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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_hulk.jpg\">\u003cem>Most of us are killed after receiving\u003cbr>\na large dose of gamma rays. For a select few,\u003cbr>\nthe exposure can unleash our inner demons.\u003cbr>\nImage courtesy of\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.hulkmovie.com/navigation/multimedia.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.hulkmovie.com/navigation/multimedia.htm\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Continuing on the theme of \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/04/23/why-does-it-matter-part-ii/\">Supernovae \u003c/a>from my last posting, I’ll take this opportunity to address an earlier question that was asked by one of my loyal readers: “Perhaps your thoughts on the controversial topic of the effect of Gamma Rays on humans?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Being a Berkeleyite and working at the home (\u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov\" target=\"_blank\">www.lbl.gov\u003c/a>) of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.aip.org/isns/reports/2003/066.html\" target=\"_blank\">Gammasphere\u003c/a>, I can’t help thinking of the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulk_(comics)\" target=\"_blank\">Incredible Hulk\u003c/a> when I read this question. In Marvel Comics, the Incredible Hulk was born when a brilliant but emotionally repressed Berkeley Physicist was exposed to an enormous dose of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray\" target=\"_blank\">gamma radiation\u003c/a> from his failed experiment. The genetic mutations from the exposure released his dark, hidden emotions in the persona of a savage dark green monster - a superhero with little wit or self-control.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like visible light, gamma radiation is carried by photons. However, each photon in the \u003ca href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html\" target=\"_blank\">gamma region of the electromagnetic spectrum\u003c/a> has millions of times more energy than a red or blue photon that we see with our eyes. With so much energy, a gamma photon is capable of doing great damage by knocking the electrons around in living tissue like a pinball machine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_hst.jpg\">\u003cem>The Veil supernova remnant.Credit: J. J. Hester (Arizona State University),\u003cbr>\nWFPC, HST, NASA*\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The largest source of gamma radiation is believed to be short, but intense \u003ca href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/introduction/bursts.html\" target=\"_blank\">gamma ray bursts\u003c/a>. We are unsure of the exact nature of gamma ray bursts, but we suspect they may be the associated with supernovae. The intensity of a gamma ray burst implies that some energy from a supernova blast is focused like a laser beam. If this assumption is correct, then only a small fraction of supernova blasts will direct that beam of gamma rays at Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All gamma ray bursts that have been detected are well outside our galaxy, often billions of light years away. For a supernova or gamma ray burst to do any damage, it has to be well within the Milky Way. For more information on X-ray and gamma ray exposure from a nearby supernova, \u003ca href=\"http://stupendous.rit.edu/richmond/answers/snrisks.txt\" target=\"_blank\">check out some rough calculations\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We are fortunate that supernova blasts are rare, occurring once every few hundred years in the Milky Way. Gamma ray blasts in the Milky Way are much rarer. Some scientists suspect that there may have been at most a few such \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/gammaray_bursts_010522-1.html\" target=\"_blank\">explosions\u003c/a> in the Earth’s four billion-year history. If so, it’s only a matter of time before we get hit again. I know it’s not particularly good news, but at least we know the Hulk will rise again.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>* \u003cem>Remains of a supernova located 2600 light years away. This supernova is believed to have exploded about 15,000 years ago and should not have posed any threats to a human population that was patiently awaiting the end of the most recent ice age.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_hulk.jpg\">\u003cem>Most of us are killed after receiving\u003cbr>\na large dose of gamma rays. For a select few,\u003cbr>\nthe exposure can unleash our inner demons.\u003cbr>\nImage courtesy of\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.hulkmovie.com/navigation/multimedia.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http://www.hulkmovie.com/navigation/multimedia.htm\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Continuing on the theme of \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/04/23/why-does-it-matter-part-ii/\">Supernovae \u003c/a>from my last posting, I’ll take this opportunity to address an earlier question that was asked by one of my loyal readers: “Perhaps your thoughts on the controversial topic of the effect of Gamma Rays on humans?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Being a Berkeleyite and working at the home (\u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov\" target=\"_blank\">www.lbl.gov\u003c/a>) of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.aip.org/isns/reports/2003/066.html\" target=\"_blank\">Gammasphere\u003c/a>, I can’t help thinking of the \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulk_(comics)\" target=\"_blank\">Incredible Hulk\u003c/a> when I read this question. In Marvel Comics, the Incredible Hulk was born when a brilliant but emotionally repressed Berkeley Physicist was exposed to an enormous dose of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray\" target=\"_blank\">gamma radiation\u003c/a> from his failed experiment. The genetic mutations from the exposure released his dark, hidden emotions in the persona of a savage dark green monster - a superhero with little wit or self-control.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like visible light, gamma radiation is carried by photons. However, each photon in the \u003ca href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html\" target=\"_blank\">gamma region of the electromagnetic spectrum\u003c/a> has millions of times more energy than a red or blue photon that we see with our eyes. With so much energy, a gamma photon is capable of doing great damage by knocking the electrons around in living tissue like a pinball machine.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_hst.jpg\">\u003cem>The Veil supernova remnant.Credit: J. J. Hester (Arizona State University),\u003cbr>\nWFPC, HST, NASA*\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The largest source of gamma radiation is believed to be short, but intense \u003ca href=\"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/introduction/bursts.html\" target=\"_blank\">gamma ray bursts\u003c/a>. We are unsure of the exact nature of gamma ray bursts, but we suspect they may be the associated with supernovae. The intensity of a gamma ray burst implies that some energy from a supernova blast is focused like a laser beam. If this assumption is correct, then only a small fraction of supernova blasts will direct that beam of gamma rays at Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_insulin.jpg\">\u003c/span>Quite a title huh? But some new research in \u003ca href=\"http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/297/14/1568\">JAMA\u003c/a> suggests that it is true. At least these 14 patients haven't had to inject insulin for 1-35 months (so far).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These folks were all on their way to having \u003ca href=\"http://www.diabetes.org/type-1-diabetes.jsp\">Type 1\u003c/a> diabetes. As you probably know, Type 1 diabetes happens when a patient’s immune system destroys \u003ca href=\"http://www.diabetesnet.com/betacl.php\">beta cells\u003c/a> in their pancreas. