, he says that of over 2000 serious inquiries over the years, only eight people had real meteorites. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Easier to dream of fabulous wealth falling into your back yard. That dream, fed by an extremely rare handful of true stories, can blind people to the obvious. And that leads me to the Castro Valley man who got a reporter to feature his story \u003ca href=\"http://www.mercurynews.com/news/ci_19738810\">in the \u003ci>San Jose Mercury News\u003c/i> last week\u003c/a>. His story did not even point to a meteorite, let alone prove it. He said he responded to his dog's barking and found a fresh pit in his back yard with a smoking, red-hot stone in it. That scenario is a old urban legend about meteorites that is never true. He said he talked to experts from Lawrence Livermore National Lab, who had him hold a magnet against the stone and try to cut off a piece of it. He claimed that after finding it both non-magnetic and hard enough to break a hacksaw blade, those experts told him that was positive evidence. None of that is what an expert would say. And the object he showed a photographer had a silvery color and finish (which could not be iron because it was non-magnetic), and a multiply-layered structure that is very common in Earth rocks. In short, it looked nothing like a fresh meteorite and everything like an ordinary metamorphic rock. But he was fervent enough in his belief to fool a reporter, and at least one editor, into running the story anyway. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29539\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/meteoritecrust/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29539\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritecrust.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"meteoritecrust\" width=\"600\" height=\"427\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29539\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritecrust.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoritecrust-400x285.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This is the back side of the chondrite shown at the top. Note the dark fusion crust and the hollows, called regmaglypts, carved by erosion in passing through the Earth's atmosphere. And a magnet sticks to it because it has small grains of iron metal throughout it.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Easier to save up some of your birthday money and buy a nice little meteorite at a rock show from a large, well-run dealership. My advice is to wait until the afternoon of the last day for the best price; dealers hate to pack up their inventory. That's how I got my 1/3-pound chunk of meteoritic nickel-iron from the Sikhote-Alin fall. There's nothing like the feeling of this ancient space metal in your hand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_29540\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/meteoriteiron/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-29540\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoriteiron.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"meteoriteiron\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" class=\"size-full wp-image-29540\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoriteiron.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/01/meteoriteiron-400x307.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Sikhote-Alin fall occurred in eastern Siberia in 1947. Specimens like this are readily available.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've written \u003ca href=\"http://www.imca.cc/mars/martian-meteorites.htm\">more about Martian and lunar meteorites\u003c/a> on my About.com site. I also have a \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/meteorites/ig/meteorites/\">photo gallery\u003c/a> there. Dr. Tony Irving has a deep and erudite \u003ca href=\"http://www.imca.cc/mars/martian-meteorites.htm\">page on Martian meteorites\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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