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"content": "\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe src=\"http://www.everytrail.com/guide/big-break-regional-shoreline-exploration/map?embed=true\" width=\"980\" height=\"450\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" marginheight=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This Exploration created in collaboration with the \u003c/em>\u003ca href=\"http://www.exploratorium.edu\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/explo_logo_black3.gif\" border=\"0\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003c/span>Big Break Regional Shoreline is a part of the great 1,680-square-mile San Francisco/San Joaquin Delta estuary in Northern California. The water flowing past Big Break Regional Shoreline through the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers drains half of California’s watershed, and creates the largest estuarine environment on Pacific shores. This “Inland Coast” is home to 70 species of birds, and provides valuable habitat for beavers, muskrats, and river otters.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Getting There\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>From Highway 4 in Oakley, go north on Big Break Road. Take the first right just past Vintage Parkway and follow the road to the Big Break Pier. You can also enter the park by walking in on Marsh Creek Regional Trail, just adjacent to Marsh Creek off E. Cypress Road in Oakley, east of its intersection with Main St./Highway 4.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Public Transportation\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Tri Delta Transit #300 provides service to Vintage Parkway and Big Break Road on weekdays. Call to confirm route: Tri Delta Transit–(925) 754-4040 or see \u003ca href=\"http://www.trideltatransit.com\">www.trideltatransit.com\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Park Activities\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Many park users come to Big Break simply to enjoy cool marine breezes in the summer. Birdwatchers are drawn by the constant birdsong from the marshes, and everyone comes to enjoy the solitude and escape from the nearby urban landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Fishing/Boating\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Bass fishing is currently the most popular recreational activity at Big Break. The 100-foot fishing pier is very popular with local anglers. A California fishing license is required to fish from the pier or shoreline, but an \u003cspan class=\"caps\">EBRPD\u003c/span> fishing access permit is not required. While shore fishing offers less success, boaters offshore catch primarily largemouth bass and striped bass, with some white catfish, bluegill, sunfish, and sturgeon also caught.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>General boating also takes place at Big Break estuary due to its accessibility to the rivers and sloughs of the Inland Coast.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Hiking\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>The Big Break Regional Trail, which runs along the southern edge of Big Break through the Ironhouse Sanitary District, provides access for hikers, bicyclists, and equestrians to the southeastern edge of the estuary. The trail connects to the northern end of the Marsh Creek Regional Trail, providing access to Brentwood and Oakley. The Marsh Creek Regional Trail connects to the Delta de Anza Regional Trail via West Cypress Road, providing access to Oakley, Brentwood, Antioch, Pittsburg, and Bay Point.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Delta Discovery Experience\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>This facility is in the planning phase and will be located in the area of the park accessible from Big Break Road. When complete, it will offer picnic and meadow areas, a shaded amphitheater, boat and kayak launch facilities, an interactive map of the Delta, and covered, outdoor use areas for interpretive and educational exhibits and programs highlighting the Delta, its ecosystems, and wildlife.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Special thanks to Mike Moran, Shelly Lewis and Isa Polt-Jones of the East Bay Regional Park District for assisting us on this project.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Robin Marks, Joshua Cassidy, Craig Rosa and Ron Wolf all contributed to this Exploration.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>The Pacific Flyway: Busier than 580 at Rush Hour\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca title=\"8d. Caspian Terns by kqedquest, on Flickr\" href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kqedquest/4866564257/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4122/4866564257_aeb5093b62_m.jpg\" alt=\"8d. Caspian Terns\" width=\"240\" height=\"160\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>At 5:30 on a Friday afternoon, our freeways are famously clogged with commuters. Many of those drivers, tapping out tunes on their dashboards, may not realize that the real traffic in the Bay Area is overhead. Each spring and fall, millions of birds make their way to and from our local estuaries, oceanside cliffs, and river deltas, bringing about a spectacle of nature that seems otherwise lost in our modern world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And when it comes to tourism in the Bay Area, the number of avian visitors rivals that of human visitors over the course of the year. Both the coast and the inland valleys invite hundreds of bird species. Many of them spend long stretches of time here, while others merely pass through, on their way to places as close as the Salton Sea or as distant as Patagonia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Migrating birds all over the world arrive and depart along predictable paths, which have been dubbed “flyways.” There are four major flyways in North America, stretching into South America: the Atlantic, Mississippi, Central, and Pacific.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/flyways300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>See the four major flyways in North America\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each flyway that passes through the United States even has its own council that works with state and federal wildlife agencies to protect birds and manage hunting regulations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In California, the flyway has two “lanes,” one along the coast and the other that follows inland valleys. At the intersection of the Delta, the coast and the Central Valley, Big Break Regional Shoreline is an all-seasons crossroads for migrating birds, and draws all manner of shorebirds, raptors, and songbirds on their travels. On a good day, a birder can spot up to 60 species. Our avian visitors are a combination of birds wintering here from colder climes, and birds summering here who spend winter in Mexico or other points south. Spring migration antics peak from February through April, when visitors may be treated to meadowlarks, sparrows and dowitchers, among others, making their way out of town. Fall brings the spectacular return of Sandhill cranes showing off their six-foot wingspans. Among the summer tourists is the threatened Swainson’s hawk, a special guest at Big Break from June to August. Other good birding spots in the Bay Area include \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/science-hike/elkhorn-slough-exploration/\">Elkhorn Slough\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/science-hike/don-edwards-sf-bay-national-wildlife-refuge-exploration/\">Don Edwards Wildlife Refuge\u003c/a>, and Pt. Reyes, which is home to the Point Reyes Bird Observatory. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One fact that both amazes and helps bird researchers is that migrators tend to not only fly along the same route, but to actually return to very specific places. This means that if a particular bird is caught by a researcher’s net one year and then banded, there’s a good likelihood that same bird will end up in the same net the following year. This provides the opportunity for scientists to learn from observations made on specific birds year after year. Sometimes researchers also attach tracking devices as well as bands to the birds, allowing those birds’ movements to be followed in very detailed ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some birds fly for weeks without stopping, others rest along the way. Some fly hundreds of miles, others fly thousands. No matter what their path, migration is a major effort that requires energy and time. Why do birds bother? It turns out that traversing all those miles has a real advantage when it comes to daylight. Imagine that as the hour of sunset got earlier and earlier, you could simply relocate to a place with a solar schedule you liked better. More time to hang out outdoors hiking. For a bird, a longer day means more light time to gather food and and thus a better place to hatch, raise, and feed hungry youngsters. Not to mention the bonus that more sunlight means more time for tasty plants to grow, which translates to more food to collect and feed to the little ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Birds don’t consciously set out on their migrations with a destination in mind. They seem to be pre-programmed with their own unique \u003cspan class=\"caps\">GPS\u003c/span> units. They are guided by land features like coastlines, mountains, and rivers, and also use the sun and stars. In fact, some night-flying songbirds actually memorize certain star patterns in the sky in their first year of life, to prepare them for the flight. Tiny grains of magnetite in or above the nostrils of some migratory birds may also help them use the Earth’s magnetic field, and a few birds can employ their sense of smell on the journey as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But how, exactly, birds find their way from here to there remains something of a mystery. And while it would be nice to know precisely how they manage their incredible feat, the elusiveness of answers makes it that much more magical to see and hear hundreds of birds take flight at the same moment, heading for the same place, doing what they’ve been doing for thousands of years.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Visitor Photos\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Join our \u003ca href=\"http://flickr.com/groups/1466083@N24\">Big Break Regional Shoreline photo group on Flickr\u003c/a> to share your photos of this amazing place.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Additional Links\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/big_break\">EBRPD - Big Break Regional Shoreline\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://pacificflyway.gov/\">Pacific Flyway Council\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.prbo.org/cms/424\">PRBO:Tracking Migrating Shorebirds\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe src=\"http://www.everytrail.com/guide/big-break-regional-shoreline-exploration/map?embed=true\" width=\"980\" height=\"450\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0\" marginheight=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>This Exploration created in collaboration with the \u003c/em>\u003ca href=\"http://www.exploratorium.edu\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/explo_logo_black3.gif\" border=\"0\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003c/span>Big Break Regional Shoreline is a part of the great 1,680-square-mile San Francisco/San Joaquin Delta estuary in Northern California. The water flowing past Big Break Regional Shoreline through the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers drains half of California’s watershed, and creates the largest estuarine environment on Pacific shores. This “Inland Coast” is home to 70 species of birds, and provides valuable habitat for beavers, muskrats, and river otters.