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.diabetes.org/type-2-diabetes.jsp\">Type 2\u003c/a> diabetes works differently.) These beta cells make insulin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Without insulin, glucose builds up in our blood and causes \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/faq/basics.htm\">all kinds of problems\u003c/a>. This is why people with Type 1 diabetes need to take insulin. To get sugar out of the blood and into the cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what some U.S. and Brazilian researchers did was destroy 14 diabetics' immune systems so they couldn’t attack their own beta cells anymore. Then they rebuilt their immune systems using the patients' own blood stem cells harvested from their blood. And voila, 14 patients no longer need insulin injections.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This worked because researchers identified patients who were just starting to get diabetes. These folks still have a good chunk of their beta cells left. Enough to make their own insulin if their immune system would just back off.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This sort of treatment has worked in other autoimmune diseases like \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=211\">multiple sclerosis\u003c/a> as well. Now it has worked in a small group for up to 35 months for Type 1 diabetes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For those people who have already lost their beta cells, this technique won't work. They'll need to wait for researchers to learn how to grow new beta cells from stem cells. Most likely from those controversial \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=18\">embryonic stem cells\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This work shows why it is important to keep doing research on both adult (somatic) and embryonic stem cells. The adult cells may work in some cases, like early Type 1 disease. But we may need embryonic stem cells for people who already have a full blown case of Type 1 diabetes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Growing new beta cells\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/chapter7.asp\" target=\"_blank\"> https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/chapter7.asp\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Future of stem cell research\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=163\" target=\"_blank\"> http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=163\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_barry.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Dr. Barry Starr\u003c/strong> is a Geneticist-in-Residence at \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a> in San Jose, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_insulin.jpg\">\u003c/span>Quite a title huh? But some new research in \u003ca href=\"http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/297/14/1568\">JAMA\u003c/a> suggests that it is true. At least these 14 patients haven't had to inject insulin for 1-35 months (so far).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These folks were all on their way to having \u003ca href=\"http://www.diabetes.org/type-1-diabetes.jsp\">Type 1\u003c/a> diabetes. As you probably know, Type 1 diabetes happens when a patient’s immune system destroys \u003ca href=\"http://www.diabetesnet.com/betacl.php\">beta cells\u003c/a> in their pancreas. (\u003ca href=\"http://www.diabetes.org/type-2-diabetes.jsp\">Type 2\u003c/a> diabetes works differently.) These beta cells make insulin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Without insulin, glucose builds up in our blood and causes \u003ca href=\"http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/faq/basics.htm\">all kinds of problems\u003c/a>. This is why people with Type 1 diabetes need to take insulin. To get sugar out of the blood and into the cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what some U.S. and Brazilian researchers did was destroy 14 diabetics' immune systems so they couldn’t attack their own beta cells anymore. Then they rebuilt their immune systems using the patients' own blood stem cells harvested from their blood. And voila, 14 patients no longer need insulin injections.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This worked because researchers identified patients who were just starting to get diabetes. These folks still have a good chunk of their beta cells left. Enough to make their own insulin if their immune system would just back off.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This sort of treatment has worked in other autoimmune diseases like \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=211\">multiple sclerosis\u003c/a> as well. Now it has worked in a small group for up to 35 months for Type 1 diabetes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For those people who have already lost their beta cells, this technique won't work. They'll need to wait for researchers to learn how to grow new beta cells from stem cells. Most likely from those controversial \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=18\">embryonic stem cells\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This work shows why it is important to keep doing research on both adult (somatic) and embryonic stem cells. The adult cells may work in some cases, like early Type 1 disease. But we may need embryonic stem cells for people who already have a full blown case of Type 1 diabetes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Growing new beta cells\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/chapter7.asp\" target=\"_blank\"> https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/scireport/chapter7.asp\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Future of stem cell research\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=163\" target=\"_blank\"> http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=163\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_barry.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Dr. Barry Starr\u003c/strong> is a Geneticist-in-Residence at \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a> in San Jose, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_seacow.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Drawing of a Steller's Sea Cow\u003cbr>\ncirca mid 18th century\u003c/em>\u003c/span>When we think about kelp forests, we envision froclicking sea otters, kelp fronds, sea urchins and a suite of other nearshore marine organisms. And, until a few hundred years ago, a 30 foot-long dugong.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This isn't a joke: Steller's sea cow (\u003cem>Hydrodamalis gigas\u003c/em>) was a North Pacific relative of the South Pacific dugong, which are related to manatees (manatees and dugongs, in turns, are called \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/mesaxonia/sirenia.html\" target=\"_blank\">sirenians\u003c/a>), and once lived along the Pacific rim from California to Japan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> was more rotund than other sirenians; it had a notched fluke like other dugongs, thick elephantine skin, and it lacked fingers bones in front arms and instead had a boxing glove-shaped knob. What we know about \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> is based solely on the account of one man, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Steller\" target=\"_blank\">Georg Wilhelm Steller\u003c/a>, a German naturalist, whose name has also been bestowed on jays, sea lions, and cormorants and other organisms. Steller served as ship's naturalist on Vitus Bering's Second Kamchatka Expedition in the mid 18th century. While returning from the Alaskan coast, in 1741, the crew shipwrecked on what is now known at Bering Island. Sick with scurvy, Bering died there, and while the crew overwintered waiting to be rescued, Steller documented the flora and fauna of the island, which included \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em>. Steller later died on the expedition, but his journal and descriptions returned to St. Petersburg, became published. Unfortunately, word of a tame, floating, giant mammal that