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Getting There\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>From Highway 4 in Oakley, go north on Big Break Road. Take the first right just past Vintage Parkway and follow the road to the Big Break Pier. You can also enter the park by walking in on Marsh Creek Regional Trail, just adjacent to Marsh Creek off E. Cypress Road in Oakley, east of its intersection with Main St./Highway 4.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Public Transportation\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Tri Delta Transit #300 provides service to Vintage Parkway and Big Break Road on weekdays. Call to confirm route: Tri Delta Transit–(925) 754-4040 or see \u003ca href=\"http://www.trideltatransit.com\">www.trideltatransit.com\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Park Activities\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Many park users come to Big Break simply to enjoy cool marine breezes in the summer. Birdwatchers are drawn by the constant birdsong from the marshes, and everyone comes to enjoy the solitude and escape from the nearby urban landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Fishing/Boating\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>Bass fishing is currently the most popular recreational activity at Big Break. The 100-foot fishing pier is very popular with local anglers. A California fishing license is required to fish from the pier or shoreline, but an \u003cspan class=\"caps\">EBRPD\u003c/span> fishing access permit is not required. While shore fishing offers less success, boaters offshore catch primarily largemouth bass and striped bass, with some white catfish, bluegill, sunfish, and sturgeon also caught.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>General boating also takes place at Big Break estuary due to its accessibility to the rivers and sloughs of the Inland Coast.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Hiking\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>The Big Break Regional Trail, which runs along the southern edge of Big Break through the Ironhouse Sanitary District, provides access for hikers, bicyclists, and equestrians to the southeastern edge of the estuary. The trail connects to the northern end of the Marsh Creek Regional Trail, providing access to Brentwood and Oakley. The Marsh Creek Regional Trail connects to the Delta de Anza Regional Trail via West Cypress Road, providing access to Oakley, Brentwood, Antioch, Pittsburg, and Bay Point.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Delta Discovery Experience\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>This facility is in the planning phase and will be located in the area of the park accessible from Big Break Road. When complete, it will offer picnic and meadow areas, a shaded amphitheater, boat and kayak launch facilities, an interactive map of the Delta, and covered, outdoor use areas for interpretive and educational exhibits and programs highlighting the Delta, its ecosystems, and wildlife.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Special thanks to Mike Moran, Shelly Lewis and Isa Polt-Jones of the East Bay Regional Park District for assisting us on this project.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Robin Marks, Joshua Cassidy, Craig Rosa and Ron Wolf all contributed to this Exploration.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>The Pacific Flyway: Busier than 580 at Rush Hour\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003ca title=\"8d. Caspian Terns by kqedquest, on Flickr\" href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kqedquest/4866564257/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4122/4866564257_aeb5093b62_m.jpg\" alt=\"8d. Caspian Terns\" width=\"240\" height=\"160\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>At 5:30 on a Friday afternoon, our freeways are famously clogged with commuters. Many of those drivers, tapping out tunes on their dashboards, may not realize that the real traffic in the Bay Area is overhead. Each spring and fall, millions of birds make their way to and from our local estuaries, oceanside cliffs, and river deltas, bringing about a spectacle of nature that seems otherwise lost in our modern world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And when it comes to tourism in the Bay Area, the number of avian visitors rivals that of human visitors over the course of the year. Both the coast and the inland valleys invite hundreds of bird species. Many of them spend long stretches of time here, while others merely pass through, on their way to places as close as the Salton Sea or as distant as Patagonia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Migrating birds all over the world arrive and depart along predictable paths, which have been dubbed “flyways.” There are four major flyways in North America, stretching into South America: the Atlantic, Mississippi, Central, and Pacific.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/flyways300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>See the four major flyways in North America\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each flyway that passes through the United States even has its own council that works with state and federal wildlife agencies to protect birds and manage hunting regulations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In California, the flyway has two “lanes,” one along the coast and the other that follows inland valleys. At the intersection of the Delta, the coast and the Central Valley, Big Break Regional Shoreline is an all-seasons crossroads for migrating birds, and draws all manner of shorebirds, raptors, and songbirds on their travels. On a good day, a birder can spot up to 60 species. Our avian visitors are a combination of birds wintering here from colder climes, and birds summering here who spend winter in Mexico or other points south. Spring migration antics peak from February through April, when visitors may be treated to meadowlarks, sparrows and dowitchers, among others, making their way out of town. Fall brings the spectacular return of Sandhill cranes showing off their six-foot wingspans. Among the summer tourists is the threatened Swainson’s hawk, a special guest at Big Break from June to August. Other good birding spots in the Bay Area include \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/science-hike/elkhorn-slough-exploration/\">Elkhorn Slough\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/science-hike/don-edwards-sf-bay-national-wildlife-refuge-exploration/\">Don Edwards Wildlife Refuge\u003c/a>, and Pt. Reyes, which is home to the Point Reyes Bird Observatory. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One fact that both amazes and helps bird researchers is that migrators tend to not only fly along the same route, but to actually return to very specific places. This means that if a particular bird is caught by a researcher’s net one year and then banded, there’s a good likelihood that same bird will end up in the same net the following year. This provides the opportunity for scientists to learn from observations made on specific birds year after year. Sometimes researchers also attach tracking devices as well as bands to the birds, allowing those birds’ movements to be followed in very detailed ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some birds fly for weeks without stopping, others rest along the way. Some fly hundreds of miles, others fly thousands. No matter what their path, migration is a major effort that requires energy and time. Why do birds bother? It turns out that traversing all those miles has a real advantage when it comes to daylight. Imagine that as the hour of sunset got earlier and earlier, you could simply relocate to a place with a solar schedule you liked better. More time to hang out outdoors hiking. For a bird, a longer day means more light time to gather food and and thus a better place to hatch, raise, and feed hungry youngsters. Not to mention the bonus that more sunlight means more time for tasty plants to grow, which translates to more food to collect and feed to the little ones.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Birds don’t consciously set out on their migrations with a destination in mind. They seem to be pre-programmed with their own unique \u003cspan class=\"caps\">GPS\u003c/span> units. They are guided by land features like coastlines, mountains, and rivers, and also use the sun and stars. In fact, some night-flying songbirds actually memorize certain star patterns in the sky in their first year of life, to prepare them for the flight. Tiny grains of magnetite in or above the nostrils of some migratory birds may also help them use the Earth’s magnetic field, and a few birds can employ their sense of smell on the journey as well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But how, exactly, birds find their way from here to there remains something of a mystery. And while it would be nice to know precisely how they manage their incredible feat, the elusiveness of answers makes it that much more magical to see and hear hundreds of birds take flight at the same moment, heading for the same place, doing what they’ve been doing for thousands of years.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Visitor Photos\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Join our \u003ca href=\"http://flickr.com/groups/1466083@N24\">Big Break Regional Shoreline photo group on Flickr\u003c/a> to share your photos of this amazing place.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Additional Links\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/big_break\">EBRPD - Big Break Regional Shoreline\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://pacificflyway.gov/\">Pacific Flyway Council\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.prbo.org/cms/424\">PRBO:Tracking Migrating Shorebirds\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Home Sweet Serpentine",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/flower.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Tamalpais Manzanita, Mount Tamalpais State Park. Photo: \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/randomtruth/4484842885/in/set-72157623633650549/\">randomtruth\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine, California’s state rock, is feeling some pressure—and not just because it’s a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rock\">metamorphic\u003c/a>\u003cstrong> \u003c/strong>rock! The California Legislature is considering a bill that would strip serpentine of its state rock status; geology blogger Brian Romans explained the details in \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/05/learn-the-facts-about-serpentinite-before-its-removed-as-californias-state-rock/\">this recent QUEST blog\u003c/a>. Basically, proponents of the bill say that because asbestos is made from serpentine rock, and asbestos causes cancer, serpentine should not be the state rock. Never mind that serpentine does not cause cancer. In fact, many organisms thrive on serpentine soils. And that is what today’s post is about—the unique plants and animals that call serpentine soil home.