could sustain several dozen sailors spread fast, and by 1768, less than 30 years after it was first discovered by Westerners, Russian fur-traders ate \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> into extinction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From Steller's account, we can glean key pieces of information that suggest that \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> was in fact an important member of the kelp forest community, just like sea otters and sea urchins. Skulls and skeletal material belonging to \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> has been found in Pleistocene deposits from Monterey Bay to Japan, which also hints at the antiquity of \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> in these communities. The emerging picture is that the westward \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands\" target=\"_blank\">Aleutian Islands\u003c/a> were likely the last refuge for the sea cow, having been hunted by coastal indigenous populations and successively exterminated throughout its range. It's not clear if human hunting is totally to blame: population sizes may never has been terribly large, and we don't really know how changes in climate might have affected \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nHydrodamalis\u003c/em> reminds us that our picture of marine biodiversity is a fundamentally biased one: what we imagine to be \"natural\" in nearshore communities is really based at the scale of a human lifetime. All modern marine communities evolved prior to human presence, and, as many have shown through \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midden\" target=\"_blank\">midden records\u003c/a> or ships journals, wherever humans have lived, they have altered community composition. \u003ca href=\"http://www.fisheries.ubc.ca/members/dpauly/\" target=\"_blank\">Daniel Pauly\u003c/a>, of the University of British Columbia, calls this situation a \u003cem>shifting baseline\u003c/em>: our perception of what's natural in marine communities is constantly being compared to population sizes that have long suffered at the hands of human-mediated depletion. These considerations are critical for conservation: we need to have a solid understanding of what was once \"out there\" if we want to any hope of \u003ca href=\"http://www.shiftingbaselines.org/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">saving the here and now\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_nickp.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Nick Pyenson\u003c/strong> is a PhD candidate at the University of California, Berkeley, in the department of integrative biology and the museum of paleontology.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_seacow.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem>Drawing of a Steller's Sea Cow\u003cbr>\ncirca mid 18th century\u003c/em>\u003c/span>When we think about kelp forests, we envision froclicking sea otters, kelp fronds, sea urchins and a suite of other nearshore marine organisms. And, until a few hundred years ago, a 30 foot-long dugong.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This isn't a joke: Steller's sea cow (\u003cem>Hydrodamalis gigas\u003c/em>) was a North Pacific relative of the South Pacific dugong, which are related to manatees (manatees and dugongs, in turns, are called \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/mesaxonia/sirenia.html\" target=\"_blank\">sirenians\u003c/a>), and once lived along the Pacific rim from California to Japan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> was more rotund than other sirenians; it had a notched fluke like other dugongs, thick elephantine skin, and it lacked fingers bones in front arms and instead had a boxing glove-shaped knob. What we know about \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> is based solely on the account of one man, \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Steller\" target=\"_blank\">Georg Wilhelm Steller\u003c/a>, a German naturalist, whose name has also been bestowed on jays, sea lions, and cormorants and other organisms. Steller served as ship's naturalist on Vitus Bering's Second Kamchatka Expedition in the mid 18th century. While returning from the Alaskan coast, in 1741, the crew shipwrecked on what is now known at Bering Island. Sick with scurvy, Bering died there, and while the crew overwintered waiting to be rescued, Steller documented the flora and fauna of the island, which included \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em>. Steller later died on the expedition, but his journal and descriptions returned to St. Petersburg, became published. Unfortunately, word of a tame, floating, giant mammal that could sustain several dozen sailors spread fast, and by 1768, less than 30 years after it was first discovered by Westerners, Russian fur-traders ate \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> into extinction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From Steller's account, we can glean key pieces of information that suggest that \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> was in fact an important member of the kelp forest community, just like sea otters and sea urchins. Skulls and skeletal material belonging to \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> has been found in Pleistocene deposits from Monterey Bay to Japan, which also hints at the antiquity of \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em> in these communities. The emerging picture is that the westward \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands\" target=\"_blank\">Aleutian Islands\u003c/a> were likely the last refuge for the sea cow, having been hunted by coastal indigenous populations and successively exterminated throughout its range. It's not clear if human hunting is totally to blame: population sizes may never has been terribly large, and we don't really know how changes in climate might have affected \u003cem>Hydrodamalis\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nHydrodamalis\u003c/em> reminds us that our picture of marine biodiversity is a fundamentally biased one: what we imagine to be \"natural\" in nearshore communities is really based at the scale of a human lifetime. All modern marine communities evolved prior to human presence, and, as many have shown through \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midden\" target=\"_blank\">midden records\u003c/a> or ships journals, wherever humans have lived, they have altered community composition. \u003ca href=\"http://www.fisheries.ubc.ca/members/dpauly/\" target=\"_blank\">Daniel Pauly\u003c/a>, of the University of British Columbia, calls this situation a \u003cem>shifting baseline\u003c/em>: our perception of what's natural in marine communities is constantly being compared to population sizes that have long suffered at the hands of human-mediated depletion. These considerations are critical for conservation: we need to have a solid understanding of what was once \"out there\" if we want to any hope of \u003ca href=\"http://www.shiftingbaselines.org/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">saving the here and now\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_nickp.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Nick Pyenson\u003c/strong> is a PhD candidate at the University of California, Berkeley, in the department of integrative biology and the museum of paleontology.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_robin.jpg\">\u003cem>American Robin fledgling\u003c/em>\u003c/span>For five years, I was the ZooCamp (\u003ca href=\"http://www.oaklandzoo.org\" target=\"_blank\">www.oaklandzoo.org\u003c/a>) director at the Oakland Zoo, a fantastic camp serving preschool to high school and offering campers a week of nature activities, animal observations, hands-on learning and fun. Along with our strategically planned activities always came those unplanned teaching moments that only nature can offer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like the time a whole group of kids stepped on a beehive. But we won’t go into that...