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine soil is a tough environment: the soil is coarse, so water runs right through it, making it very dry. It is often dark in color, so it heats up in the sun. And its chemical makeup is challenging to plant life, to say the least. The soil has high concentrations of heavy metals, like nickel, iron, and chromium, and low concentrations of nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorus. It is also really high in magnesium, which makes it hard for plants’ roots to take up those already-scarce nutrients. And it is low in calcium, which causes ion balance problems for plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With nutrients scarce, serpentine inhabitants tend to be small in stature—it’s hard to grow big without much food. And, with low water availability, serpentine plants are drought-tolerant. They often have tough little leaves, which don’t lose much water. Some examples are the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=563\">Tamalpais manzanita\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Arctostaphylos montana\u003c/em>), and the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=6992\">Leather Oak\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Quercus durata\u003c/em>).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plants on serpentine soils also have to deal with those heavy metals, which can interfere with metabolic processes. Some plants, like the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=7858\">Milkwort Jewelflower\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Strepthanus polygaloides\u003c/em>), have a really high tolerance for heavy metals. Milkwort Jelweflower is a nickel hyperaccumulator—it can take up lots of nickel from the soil, with no ill effects. In fact, some serpentine plants are used in bioremediation; people plant them in contaminated soil, where they pull the heavy metals out of the ground and sequester them in their tissues.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine soils are home to many endemic species—species that live in a particular habitat type, and nowhere else. Sometimes plants or animals are limited to one habitat because they can’t survive the physical conditions of other habitat types. But in the case of serpentine endemics, many can live in other habitats’ nutrient-rich soils, but are total weaklings when it comes to competition with other plants. They can’t live in other habitats simply because they are out-competed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine soils are home to more than just plants—there are butterflies, too, like the beautiful \u003ca href=\"http://butterfly.ucdavis.edu/butterfly/Pontia/sisymbrii\">California White\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Pontia sisymbrii\u003c/em>). Some, like a rare variant of the Edith’s checkerspot butterfly, \u003ca href=\"http://www.butterfliesofamerica.com/euphydryas_editha_luestherae.htm\">\u003cem>Euphydryas editha luestherae\u003c/em>\u003c/a>, are serpentine endemics, because they lay their eggs exclusively on plants living on serpentine soils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://geoblogs.stratigraphy.net/\">Geoblogosphere\u003c/a> is buzzing with commentary about California’s serpentine bill. If you feel passionate about keeping serpentine as the state rock, by all means write your state representative—but also visit some serpentine habitat! There are lots of places in the Bay Area where you can check out serpentine soils and their inhabitants. There are serpentine outcroppings on Mount Tamalpais, Mount Diablo (be sure to check out QUEST’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/exploration/mt-diablo-state-park-exploration\">Mount Diablo State Park Exploration\u003c/a>!), and in the Berkeley and \u003ca href=\"http://oaklandgeology.wordpress.com/2008/08/20/the-crestmont-serpentine-patch/\">Oakland hills\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/flower.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Tamalpais Manzanita, Mount Tamalpais State Park. Photo: \u003ca href=\"http://www.flickr.com/photos/randomtruth/4484842885/in/set-72157623633650549/\">randomtruth\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine, California’s state rock, is feeling some pressure—and not just because it’s a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rock\">metamorphic\u003c/a>\u003cstrong> \u003c/strong>rock! The California Legislature is considering a bill that would strip serpentine of its state rock status; geology blogger Brian Romans explained the details in \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/05/learn-the-facts-about-serpentinite-before-its-removed-as-californias-state-rock/\">this recent QUEST blog\u003c/a>. Basically, proponents of the bill say that because asbestos is made from serpentine rock, and asbestos causes cancer, serpentine should not be the state rock. Never mind that serpentine does not cause cancer. In fact, many organisms thrive on serpentine soils. And that is what today’s post is about—the unique plants and animals that call serpentine soil home.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine soil is a tough environment: the soil is coarse, so water runs right through it, making it very dry. It is often dark in color, so it heats up in the sun. And its chemical makeup is challenging to plant life, to say the least. The soil has high concentrations of heavy metals, like nickel, iron, and chromium, and low concentrations of nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorus. It is also really high in magnesium, which makes it hard for plants’ roots to take up those already-scarce nutrients. And it is low in calcium, which causes ion balance problems for plants.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With nutrients scarce, serpentine inhabitants tend to be small in stature—it’s hard to grow big without much food. And, with low water availability, serpentine plants are drought-tolerant. They often have tough little leaves, which don’t lose much water. Some examples are the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=563\">Tamalpais manzanita\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Arctostaphylos montana\u003c/em>), and the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=6992\">Leather Oak\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Quercus durata\u003c/em>).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plants on serpentine soils also have to deal with those heavy metals, which can interfere with metabolic processes. Some plants, like the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=7858\">Milkwort Jewelflower\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Strepthanus polygaloides\u003c/em>), have a really high tolerance for heavy metals. Milkwort Jelweflower is a nickel hyperaccumulator—it can take up lots of nickel from the soil, with no ill effects. In fact, some serpentine plants are used in bioremediation; people plant them in contaminated soil, where they pull the heavy metals out of the ground and sequester them in their tissues.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine soils are home to many endemic species—species that live in a particular habitat type, and nowhere else. Sometimes plants or animals are limited to one habitat because they can’t survive the physical conditions of other habitat types. But in the case of serpentine endemics, many can live in other habitats’ nutrient-rich soils, but are total weaklings when it comes to competition with other plants. They can’t live in other habitats simply because they are out-competed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Serpentine soils are home to more than just plants—there are butterflies, too, like the beautiful \u003ca href=\"http://butterfly.ucdavis.edu/butterfly/Pontia/sisymbrii\">California White\u003c/a> (\u003cem>Pontia sisymbrii\u003c/em>). Some, like a rare variant of the Edith’s checkerspot butterfly, \u003ca href=\"http://www.butterfliesofamerica.com/euphydryas_editha_luestherae.htm\">\u003cem>Euphydryas editha luestherae\u003c/em>\u003c/a>, are serpentine endemics, because they lay their eggs exclusively on plants living on serpentine soils.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://geoblogs.stratigraphy.net/\">Geoblogosphere\u003c/a> is buzzing with commentary about California’s serpentine bill. If you feel passionate about keeping serpentine as the state rock, by all means write your state representative—but also visit some serpentine habitat! There are lots of places in the Bay Area where you can check out serpentine soils and their inhabitants. There are serpentine outcroppings on Mount Tamalpais, Mount Diablo (be sure to check out QUEST’s \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/exploration/mt-diablo-state-park-exploration\">Mount Diablo State Park Exploration\u003c/a>!), and in the Berkeley and \u003ca href=\"http://oaklandgeology.wordpress.com/2008/08/20/the-crestmont-serpentine-patch/\">Oakland hills\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>37.879329 -122.2463347\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Direct to consumer (DTC) genetic tests: Here Comes the FDA",
"title": "Direct to consumer (DTC) genetic tests: Here Comes the FDA",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/elephants300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Could you guess what this is from one of its hairs? That’s about how predictive current genetic tests are for complex diseases like prostate cancer or heart disease. \u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As I talked about \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/02/here-comes-the-fda/\">in my last blog\u003c/a>, direct to consumer (DTC) genetic tests are taking a beating right now from the FDA. Part of the problem has to do with some snake oil salesmen contaminating the whole field. But part of it has to do with the data that is available right now and how it is presented. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In this blog, I’ll deal with the data itself and why the FDA has such a problem with it. Next blog I’ll try to come up with ways to still get that data to consumers without ruffling any regulatory feathers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big problem with some of the current tests is that people will get different results based on the company they use. For example, the FDA reported that the same man was told he had an increased risk, the usual risk and a decreased risk for prostate cancer depending on the company he used. The FDA hates this kind of stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To them (and many people), these kinds of results say that these tests aren’t working correctly. And given their experience with medical testing, they’re right.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A real medical test should give consistent results. If you take a test that looks at your cholesterol levels, your heart attack risk should be the same no matter who administers the test. Or if you take a genetic test to see if you are a carrier for sickle cell anemia, then again the results should be the same no matter who does the testing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The genetic test for prostate cancer isn’t anything like these tests because it isn’t a medical test at all. It would be kind to even call it a work in progress. It is really just some interesting information at this point.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because we don’t have a good handle on the genetic risks for prostate cancer risk. There are almost certainly lots of different glitches in lots of different genes involved in increasing someone’s risks for getting prostate cancer. All of these variations need to be factored into a man’s risk for prostate cancer. And we only know about a few and those few have a pretty limited impact.