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s talk about the time that a bunch of campers found a baby bird on the ground under a tree during lunch time explorations. In they came, running and shouting about a lost and hurt and abandoned and sad and lonely and ABOUT TO DIE baby bird. Luckily, my camp staff was astoundingly educated and after observing the baby, found it to be a robin fledgling, in the middle of his flight training. The campers were directed to step way back and the staff created a barrier around the baby. The baby hopped about for a while. We observed the concerned parents squawking from the tree. Finally, down came mom and she hopped along with her baby, trying to teach him the ins and outs of flight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next day, baby bird was still there. And the next. And the next. The ZooCampers watched from a distance. Amazingly, the very next morning, a few staff and campers were able to witness our baby bird friend hop hop hop then fly off to a branch. Our notion to leave the baby bird and protect the area while he fledged was spot on. Hooray for nature knowledge and educational opportunities!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>If you find a baby bird on the ground, ask yourself these questions:\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>1.\tIs the baby a FLEDGLING? Does if have feathers yet?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Feathered baby birds are fledglings and are likely to be in their flight training stage. Fledglings will normally jump or fall out of their nest. It may take a number of days for the mother to feed her baby on the ground and teach him to fly. The parents are probably around watching you and waiting for everyone to leave so they can return to their baby and their training job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can help by keeping pets and people away from the area and leaving the baby bird alone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>2.\tIs the baby a NESTLING? Is the baby mostly naked?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nNestlings stay in the nest and are warmed by and fed by the parents. A nestling out of the nest usually means it was pushed or fell. Sometimes the whole nest is on the ground, either in one piece or destroyed. Being pushed by a stronger sibling is a natural, survival of the fittest, bird behavior, by the way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can help by putting the baby bird back in the nest. It is not true that the mother will not accept the baby if they smell like stinky humans. They can’t smell very well. You should wash up after you touch the bird, however.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the nest is down, you can place it in a strawberry basket, or another kind of basket, as long as there are spaces or holes for water drainage. Then wire it up in the tree as close to the original nest site as possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the nest is destroyed, you can create one from a plastic butter tub or strawberry basket. If you use a tub, make holes in the bottom, line it with paper towels and place securely in tree. Do not line with collected feathers or grass, as these can get cold and wet. Always place nest out of direct sunlight and in a wind-protected spot.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Warm the babies in your hand before placing them in nest. You can watch the action from a far away spot with binoculars. It may take a while for the parents to trust the situation, but it is likely that you have just saved the day!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>3.\tAre you sure the parents are GONE?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>IF this is the case, your job is to keep the baby bird warm until you get to a licensed wildlife rehabilitation center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keep him warm and safe by putting him in a small box with holes in the lid. Baby birds like things dark and quiet. Warm him by putting the box on a very LOW heat pad or hot water bottle (NOT TOO HOT).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Do not give the baby bird any liquids or try to feed him. Do not sing to him, chirp to him or play him classical music. Keep him in his warm, dark box and get him to a specialist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>4.\tWhere should I take the baby bird that DOES need a rescue?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One excellent place is Sulphur Creek Wildlife Rehabilitation Center in Hayward.: (\u003ca href=\"http://www.haywardrec.org/sulphur_creek.html\" target=\"_blank\">www.haywardrec.org/sulphur_creek.html\u003c/a>)\u003cbr>\n(510) 881-6747\u003cbr>\n1801 D Street, Hayward\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"mailto:sulphurcreek@haywardrec.org\">sulphurcreek@haywardrec.org\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hours: 10:00 am to 4:30 pm\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong> 5.\tCan I keep him?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nope. Sorry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_amyg.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Amy Gotliffe\u003c/strong> is Conservation Manager at \u003ca href=\"http://www.oaklandzoo.org\" target=\"_blank\" title=\"The Oakland Zoo\">The Oakland Zoo\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_robin.jpg\">\u003cem>American Robin fledgling\u003c/em>\u003c/span>For five years, I was the ZooCamp (\u003ca href=\"http://www.oaklandzoo.org\" target=\"_blank\">www.oaklandzoo.org\u003c/a>) director at the Oakland Zoo, a fantastic camp serving preschool to high school and offering campers a week of nature activities, animal observations, hands-on learning and fun. Along with our strategically planned activities always came those unplanned teaching moments that only nature can offer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like the time a whole group of kids stepped on a beehive. But we won’t go into that...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s talk about the time that a bunch of campers found a baby bird on the ground under a tree during lunch time explorations. In they came, running and shouting about a lost and hurt and abandoned and sad and lonely and ABOUT TO DIE baby bird. Luckily, my camp staff was astoundingly educated and after observing the baby, found it to be a robin fledgling, in the middle of his flight training. The campers were directed to step way back and the staff created a barrier around the baby. The baby hopped about for a while. We observed the concerned parents squawking from the tree. Finally, down came mom and she hopped along with her baby, trying to teach him the ins and outs of flight.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next day, baby bird was still there. And the next. And the next. The ZooCampers watched from a distance. Amazingly, the very next morning, a few staff and campers were able to witness our baby bird friend hop hop hop then fly off to a branch. Our notion to leave the baby bird and protect the area while he fledged was spot on. Hooray for nature knowledge and educational opportunities!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>If you find a baby bird on the ground, ask yourself these questions:\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>1.\tIs the baby a FLEDGLING? Does if have feathers yet?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Feathered baby birds are fledglings and are likely to be in their flight training stage. Fledglings will normally jump or fall out of their nest. It may take a number of days for the mother to feed her baby on the ground and teach him to fly. The parents are probably around watching you and waiting for everyone to leave so they can return to their baby and their training job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can help by keeping pets and people away from the area and leaving the baby bird alone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>2.\tIs the baby a NESTLING? Is the baby mostly naked?