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To add to the problem, different companies also look at different glitches or SNPs. So one company might look at one or two SNPs and say a man has a 1.2 fold increase in getting prostate cancer. And another might look at a different two and say he has a 1.1 fold decrease in getting prostate cancer. Different results but neither is particularly meaningful in predictive sort of way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is a little like trying to figure out what an elephant looks like from just the tip of its tail. And comparing that result to someone using an elephant’s eye lash to figure out the same thing. Odds are you’re not going to end up with the same animal. Just like you won’t end up with the same result from these kinds of genetic tests.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So when you have one of these tests done for complicated diseases like prostate cancer, diabetes, back pain, heart disease, etc., you’re only getting one piece of genetic information when you need 10 or 100 to figure out your actual risk. You have the eyelash or the tip of the elephant’s tail instead of the whole skeleton.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now I don’t want you to walk away thinking that I am advocating that these companies shouldn’t give customers these results. I’m not. People should have a right to this information if they want it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What I am advocating is that these companies come up with some way to explicitly state that these kinds of results are not useful medically. They need to be careful how they present the tests they offer and how they present the results. They don’t want to inadvertently lure customers into taking a test that can’t give them what they want. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/elephants300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Could you guess what this is from one of its hairs? That’s about how predictive current genetic tests are for complex diseases like prostate cancer or heart disease. \u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As I talked about \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/02/here-comes-the-fda/\">in my last blog\u003c/a>, direct to consumer (DTC) genetic tests are taking a beating right now from the FDA. Part of the problem has to do with some snake oil salesmen contaminating the whole field. But part of it has to do with the data that is available right now and how it is presented. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In this blog, I’ll deal with the data itself and why the FDA has such a problem with it. Next blog I’ll try to come up with ways to still get that data to consumers without ruffling any regulatory feathers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A big problem with some of the current tests is that people will get different results based on the company they use. For example, the FDA reported that the same man was told he had an increased risk, the usual risk and a decreased risk for prostate cancer depending on the company he used. The FDA hates this kind of stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To them (and many people), these kinds of results say that these tests aren’t working correctly. And given their experience with medical testing, they’re right.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A real medical test should give consistent results. If you take a test that looks at your cholesterol levels, your heart attack risk should be the same no matter who administers the test. Or if you take a genetic test to see if you are a carrier for sickle cell anemia, then again the results should be the same no matter who does the testing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The genetic test for prostate cancer isn’t anything like these tests because it isn’t a medical test at all. It would be kind to even call it a work in progress. It is really just some interesting information at this point.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because we don’t have a good handle on the genetic risks for prostate cancer risk. There are almost certainly lots of different glitches in lots of different genes involved in increasing someone’s risks for getting prostate cancer. All of these variations need to be factored into a man’s risk for prostate cancer. And we only know about a few and those few have a pretty limited impact.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To add to the problem, different companies also look at different glitches or SNPs. So one company might look at one or two SNPs and say a man has a 1.2 fold increase in getting prostate cancer. And another might look at a different two and say he has a 1.1 fold decrease in getting prostate cancer. Different results but neither is particularly meaningful in predictive sort of way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It is a little like trying to figure out what an elephant looks like from just the tip of its tail. And comparing that result to someone using an elephant’s eye lash to figure out the same thing. Odds are you’re not going to end up with the same animal. Just like you won’t end up with the same result from these kinds of genetic tests.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So when you have one of these tests done for complicated diseases like prostate cancer, diabetes, back pain, heart disease, etc., you’re only getting one piece of genetic information when you need 10 or 100 to figure out your actual risk. You have the eyelash or the tip of the elephant’s tail instead of the whole skeleton.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now I don’t want you to walk away thinking that I am advocating that these companies shouldn’t give customers these results. I’m not. People should have a right to this information if they want it. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What I am advocating is that these companies come up with some way to explicitly state that these kinds of results are not useful medically. They need to be careful how they present the tests they offer and how they present the results. They don’t want to inadvertently lure customers into taking a test that can’t give them what they want. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/plight-of-the-yellowlegged-frog/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reported by \u003ca href=\"http://www.aridanielshapiro.com\">Ari Daniel Shapiro\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.californiaherps.com/frogs/pages/r.boylii.html\">foothill yellow legged frog\u003c/a> has been wiped out from more than half of its historic range along California’s coast and central valley. Many biologists see this tiny amphibian as a canary in the coalmine – an early indication of an ecosystem gone wrong. \u003ca href=\"http://www.usfca.edu/facultydetails.aspx?id=4294969777\">Jennifer Dever\u003c/a>, a biologist at the University of San Francisco, is trying to help the frog make a comeback. By studying the DNA of these frogs, Dever and her graduate student Ryan Peek are examining how big and healthy the remaining populations are. Her fieldwork takes Dever to rivers and creeks all over northern California. When reporting this story, I got to tag along with her on a trip to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/ohlone\">Ohlone stretch of Alameda Creek\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog2_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7223\" title=\"frog2_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog2_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog2_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog2_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Credit: Ari Daniel Shapiro.\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nDever and I went to the creek with two other scientists – biologist Sarah Kupferberg and wildlife ecologist Steve Bobzien. The trio was really at home scanning the water for tadpoles and catching them in their hands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog3_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7224\" title=\"frog3_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog3_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog3_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog3_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog4_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7225\" title=\"frog4_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog4_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog4_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog4_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog5_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7223\" title=\"frog5_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog5_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Credit: Ari Daniel Shapiro.\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nThe goal of Dever’s work is to figure out how genetically diverse the frog populations are. When these frogs mate, the male jumps on the female’s back and holds on. It’s called amplexus. With the male hanging onto her back, the female uses her hind legs to clean the surface of a rock until it’s smooth enough to glue her eggs to it. The male fertilizes the eggs in the water. Each of those fertilized eggs gets half its DNA from its mom and half from its dad. The bigger the population, the more different combinations of DNA there are in each generation. That means higher genetic diversity, and a healthier, more resilient population.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog6_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7227\" title=\"frog6_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog6_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"426\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog6_640.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog6_640-400x266.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7228\" title=\"frog7_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"428\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640-400x268.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cem> Credit: Alessandro Catenazzi\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nAlthough Dever didn’t take any samples on the day that I visited, in general she clips off a small tip of tadpole tail and tip of frog toe to get their DNA. Dever puts the samples in ethanol and records their GPS locations, and then she goes back to her genetics lab.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7229\" title=\"frog8_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7230\" title=\"frog9_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a> \u003cem>Credit: Ari Daniel Shapiro\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nDever puts the DNA through a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction\">series of procedures\u003c/a>, first copying regions of it over and over again to make a lot more of it. Because DNA has a negative charge, Dever can move it through a square piece of gel (it looks like a clear slab of jello) by applying a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis\">positive charge\u003c/a> at the other end. Take a look at this photo of two of Dever’s gels. Each column (or lane) corresponds to a different individual frog.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: normal;font-size: 13px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7231\" title=\"frog10\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"673\" height=\"328\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10.jpg 673w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10-400x195.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10-672x328.jpg 672w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 673px) 100vw, 673px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>\u003cem>Credit: Jennifer Dever\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nEach white band is a different fragment of DNA. The DNA in the gel on the left has all moved to pretty much the same vertical positions. That means these frogs have very similar DNA. These frogs are more closely related and come from a smaller, less genetically diverse population. The DNA in the gel on the right has more fragments of different sizes. These frogs have dissimilar DNA, they come from a bigger population, and they’re more distantly related.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nBy using this technique, Dever’s able to grab the DNA from a handful of frogs or tadpoles in a particular creek and know just how healthy (in terms of genetic diversity) that population is. In the creek, Dever can’t tell how the frogs are related. But in the lab, the answer’s clear. For Dever, every frog counts, and it’s the DNA that adds up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7232\" title=\"frog11_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"639\" height=\"429\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640.jpg 639w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640-400x269.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003c/a>\u003cem> Credit: Alessandro Catenazzi\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cdiv>\u003cspan style=\"color: #0000ee\">\u003cbr>\n\u003c/span>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/13/reporters-notes-a-frog-in-trouble-a-scientist-in-her-element/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/images/radio_icon_light.gif\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/plight-of-the-yellowlegged-frog\">Listen to Plight of the Yellow Legged Frog\u003c/a> radio report online.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.521151 -121.748042\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/plight-of-the-yellowlegged-frog/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog300.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reported by \u003ca href=\"http://www.aridanielshapiro.com\">Ari Daniel Shapiro\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.californiaherps.com/frogs/pages/r.boylii.html\">foothill yellow legged frog\u003c/a> has been wiped out from more than half of its historic range along California’s coast and central valley. Many biologists see this tiny amphibian as a canary in the coalmine – an early indication of an ecosystem gone wrong. \u003ca href=\"http://www.usfca.edu/facultydetails.aspx?id=4294969777\">Jennifer Dever\u003c/a>, a biologist at the University of San Francisco, is trying to help the frog make a comeback. By studying the DNA of these frogs, Dever and her graduate student Ryan Peek are examining how big and healthy the remaining populations are. Her fieldwork takes Dever to rivers and creeks all over northern California. When reporting this story, I got to tag along with her on a trip to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/ohlone\">Ohlone stretch of Alameda Creek\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog2_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7223\" title=\"frog2_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog2_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog2_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog2_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Credit: Ari Daniel Shapiro.\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nDever and I went to the creek with two other scientists – biologist Sarah Kupferberg and wildlife ecologist Steve Bobzien. The trio was really at home scanning the water for tadpoles and catching them in their hands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog3_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7224\" title=\"frog3_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog3_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog3_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog3_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog4_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7225\" title=\"frog4_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog4_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog4_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog4_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog5_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7223\" title=\"frog5_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog5_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Credit: Ari Daniel Shapiro.\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nThe goal of Dever’s work is to figure out how genetically diverse the frog populations are. When these frogs mate, the male jumps on the female’s back and holds on. It’s called amplexus. With the male hanging onto her back, the female uses her hind legs to clean the surface of a rock until it’s smooth enough to glue her eggs to it. The male fertilizes the eggs in the water. Each of those fertilized eggs gets half its DNA from its mom and half from its dad. The bigger the population, the more different combinations of DNA there are in each generation. That means higher genetic diversity, and a healthier, more resilient population.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/frog6_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7227\" title=\"frog6_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog6_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"426\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog6_640.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog6_640-400x266.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7228\" title=\"frog7_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"428\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog7_640-400x268.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cem> Credit: Alessandro Catenazzi\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nAlthough Dever didn’t take any samples on the day that I visited, in general she clips off a small tip of tadpole tail and tip of frog toe to get their DNA. Dever puts the samples in ethanol and records their GPS locations, and then she goes back to her genetics lab.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7229\" title=\"frog8_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog8_640-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7230\" title=\"frog9_640.480\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog9_640.480-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a> \u003cem>Credit: Ari Daniel Shapiro\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nDever puts the DNA through a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction\">series of procedures\u003c/a>, first copying regions of it over and over again to make a lot more of it. Because DNA has a negative charge, Dever can move it through a square piece of gel (it looks like a clear slab of jello) by applying a \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gel_electrophoresis\">positive charge\u003c/a> at the other end. Take a look at this photo of two of Dever’s gels. Each column (or lane) corresponds to a different individual frog.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: normal;font-size: 13px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7231\" title=\"frog10\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"673\" height=\"328\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10.jpg 673w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10-400x195.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog10-672x328.jpg 672w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 673px) 100vw, 673px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>\u003cem>Credit: Jennifer Dever\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nEach white band is a different fragment of DNA. The DNA in the gel on the left has all moved to pretty much the same vertical positions. That means these frogs have very similar DNA. These frogs are more closely related and come from a smaller, less genetically diverse population. The DNA in the gel on the right has more fragments of different sizes. These frogs have dissimilar DNA, they come from a bigger population, and they’re more distantly related.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr>\nBy using this technique, Dever’s able to grab the DNA from a handful of frogs or tadpoles in a particular creek and know just how healthy (in terms of genetic diversity) that population is. In the creek, Dever can’t tell how the frogs are related. But in the lab, the answer’s clear. For Dever, every frog counts, and it’s the DNA that adds up.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch6>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-7232\" title=\"frog11_640\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"639\" height=\"429\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640.jpg 639w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/frog11_640-400x269.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 639px) 100vw, 639px\">\u003c/a>\u003cem> Credit: Alessandro Catenazzi\u003c/em>\u003c/h6>\n\u003cdiv>\u003cspan style=\"color: #0000ee\">\u003cbr>\n\u003c/span>\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2010/08/13/reporters-notes-a-frog-in-trouble-a-scientist-in-her-element/\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/images/radio_icon_light.gif\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003c/span>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/plight-of-the-yellowlegged-frog\">Listen to Plight of the Yellow Legged Frog\u003c/a> radio report online.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.521151 -121.748042\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "SF Scientist Discovers Earliest Tool Use by Human Ancestors",
"title": "SF Scientist Discovers Earliest Tool Use by Human Ancestors",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/CalAcademy_Viktor_Deak_resized_A_-afarensis-using-stone-tools.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist's rendering of A. afarensis using stone tools. By Viktor Deak, copyright California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Originally reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next time you reach for your high-carbon, stainless steel chef’s knife to trim the excess fat off a bone-in Porterhouse steak, you may want to raise a glass to your ancestors who roamed Africa millions of years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A Bay Area researcher and his team made a startling discovery when they unearthed a pair of bones recently in northeastern Ethiopia: the earliest evidence of stone tool use by upright human ancestors 3.4 million years ago – nearly a million years earlier than scientists previously had believed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/Zeray_Agemseled_-001_REV_scaled.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Zeresenay Alemseged in his office at the California Academy of Sciences. Photo by Sheraz Sadiq.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“The moment that sort of primitive species, not so primitive anymore, started to use those tools, it started to open up the type of species we are today,” said Zeresenay Alemseged, chair of the anthropology department at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/\">California Academy of Sciences\u003c/a> in San Francisco.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That primitive stone tool they made 3.4 million years ago is the precursor for all the technologies that we have today.