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nNestlings stay in the nest and are warmed by and fed by the parents. A nestling out of the nest usually means it was pushed or fell. Sometimes the whole nest is on the ground, either in one piece or destroyed. Being pushed by a stronger sibling is a natural, survival of the fittest, bird behavior, by the way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can help by putting the baby bird back in the nest. It is not true that the mother will not accept the baby if they smell like stinky humans. They can’t smell very well. You should wash up after you touch the bird, however.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the nest is down, you can place it in a strawberry basket, or another kind of basket, as long as there are spaces or holes for water drainage. Then wire it up in the tree as close to the original nest site as possible.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the nest is destroyed, you can create one from a plastic butter tub or strawberry basket. If you use a tub, make holes in the bottom, line it with paper towels and place securely in tree. Do not line with collected feathers or grass, as these can get cold and wet. Always place nest out of direct sunlight and in a wind-protected spot.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Warm the babies in your hand before placing them in nest. You can watch the action from a far away spot with binoculars. It may take a while for the parents to trust the situation, but it is likely that you have just saved the day!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>3.\tAre you sure the parents are GONE?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>IF this is the case, your job is to keep the baby bird warm until you get to a licensed wildlife rehabilitation center.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keep him warm and safe by putting him in a small box with holes in the lid. Baby birds like things dark and quiet. Warm him by putting the box on a very LOW heat pad or hot water bottle (NOT TOO HOT).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Do not give the baby bird any liquids or try to feed him. Do not sing to him, chirp to him or play him classical music. Keep him in his warm, dark box and get him to a specialist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>4.\tWhere should I take the baby bird that DOES need a rescue?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One excellent place is Sulphur Creek Wildlife Rehabilitation Center in Hayward.: (\u003ca href=\"http://www.haywardrec.org/sulphur_creek.html\" target=\"_blank\">www.haywardrec.org/sulphur_creek.html\u003c/a>)\u003cbr>\n(510) 881-6747\u003cbr>\n1801 D Street, Hayward\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"mailto:sulphurcreek@haywardrec.org\">sulphurcreek@haywardrec.org\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hours: 10:00 am to 4:30 pm\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong> 5.\tCan I keep him?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nope. Sorry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_amyg.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Amy Gotliffe\u003c/strong> is Conservation Manager at \u003ca href=\"http://www.oaklandzoo.org\" target=\"_blank\" title=\"The Oakland Zoo\">The Oakland Zoo\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_colormouse.gif\">\u003c/span>Did you know most mammals are red-green colorblind? Part of what makes primates special is that most of us can tell the difference between red and green.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In humans this difference is due to a single gene, the long wave cone \u003cem>photopigment\u003c/em> gene. But is this gene enough? Or are there other changes in our brain that help us to interpret the information we receive from our eyes?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is an important question because it gets to the heart of how our color vision evolved. If our ancestors’ brains could handle the extra information, then an extra gene would be enough to give us our superior color vision.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So some scientists set out to find out if a single gene was enough. They did this by putting our extra human gene into a mouse. And trying to figure out if the mouse could tell red from green.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now it’s easy to put a gene in a mouse. But how do you tell if she can distinguish red from green? You can’t just ask her or use flashcards. Instead, these scientists used a very clever system that had been used before with dogs. The system involves three lights and, in the case of mice, some soy milk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The idea is that the lights can be a whole range of colors. To get the drop of soy milk, a mouse has to pick the light that is a different color from the other two. For example, to test the mouse’s color vision, the scientists could make two of the lights red and one green. Or vice versa. If the mouse is colorblind and couldn’t tell the colors apart, she’d get it right about a third of the time. And that’s what the scientists found for some of the mice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But some of the mice that got the human gene picked the right light about 80% of the time. So these mice could probably tell red from green. This tells us that it takes a single gene to develop color vision. And that our color vision evolved relatively easily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_colorblind.jpg\">\u003c/span>One of the reasons I liked this story was actually the background information I needed to gather to understand it. You see, in school I never really learned about how color vision came about. And it is fascinating. 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Instead of an extra gene, they developed an extra gene version. This is a subtle but important difference.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, many of our genes can come in different versions. For example, there isn’t a separate gene for blue and brown eyes. There is one gene called \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=39\">OCA2\u003c/a> that comes in two versions, brown and blue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Same thing with this form of color vision in New World monkeys. What happened here was that one copy of their cone gene got a mutation that let them distinguish more colors. So the only New World monkeys who can see color are the ones who have a copy of each gene version. Monkeys with two copies of one version or the other can’t see our full spectrum of colors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now to add one more wrinkle, these genes are on the X chromosome. Which means only New World female primates have a chance to tell red from green (poor design!).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because only females can have one copy of each gene version. Remember, in mammals males have an X and a Y chromosome and females have two X chromosomes. Which means males have only one copy of all the X chromosome genes while females have two.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For Old World primates, that means men and women can both tell red from green. There are two separate genes on the X chromosome. But for New World primates, only the females have this ability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So in the mice experiments, the scientists created New World mice. Only the females had a chance to tell red from green. And only if they had a copy of each version of the gene. Scientists found that female mice with one copy of each version of the cone gene were no longer red-green colorblind. One new gene version was enough to give mice the ability to tell red from green.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is so cool that the two primates developed color vision in different ways. Better color vision is a real asset for animals who forage during the day. So it isn’t surprising that once it arose, it spread quickly through the primate population.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And it is amazing how clunky the New World color vision is. Only females have the superior color vision. And many of her offspring will not have color vision. Thank goodness we evolved differently!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nHow colorblindness is inherited in people\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=80\">http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=80\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nJournal article describing the mouse experiment\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5819/1723\">http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5819/1723\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>How dogs see color\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.puplife.com/dogcaretips/howdogsseecolors.html\">http://www.puplife.com/dogcaretips/howdogsseecolors.html\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_barry.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Dr. Barry Starr\u003c/strong> is a Geneticist-in-Residence at \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a> in San Jose, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The idea is that the lights can be a whole range of colors. To get the drop of soy milk, a mouse has to pick the light that is a different color from the other two. For example, to test the mouse’s color vision, the scientists could make two of the lights red and one green. Or vice versa. If the mouse is colorblind and couldn’t tell the colors apart, she’d get it right about a third of the time. And that’s what the scientists found for some of the mice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But some of the mice that got the human gene picked the right light about 80% of the time. So these mice could probably tell red from green. This tells us that it takes a single gene to develop color vision. And that our color vision evolved relatively easily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/blog_colorblind.jpg\">\u003c/span>One of the reasons I liked this story was actually the background information I needed to gather to understand it. You see, in school I never really learned about how color vision came about. And it is fascinating. The ability to tell red from green actually evolved independently in different primates. \u003cem>Old World\u003c/em> primates like us gained the ability one way. \u003cem>New World\u003c/em> primates developed it another way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reason I needed to learn this is that the genetically engineered mice could tell red from green in the New World style. Which is pretty confusing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Let’s look at the Old World style first. When we look at our DNA, we can tell that our third cone gene is really just a duplication of one of our other cone genes. Sometime in our distant past, an extra copy of the gene was accidentally made. This happens sometimes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over time, changes happened in the duplicated copy. Some of these changes created a new gene that let primates tell red from green. This is a common way for new genes to evolve.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But New World monkeys developed this talent in a different way. Instead of an extra gene, they developed an extra gene version. This is a subtle but important difference.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Remember, many of our genes can come in different versions. For example, there isn’t a separate gene for blue and brown eyes. There is one gene called \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/news.php?id=39\">OCA2\u003c/a> that comes in two versions, brown and blue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Same thing with this form of color vision in New World monkeys. What happened here was that one copy of their cone gene got a mutation that let them distinguish more colors. So the only New World monkeys who can see color are the ones who have a copy of each gene version. Monkeys with two copies of one version or the other can’t see our full spectrum of colors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now to add one more wrinkle, these genes are on the X chromosome. Which means only New World female primates have a chance to tell red from green (poor design!).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because only females can have one copy of each gene version. Remember, in mammals males have an X and a Y chromosome and females have two X chromosomes. Which means males have only one copy of all the X chromosome genes while females have two.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For Old World primates, that means men and women can both tell red from green. There are two separate genes on the X chromosome. But for New World primates, only the females have this ability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So in the mice experiments, the scientists created New World mice. Only the females had a chance to tell red from green. And only if they had a copy of each version of the gene. Scientists found that female mice with one copy of each version of the cone gene were no longer red-green colorblind. One new gene version was enough to give mice the ability to tell red from green.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is so cool that the two primates developed color vision in different ways. Better color vision is a real asset for animals who forage during the day. So it isn’t surprising that once it arose, it spread quickly through the primate population.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And it is amazing how clunky the New World color vision is. Only females have the superior color vision. And many of her offspring will not have color vision. Thank goodness we evolved differently!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nHow colorblindness is inherited in people\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=80\">http://www.thetech.org/genetics/ask.php?id=80\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>\u003cbr>\nJournal article describing the mouse experiment\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5819/1723\">http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5819/1723\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>How dogs see color\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://www.puplife.com/dogcaretips/howdogsseecolors.html\">http://www.puplife.com/dogcaretips/howdogsseecolors.html\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_barry.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Dr. Barry Starr\u003c/strong> is a Geneticist-in-Residence at \u003ca href=\"http://www.thetech.org\">The Tech Museum of Innovation\u003c/a> in San Jose, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/ensatina.gif\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>Last post, I introduced one of the classic examples of a ring species: the distribution of \u003cem>Ensatina \u003c/em>species in California. Basically, \u003cem>Ensatina \u003c/em>species are distributed in a great ring all around the Central Valley, with some species extending along the coastal ranges both north and south, and with other species distributed in the Sierra Nevadas. Just southwest of Bakersfield, the two ends of this species ring meet, provoking an interesting question: if different species exchange genes all along the ring, can the two ends of the ring interbreed?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From decades of work, scientists have resolved a very clear picture of the geographic and genetic distribution of \u003cem>Ensatina \u003c/em>(biologists who combine the study of geography and genetics call it \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogeography\">\u003cem>phylogeography\u003c/em>\u003c/a>). Until the advent of molecular techniques, researchers relied on differences between coloration and morphology to identify different species. Now, this previous evidence is combined with molecular approaches that can measure the amount of gene flow between different lineages. It turns out that, sometimes, a classic species based on external features matches the patterns from protein and DNA sequences, which confirms previous taxonomic work. But, in some cases, a single species with the same external features may contain cryptic molecular lineages, which hints at a more \u003ca href=\"http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/VA1BioSpeciesConcept.