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alemseged’s research appears in Thursday’s edition of the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html\">Nature\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Meat at the ancient watering hole\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The discovery could help rewrite understanding how humans evolved, because stone tool use and meat eating were key steps taken along the evolutionary path leading to the big-brained species we are today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Brain tissue is extremely expensive to grow and maintain, so meat provided a dense source of calories, and additional nutrients like fats and proteins that are important for growing big brains”, said Teresa Steele, a professor of anthropology at the University of California-Davis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The species at the center of the research bore only a passing resemblance to today's \u003cem>Homo sapiens\u003c/em>. Known as \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-afarensis\">Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/a>\u003c/em>, the human forebears were long-limbed, about four feet tall, resembling chimpanzees that walked upright but also partially lived in trees. They were thought to have eaten mostly leaves and fruits. But now scientists have a more accurate picture of their diet and behavior.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This new discovery clearly shows that the picture we had was wrong, because the species was not only using tools, but was using tools to interact with large mammals, to exploit meat from very large mammals and no other non-human species can do that,” said Alemseged.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They weren’t so much hunting their meals as scavenging them, he said, because their legs weren’t built for chasing prey. Alemseged believes they would venture into the open grasslands of East Africa to find dying or recently deceased animals, like antelope, and use their tools to obtain the nutrient-rich meat. Then, they would need to work as a team in a landscape teeming with other hostile, hungry predators.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/CalAcademy_scaled_The-two-stone-tool-modified-bones-from-Dikika-Ethiopia.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fossilized bone fragments from Dikika, Ethiopia that show evidence of stone tool use. Copyright California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“When some were using tools to carve the meat off the bone or break the bones to access the marrow, some maybe were watching for hyenas or lions. And that’s why I can confidently say that when we revise the textbooks for the earliest evidence for stone tool use and meat eating, we will have to revise also the picture of the species \u003cem>Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/em> on the ancient landscape,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The behavior suggests a certain level of intelligence and planning, which is impressive considering that “Lucy,” a partial skeleton of \u003cem>Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/em> unearthed 36 years ago, had a brain that was roughly a third the size of a human brain, which first started cogitating in modern human form about 200,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humans and chimps share a common evolutionary ancestor, and chimps also use tools, such as twigs to dig for termites in mounds or rocks to break open nuts. Humans, however, are the only primate species to intentionally make sharp-edged tools to hunt or scavenge prey much larger than themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Leaving no fossil unturned\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alemseged’s latest discovery grew out of the \u003ca href=\"http://research.calacademy.org/anthro/research/dikika\">Dikika Research Project\u003c/a>, which he has led since 1999, looking annually for fossils in the Afar region of Ethiopia -- a dry land once dotted with forests and grassy savannahs on which \u003ca href=\"http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive\">the earliest upright human ancestor\u003c/a> would have taken its first two-legged steps six million years ago. In early 2009, just six miles from where Lucy was found, this “cradle of mankind” as Alemseged calls it, offered up the tantalizing find announced this week.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We took everything back to the camp and a group of us was sitting in the camp and just everyday going through each bone. And then our paleontologist noticed something on the foot bone of an antelope, and when we looked at it, there were cut marks evidently,” Alemseged said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although that bone didn’t turn out to have the cut marks that were indicative of stone tool use, two bone fragments did – one from the rib bone of a cow-like animal and one from the leg of a goat-sized antelope. But the team had to be sure, because the marks could have been caused by abrasion over the years or by the teeth of another predator. So Alemseged received permission from the government of Ethiopia to send the bones out of the country to Arizona State University, where they were examined by high-tech forensic tools.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An environmental scanning electron microscope enlarged the cut marks to reveal a pattern consistent with a scraping and pounding motion from a sharp-edged stone tool. Within one of the cut marks on one of the bones was further irresistible proof of early human activity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We discovered a rock that has a completely different chemical composition from the bone itself. So that means that it came into the cut mark when someone was using a sharp-edged igneous rock to cut the bone or the meat. Based on chemical analysis we were able to show that that cut mark was made by stone and done before the fossil fossilized,” Alemseged said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/HamdallaBearat_paleo_tool_scraping_21.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Under a microscope, one of the bone fragments reveals evidence of a scraping motion. Photo courtesy of Hamdallah Bearat, Arizona State University.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Since massive volcanic eruptions 3.42 and 3.24 million years ago spewed layers of volcanic ash into the basin where the cut-marked bones were found, dating the bones was relatively straightforward. The research team settled on a date of 3.4 million years because the bones were found in a sediment layer close to the layer containing the volcanic ash from 3.42 million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where are the tools?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alemseged, a 41 year-old, Ethiopian-born paleoanthropologist, had already made a name for himself with his discovery in 2000 of “\u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/beta/evolution/becoming-human-part-1.html\">Selam\u003c/a>,” the oldest and most complete remains of an \u003cem>Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/em> child who lived more than three million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As he once more enters the world of this ancient human ancestor, a key mystery remains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The most obvious question is, ‘where are the tools?’”, said David Braun, a senior lecturer at the University of Cape Town in South Africa who studies fossils bearing marks of early stone tool use. “These early tools will actually represent the dawn of human culture and will likely be difficult to identify”, said Braun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The oldest found stone tools – made of basalt, quartz and flint - were also discovered in Ethiopia, dating back some two and a half million years ago. If they still exist, it will be a challenge to find stones with sharp, flaked edges that could have been used to butcher meat more than three million years ago, now dispersed and lying hidden for millennia under layers of soil. And while these ancient human ancestors now appear to have been using tools, whether they actually made them is likely to be a subject for debate. “There is currently no evidence that they actively chipped stone to make tools. The earliest tools are most likely sharp-edged stones that were opportunistically used”, said Braun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When they’re in the field, Alemseged and his team of scientists and graduate students works up to 12 hours a day, seven days a week for a month or more, combing an area not just for large, readily identifiable bones, but also for fragments which require further scrutiny.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The fact that we made this discovery is because we changed the way we were collecting the fossils, so we need to continue to look for more cut-marked bones and really show that it is a standard thing to do and then find the stone tools that were used to inflict those marks on the bones,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re trying to address one of the most important questions in humanity: who we are and where do we come from. This individual who carved that stone tool contributed to your genes, my genes, to every person’s genes on this planet.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"headline": "SF Scientist Discovers Earliest Tool Use by Human Ancestors",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/CalAcademy_Viktor_Deak_resized_A_-afarensis-using-stone-tools.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artist's rendering of A. afarensis using stone tools. By Viktor Deak, copyright California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Originally reported for \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/news/\">KQEDnews.org\u003c/a>.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next time you reach for your high-carbon, stainless steel chef’s knife to trim the excess fat off a bone-in Porterhouse steak, you may want to raise a glass to your ancestors who roamed Africa millions of years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A Bay Area researcher and his team made a startling discovery when they unearthed a pair of bones recently in northeastern Ethiopia: the earliest evidence of stone tool use by upright human ancestors 3.4 million years ago – nearly a million years earlier than scientists previously had believed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/Zeray_Agemseled_-001_REV_scaled.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Zeresenay Alemseged in his office at the California Academy of Sciences. Photo by Sheraz Sadiq.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“The moment that sort of primitive species, not so primitive anymore, started to use those tools, it started to open up the type of species we are today,” said Zeresenay Alemseged, chair of the anthropology department at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/\">California Academy of Sciences\u003c/a> in San Francisco.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That primitive stone tool they made 3.4 million years ago is the precursor for all the technologies that we have today.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alemseged’s research appears in Thursday’s edition of the journal \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html\">Nature\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Meat at the ancient watering hole\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The discovery could help rewrite understanding how humans evolved, because stone tool use and meat eating were key steps taken along the evolutionary path leading to the big-brained species we are today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Brain tissue is extremely expensive to grow and maintain, so meat provided a dense source of calories, and additional nutrients like fats and proteins that are important for growing big brains”, said Teresa Steele, a professor of anthropology at the University of California-Davis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The species at the center of the research bore only a passing resemblance to today's \u003cem>Homo sapiens\u003c/em>. Known as \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-afarensis\">Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/a>\u003c/em>, the human forebears were long-limbed, about four feet tall, resembling chimpanzees that walked upright but also partially lived in trees. They were thought to have eaten mostly leaves and fruits. But now scientists have a more accurate picture of their diet and behavior.