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">complex evolutionary history\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what happens when the two arms meet? Unlike the rest of the \u003cem>Ensatina\u003c/em> species along the ring, the two ends are distinct enough (genetically, morphologically and/or behaviorally) to coexist without interbreeding. The \u003cem>Ensatina\u003c/em> ring provides an example of speciation caught in the act: lineages along the ring still have enough gene flow to prevent speciation from fully occurring, but the two ends of the species gradient are distinct lineages with respect to each other, which allows them to \u003ca href=\"http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/irwin.html\" target=\"blank\">share the same habitat without interbreeding\u003c/a>. As better sampling and molecular techniques refine the picture of the \u003cem>Ensatina\u003c/em> ring species, the pattern becomes much more complex, which has been attributed to the complex geological history of the environments in which the \u003cem>Ensatina\u003c/em> lineages live. \u003cem>Ensatina\u003c/em> diversification happened in conjunction with changes in the landscape of California, and so both evolutionary and geological histories are deeply connected.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Interestingly, the incipient speciation of \u003cem>Ensatina\u003c/em> in California isn't a lone example; researchers have also found the \u003ca href=\"http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/03/26/MN172778.DTL\" target=\"_blank\">same patterns in songbirds in northeastern Asia as well\u003c/a>. Some of the best examples of evolution in action (like Darwin's finches in the Galapagos Islands) may be miles away, but sometimes you don’t have look much further than the leaf litter and logs in our own backyard.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_nickp.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Nick Pyenson\u003c/strong> is a PhD candidate at the University of California, Berkeley, in the department of integrative biology and the museum of paleontology.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"tagline": "The flip side of gentrification, told through one town",
"info": "Gentrification is changing cities across America, forcing people from neighborhoods they have long called home. Call them the displaced. Now those priced out of the Bay Area are looking for a better life in an unlikely place. American Suburb follows this migration to one California town along the Delta, 45 miles from San Francisco. But is this once sleepy suburb ready for them?",
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"order": 19
},
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?mt=2&id=1287748328",
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"rss": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/series/american-suburb-podcast/feed/podcast",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkMzMDExODgxNjA5"
}
},
"baycurious": {
"id": "baycurious",
"title": "Bay Curious",
"tagline": "Exploring the Bay Area, one question at a time",
"info": "KQED’s new podcast, Bay Curious, gets to the bottom of the mysteries — both profound and peculiar — that give the Bay Area its unique identity. And we’ll do it with your help! You ask the questions. You decide what Bay Curious investigates. And you join us on the journey to find the answers.",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Bay-Curious-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"order": 3
},
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}
},
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"info": "The day's top stories from BBC News compiled twice daily in the week, once at weekends.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 9pm-10pm, TUE-FRI 1am-2am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/BBC-World-Service-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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"source": "BBC World Service"
},
"link": "/radio/program/bbc-world-service",
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"rss": "https://podcasts.files.bbci.co.uk/p02nq0gn.rss"
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},
"californiareport": {
"id": "californiareport",
"title": "The California Report",
"tagline": "California, day by day",
"info": "KQED’s statewide radio news program providing daily coverage of issues, trends and public policy decisions.",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-California-Report-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "/californiareport",
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 8
},
"link": "/californiareport",
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}
},
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"id": "californiareportmagazine",
"title": "The California Report Magazine",
"tagline": "Your state, your stories",
"info": "Every week, The California Report Magazine takes you on a road trip for the ears: to visit the places and meet the people who make California unique. The in-depth storytelling podcast from the California Report.",
"airtime": "FRI 4:30pm-5pm, 6:30pm-7pm, 11pm-11:30pm",
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"order": 10
},
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM3NjkwNjk1OTAz",
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},
"city-arts": {
"id": "city-arts",
"title": "City Arts & Lectures",
"info": "A one-hour radio program to hear celebrated writers, artists and thinkers address contemporary ideas and values, often discussing the creative process. Please note: tapes or transcripts are not available",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/05/cityartsandlecture-300x300.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.cityarts.net/",
"airtime": "SUN 1pm-2pm, TUE 10pm, WED 1am",
"meta": {
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"source": "City Arts & Lectures"
},
"link": "https://www.cityarts.net",
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"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/radio/City-Arts-and-Lectures-p692/",
"rss": "https://www.cityarts.net/feed/"
}
},
"closealltabs": {
"id": "closealltabs",
"title": "Close All Tabs",
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"info": "Close All Tabs breaks down how digital culture shapes our world through thoughtful insights and irreverent humor.",
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"order": 1
},
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"code-switch-life-kit": {
"id": "code-switch-life-kit",
"title": "Code Switch / Life Kit",
"info": "\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em>, which listeners will hear in the first part of the hour, has fearless and much-needed conversations about race. Hosted by journalists of color, the show tackles the subject of race head-on, exploring how it impacts every part of society — from politics and pop culture to history, sports and more.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em>, which will be in the second part of the hour, guides you through spaces and feelings no one prepares you for — from finances to mental health, from workplace microaggressions to imposter syndrome, from relationships to parenting. The show features experts with real world experience and shares their knowledge. Because everyone needs a little help being human.\u003cbr />\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510312/codeswitch\">\u003cem>Code Switch\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />\u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/lifekit\">\u003cem>Life Kit\u003c/em> offical site and podcast\u003c/a>\u003cbr />",
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"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Code-Switch-Life-Kit-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
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},