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This new discovery clearly shows that the picture we had was wrong, because the species was not only using tools, but was using tools to interact with large mammals, to exploit meat from very large mammals and no other non-human species can do that,” said Alemseged.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They weren’t so much hunting their meals as scavenging them, he said, because their legs weren’t built for chasing prey. Alemseged believes they would venture into the open grasslands of East Africa to find dying or recently deceased animals, like antelope, and use their tools to obtain the nutrient-rich meat. Then, they would need to work as a team in a landscape teeming with other hostile, hungry predators.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/CalAcademy_scaled_The-two-stone-tool-modified-bones-from-Dikika-Ethiopia.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fossilized bone fragments from Dikika, Ethiopia that show evidence of stone tool use. Copyright California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“When some were using tools to carve the meat off the bone or break the bones to access the marrow, some maybe were watching for hyenas or lions. And that’s why I can confidently say that when we revise the textbooks for the earliest evidence for stone tool use and meat eating, we will have to revise also the picture of the species \u003cem>Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/em> on the ancient landscape,” he added.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The behavior suggests a certain level of intelligence and planning, which is impressive considering that “Lucy,” a partial skeleton of \u003cem>Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/em> unearthed 36 years ago, had a brain that was roughly a third the size of a human brain, which first started cogitating in modern human form about 200,000 years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humans and chimps share a common evolutionary ancestor, and chimps also use tools, such as twigs to dig for termites in mounds or rocks to break open nuts. Humans, however, are the only primate species to intentionally make sharp-edged tools to hunt or scavenge prey much larger than themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Leaving no fossil unturned\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alemseged’s latest discovery grew out of the \u003ca href=\"http://research.calacademy.org/anthro/research/dikika\">Dikika Research Project\u003c/a>, which he has led since 1999, looking annually for fossils in the Afar region of Ethiopia -- a dry land once dotted with forests and grassy savannahs on which \u003ca href=\"http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive\">the earliest upright human ancestor\u003c/a> would have taken its first two-legged steps six million years ago. In early 2009, just six miles from where Lucy was found, this “cradle of mankind” as Alemseged calls it, offered up the tantalizing find announced this week.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We took everything back to the camp and a group of us was sitting in the camp and just everyday going through each bone. And then our paleontologist noticed something on the foot bone of an antelope, and when we looked at it, there were cut marks evidently,” Alemseged said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Although that bone didn’t turn out to have the cut marks that were indicative of stone tool use, two bone fragments did – one from the rib bone of a cow-like animal and one from the leg of a goat-sized antelope. But the team had to be sure, because the marks could have been caused by abrasion over the years or by the teeth of another predator. So Alemseged received permission from the government of Ethiopia to send the bones out of the country to Arizona State University, where they were examined by high-tech forensic tools.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An environmental scanning electron microscope enlarged the cut marks to reveal a pattern consistent with a scraping and pounding motion from a sharp-edged stone tool. Within one of the cut marks on one of the bones was further irresistible proof of early human activity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We discovered a rock that has a completely different chemical composition from the bone itself. So that means that it came into the cut mark when someone was using a sharp-edged igneous rock to cut the bone or the meat. Based on chemical analysis we were able to show that that cut mark was made by stone and done before the fossil fossilized,” Alemseged said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/HamdallaBearat_paleo_tool_scraping_21.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Under a microscope, one of the bone fragments reveals evidence of a scraping motion. Photo courtesy of Hamdallah Bearat, Arizona State University.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Since massive volcanic eruptions 3.42 and 3.24 million years ago spewed layers of volcanic ash into the basin where the cut-marked bones were found, dating the bones was relatively straightforward. The research team settled on a date of 3.4 million years because the bones were found in a sediment layer close to the layer containing the volcanic ash from 3.42 million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where are the tools?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Alemseged, a 41 year-old, Ethiopian-born paleoanthropologist, had already made a name for himself with his discovery in 2000 of “\u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/beta/evolution/becoming-human-part-1.html\">Selam\u003c/a>,” the oldest and most complete remains of an \u003cem>Australopithecus afarensis\u003c/em> child who lived more than three million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As he once more enters the world of this ancient human ancestor, a key mystery remains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The most obvious question is, ‘where are the tools?’”, said David Braun, a senior lecturer at the University of Cape Town in South Africa who studies fossils bearing marks of early stone tool use. “These early tools will actually represent the dawn of human culture and will likely be difficult to identify”, said Braun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The oldest found stone tools – made of basalt, quartz and flint - were also discovered in Ethiopia, dating back some two and a half million years ago. If they still exist, it will be a challenge to find stones with sharp, flaked edges that could have been used to butcher meat more than three million years ago, now dispersed and lying hidden for millennia under layers of soil. And while these ancient human ancestors now appear to have been using tools, whether they actually made them is likely to be a subject for debate. “There is currently no evidence that they actively chipped stone to make tools. The earliest tools are most likely sharp-edged stones that were opportunistically used”, said Braun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When they’re in the field, Alemseged and his team of scientists and graduate students works up to 12 hours a day, seven days a week for a month or more, combing an area not just for large, readily identifiable bones, but also for fragments which require further scrutiny.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The fact that we made this discovery is because we changed the way we were collecting the fossils, so we need to continue to look for more cut-marked bones and really show that it is a standard thing to do and then find the stone tools that were used to inflict those marks on the bones,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re trying to address one of the most important questions in humanity: who we are and where do we come from. This individual who carved that stone tool contributed to your genes, my genes, to every person’s genes on this planet.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/the-fierce-humboldt-squid\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/07/Humboldt_squid_NOAA_CBNMS_cropped.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Humboldt Squid. Photo: NOAA/CBNMS.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Large numbers of \u003ca href=\"http://gilly.stanford.edu/humboldt.html\">Humboldt squid\u003c/a>, deep purple-red and up to six feet long, have propelled themselves into Monterey Bay mid-summer since 2002. They spend the fall and early winter here, probably to feed, and then spend spring further south. But this year, the squid have yet to arrive. No one knows if the squid are behind schedule or if they’re not going to show up at all. Humboldt squid isn’t the most popular item on the menu in North America, but it is very big in Japan, making it the world’s 14\u003csup>th\u003c/sup> largest fishery by weight. And, their absence leaves a hole in Monterey Bay’s food chain. The Humboldt squid are voracious predators, feeding on anchovies, sardines, rockfish, market squid, and crustaceans. The delayed arrival of the Humboldt squid is a mystery, and it could have consequences for the underwater ecosystem—in Monterey Bay and all along the coast of California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humboldt squid haven’t been in our waters forever. Check out QUEST’s TV story \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/view/774\">The Fierce Humboldt Squid\u003c/a> for the full story. Historically, the Humboldt Squid have lived in equatorial waters of the Pacific, from Chile to Mexico. In the 1930s, their range extended further north, and they were caught by fishermen in Monterey. Then they disappeared, only to return briefly in 1997. But they returned again in 2002, and have every year since.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are a few hypotheses about why the squid come and go. Maybe they are responding to changes in their food supply. Or, their populations may grow when there are fewer predators—Humboldt squid are eaten by tunas, sharks, and sperm whales, some of which are in decline. Another possibility is the warming of northern waters, caused by \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html\">El Niño\u003c/a>. Trade winds usually blow from east to west across the Pacific, piling up warm water near Indonesia. During an El Niño, the trade winds die down, and warm water moves eastward, towards North and South America. The typically cold waters of Monterey Bay become unusually warm—warm enough, scientists think, for the Humboldt Squid to move in. The squids returned in 1997 and again in 2002—both were El Niño years. After 2002, the warm El Niño waters didn’t stick around, but the Humboldt squid kept coming back. This year, the squid are absent, and this is surprising because it seems to be an El Niño year (remember all that rain we got this past winter?).