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cubnByLm9yZy9yc3MvcG9kY2FzdC5waHA_aWQ9NTEwMzEy",
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},
"commonwealth-club": {
"id": "commonwealth-club",
"title": "Commonwealth Club of California Podcast",
"info": "The Commonwealth Club of California is the nation's oldest and largest public affairs forum. As a non-partisan forum, The Club brings to the public airwaves diverse viewpoints on important topics. The Club's weekly radio broadcast - the oldest in the U.S., dating back to 1924 - is carried across the nation on public radio stations and is now podcasting. Our website archive features audio of our recent programs, as well as selected speeches from our long and distinguished history. This podcast feed is usually updated twice a week and is always un-edited.",
"airtime": "THU 10pm, FRI 1am",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Commonwealth-Club-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "Commonwealth Club of California"
},
"link": "/radio/program/commonwealth-club",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/commonwealth-club-of-california-podcast/id976334034?mt=2",
"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cDovL3d3dy5jb21tb253ZWFsdGhjbHViLm9yZy9hdWRpby9wb2RjYXN0L3dlZWtseS54bWw",
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}
},
"forum": {
"id": "forum",
"title": "Forum",
"tagline": "The conversation starts here",
"info": "KQED’s live call-in program discussing local, state, national and international issues, as well as in-depth interviews.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 9am-11am, 10pm-11pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Forum-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED Forum with Mina Kim and Alexis Madrigal",
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"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 9
},
"link": "/forum",
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"google": "https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9mZWVkcy5tZWdhcGhvbmUuZm0vS1FJTkM5NTU3MzgxNjMz",
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},
"freakonomics-radio": {
"id": "freakonomics-radio",
"title": "Freakonomics Radio",
"info": "Freakonomics Radio is a one-hour award-winning podcast and public-radio project hosted by Stephen Dubner, with co-author Steve Levitt as a regular guest. It is produced in partnership with WNYC.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/freakonomicsRadio.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://freakonomics.com/",
"airtime": "SUN 1am-2am, SAT 3pm-4pm",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WNYC"
},
"link": "/radio/program/freakonomics-radio",
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"tuneIn": "https://tunein.com/podcasts/WNYC-Podcasts/Freakonomics-Radio-p272293/",
"rss": "https://feeds.feedburner.com/freakonomicsradio"
}
},
"fresh-air": {
"id": "fresh-air",
"title": "Fresh Air",
"info": "Hosted by Terry Gross, \u003cem>Fresh Air from WHYY\u003c/em> is the Peabody Award-winning weekday magazine of contemporary arts and issues. One of public radio's most popular programs, Fresh Air features intimate conversations with today's biggest luminaries.",
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"title": "Here & Now",
"info": "A live production of NPR and WBUR Boston, in collaboration with stations across the country, Here & Now reflects the fluid world of news as it's happening in the middle of the day, with timely, in-depth news, interviews and conversation. Hosted by Robin Young, Jeremy Hobson and Tonya Mosley.",
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},
"hidden-brain": {
"id": "hidden-brain",
"title": "Hidden Brain",
"info": "Shankar Vedantam uses science and storytelling to reveal the unconscious patterns that drive human behavior, shape our choices and direct our relationships.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/05/hiddenbrain.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/series/423302056/hidden-brain",
"airtime": "SUN 7pm-8pm",
"meta": {
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"source": "NPR"
},
"link": "/radio/program/hidden-brain",
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"how-i-built-this": {
"id": "how-i-built-this",
"title": "How I Built This with Guy Raz",
"info": "Guy Raz dives into the stories behind some of the world's best known companies. How I Built This weaves a narrative journey about innovators, entrepreneurs and idealists—and the movements they built.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/news/wp-content/uploads/sites/10/2018/05/howIBuiltThis.png",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.npr.org/podcasts/510313/how-i-built-this",
"airtime": "SUN 7:30pm-8pm",
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"link": "/radio/program/how-i-built-this",
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"hyphenacion": {
"id": "hyphenacion",
"title": "Hyphenación",
"tagline": "Where conversation and cultura meet",
"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Hyphenacion_FinalAssets_PodcastTile.png",
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"order": 15
},
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},
"jerrybrown": {
"id": "jerrybrown",
"title": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown",
"tagline": "Lessons from a lifetime in politics",
"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-Political-Mind-of-Jerry-Brown-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
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"order": 18
},
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}
},
"latino-usa": {
"id": "latino-usa",
"title": "Latino USA",
"airtime": "MON 1am-2am, SUN 6pm-7pm",
"info": "Latino USA, the radio journal of news and culture, is the only national, English-language radio program produced from a Latino perspective.",
"imageSrc": "https://ww2.kqed.org/radio/wp-content/uploads/sites/50/2018/04/latinoUsa.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "http://latinousa.org/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "npr"
},
"link": "/radio/program/latino-usa",
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"apple": "https://itunes.apple.com/WebObjects/MZStore.woa/wa/viewPodcast?s=143441&mt=2&id=79681317&at=11l79Y&ct=nprdirectory",
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"rss": "https://feeds.npr.org/510016/podcast.xml"
}
},
"marketplace": {
"id": "marketplace",
"title": "Marketplace",
"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
"airtime": "MON-FRI 4pm-4:30pm, MON-WED 6:30pm-7pm",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Marketplace-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.marketplace.org/",
"meta": {
"site": "news",
"source": "American Public Media"
},
"link": "/radio/program/marketplace",
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"rss": "https://feeds.publicradio.org/public_feeds/marketplace-pm/rss/rss"
}
},
"masters-of-scale": {
"id": "masters-of-scale",
"title": "Masters of Scale",
"info": "Masters of Scale is an original podcast in which LinkedIn co-founder and Greylock Partner Reid Hoffman sets out to describe and prove theories that explain how great entrepreneurs take their companies from zero to a gazillion in ingenious fashion.",
"airtime": "Every other Wednesday June 12 through October 16 at 8pm (repeats Thursdays at 2am)",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Masters-of-Scale-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
"officialWebsiteLink": "https://mastersofscale.com/",
"meta": {
"site": "radio",
"source": "WaitWhat"
},
"link": "/radio/program/masters-of-scale",
"subscribe": {
"apple": "http://mastersofscale.app.link/",
"rss": "https://rss.art19.com/masters-of-scale"
}
},
"mindshift": {
"id": "mindshift",
"title": "MindShift",
"tagline": "A podcast about the future of learning and how we raise our kids",
"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Mindshift-Podcast-Tile-703x703-1.jpg",
"imageAlt": "KQED MindShift: How We Will Learn",
"officialWebsiteLink": "/mindshift/",
"meta": {
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"source": "kqed",
"order": 12
},
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