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Julie Stewart, a grad student at Stanford’s Hopkins Marine Station, is \u003ca href=\"http://gilly.stanford.edu/jstewart.html\">researching\u003c/a> the migration and movement of Humboldt squid for her dissertation. (Her advisor, Professor William Gilly, is featured in the QUEST video.) Julie has data from thousands of hours of underwater video, filmed on \u003ca href=\"http://www.mbari.org/\">MBARI\u003c/a>’s submersibles, which she’s using to estimate squid populations over the past decade. She’s put satellite tags on squid, to see where they go and how deep they dive. She wants to find out whether the squids' movement is in response to food supply, predators, ocean conditions, or other variables.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Julie wondered if the squid were here, but in small numbers, making them harder to find. Or, if the squid were just very far offshore. So last week, she spent five days aboard a \u003ca href=\"http://montereybay.noaa.gov/\">Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary\u003c/a> research cruise, looking for squid. The primary purpose of the trip was to do marine mammal and seabird surveys, which happen during the daytime—the captain let her \u003ca href=\"http://www.centerforoceansolutions.org/blog/2010/08/04/surveying-davidson-seamount-where-are-humbolt-squid\">search for squid\u003c/a> at night. Julie and other crew on the boat used jigs—glow-in-the dark lures with spikes—on fishing lines. They jigged at 10 stations near the \u003ca href=\"http://montereybay.noaa.gov/research/dsmz/welcome.html\">Davidson Seamount\u003c/a>, about 80 miles southwest of Monterey Bay. And they found exactly zero squid. Even far offshore, the squid were nowhere to be seen. Julie and her colleagues have been talking to fishermen up and down the west coast, from southern California to Washington, and no one has seen squid this summer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 36.796846 -122.025000\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/the-fierce-humboldt-squid\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/07/Humboldt_squid_NOAA_CBNMS_cropped.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Humboldt Squid. Photo: NOAA/CBNMS.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Large numbers of \u003ca href=\"http://gilly.stanford.edu/humboldt.html\">Humboldt squid\u003c/a>, deep purple-red and up to six feet long, have propelled themselves into Monterey Bay mid-summer since 2002. They spend the fall and early winter here, probably to feed, and then spend spring further south. But this year, the squid have yet to arrive. No one knows if the squid are behind schedule or if they’re not going to show up at all. Humboldt squid isn’t the most popular item on the menu in North America, but it is very big in Japan, making it the world’s 14\u003csup>th\u003c/sup> largest fishery by weight. And, their absence leaves a hole in Monterey Bay’s food chain. The Humboldt squid are voracious predators, feeding on anchovies, sardines, rockfish, market squid, and crustaceans. The delayed arrival of the Humboldt squid is a mystery, and it could have consequences for the underwater ecosystem—in Monterey Bay and all along the coast of California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!--more-->\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humboldt squid haven’t been in our waters forever. Check out QUEST’s TV story \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/view/774\">The Fierce Humboldt Squid\u003c/a> for the full story. Historically, the Humboldt Squid have lived in equatorial waters of the Pacific, from Chile to Mexico. In the 1930s, their range extended further north, and they were caught by fishermen in Monterey. Then they disappeared, only to return briefly in 1997. But they returned again in 2002, and have every year since.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are a few hypotheses about why the squid come and go. Maybe they are responding to changes in their food supply. Or, their populations may grow when there are fewer predators—Humboldt squid are eaten by tunas, sharks, and sperm whales, some of which are in decline. Another possibility is the warming of northern waters, caused by \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html\">El Niño\u003c/a>. Trade winds usually blow from east to west across the Pacific, piling up warm water near Indonesia. During an El Niño, the trade winds die down, and warm water moves eastward, towards North and South America. The typically cold waters of Monterey Bay become unusually warm—warm enough, scientists think, for the Humboldt Squid to move in. The squids returned in 1997 and again in 2002—both were El Niño years. After 2002, the warm El Niño waters didn’t stick around, but the Humboldt squid kept coming back. This year, the squid are absent, and this is surprising because it seems to be an El Niño year (remember all that rain we got this past winter?).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Julie Stewart, a grad student at Stanford’s Hopkins Marine Station, is \u003ca href=\"http://gilly.stanford.edu/jstewart.html\">researching\u003c/a> the migration and movement of Humboldt squid for her dissertation. (Her advisor, Professor William Gilly, is featured in the QUEST video.) Julie has data from thousands of hours of underwater video, filmed on \u003ca href=\"http://www.mbari.org/\">MBARI\u003c/a>’s submersibles, which she’s using to estimate squid populations over the past decade. She’s put satellite tags on squid, to see where they go and how deep they dive. She wants to find out whether the squids' movement is in response to food supply, predators, ocean conditions, or other variables.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Julie wondered if the squid were here, but in small numbers, making them harder to find. Or, if the squid were just very far offshore. So last week, she spent five days aboard a \u003ca href=\"http://montereybay.noaa.gov/\">Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary\u003c/a> research cruise, looking for squid. The primary purpose of the trip was to do marine mammal and seabird surveys, which happen during the daytime—the captain let her \u003ca href=\"http://www.centerforoceansolutions.org/blog/2010/08/04/surveying-davidson-seamount-where-are-humbolt-squid\">search for squid\u003c/a> at night. Julie and other crew on the boat used jigs—glow-in-the dark lures with spikes—on fishing lines. They jigged at 10 stations near the \u003ca href=\"http://montereybay.noaa.gov/research/dsmz/welcome.html\">Davidson Seamount\u003c/a>, about 80 miles southwest of Monterey Bay. And they found exactly zero squid. Even far offshore, the squid were nowhere to be seen. Julie and her colleagues have been talking to fishermen up and down the west coast, from southern California to Washington, and no one has seen squid this summer.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 36.796846 -122.025000\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/Liz1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem> Liz Blackburn, the 2009 Nobel Prize Winner in Medicine or Physiology\u003c/em>\u003c/span> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have been running a science book club (\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencecafesf.com\">DtaS book club\u003c/a>) for the past couple years. Last month, we read our \u003ca href=\"http://books.google.com/books?id=Rp8YfLX15gsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false\">first biography, that of Liz Blackburn\u003c/a>, the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-graying-of-hiv\">2009 Nobel Laureate in Medicine from UCSF\u003c/a>. The book, available freely online via \u003ca href=\"http://books.google.com/books?id=Rp8YfLX15gsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false\">Google Books\u003c/a>, recounts Liz's meteoric rise in the scientific community, essentially birthing the study of \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PU_jZwt8KY\">telomeres\u003c/a> - the end caps of chromosomes. Her work revolved around greater understanding of telomerase, the enzyme which is involved in the lengthening and shortening of these end caps. The process is complicated and not fully understood, but the basic (and oversimplified) idea is that as cells divide - the ends of chromosomes shorten leading to their eventual death. Telomerase helps repair and lengthen these end pieces of DNA, affecting the life span of cells. This has implications in aging, cancer research, even \u003ca href=\"http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/The-poor-age-faster-than-the-rich-study/2006/07/21/1153166552145.html\">correlations to quality of life\u003c/a>. Liz came off as the heroine in this tale - she played the role of the curious scientist that fully committed to understanding the role of a specific biological system. Alongside a small group, Liz pioneered study in this area, leading to an explosion of research in this field. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tale of her scientific discovery is riveting, but nearly as fascinating as her personal tale. Liz is the only the 8th woman to win the Nobel Prize, indicative of the gender gap in scientific research. I was personally struck by a particular comment in the book: At 38, Liz had become a full professor at UC Berkeley and attained great respect within the field - she had finally \"achieved enough to have a child\". This struggle is \u003ca href=\"http://boingboing.net/2010/06/11/women-scientists-on.html\">oft-discussed and debated\u003c/a> within the science world, but I was absolutely struck by the brutal honesty of Liz's quote. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though Liz is widely seen as one of the most polite and thoughtful scientists you'll ever meet, she has found herself in the midst of many controversies. One in particular lead to great deal of fame, her widely publicized dismissal from \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucsusa.org/scientific_integrity/abuses_of_science/presidents-council-on.html\">President George W. Bush's Council on Bioethics in 2004\u003c/a>. This council was charged with making recommendations on policy surrounding embryonic stem cell research, but was often criticized by the scientific community for advancing the political agenda of the administration. Liz details her side of the story in an editorial to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp048072\">New England Journal of Medicine\u003c/a>, citing her frequent disputes with the chairman of the council, whom she accused of ignoring comments and input from the scientist council members. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Liz will be in conversation with \u003ca href=\"http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-04-11/news/20848505_1_cancer-drugs-treatment-for-breast-cancer-cancer-fighting\">Susan Desmond-Hellman\u003c/a>, the current Chancellor of UCSF, at the Commonwealth Club. Sue is certainly no stranger to this conversation - she is widely considered one of the foremost experts on cancer research today. Sue was formerly president of product development at Genentech and was involved the development of Herceptin and Avastin - two of the most effective cancer drugs on the market today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Liz Blackburn: A Life in Science\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>When:\u003c/em>\u003cstrong>\u003cem> \u003c/em>\u003c/strong>Wednesday, August 4th 530-730 PM\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Where:\u003c/em> \u003ca href=\"http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=Commonwealth+Club+of+Calif,+San+Francisco,+CA&sll=37.0625,-95.677068&sspn=47.569986,114.169922&ie=UTF8&hq=Commonwealth+Club+of+Calif,&hnear=San+Francisco,+California&z=14&iwloc=A\">Commonwealth Club, San Francisco\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Cost:\u003c/em> $20 General, $12 Members, $7 Students\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Details:\u003c/em> On October 5, 2009, UCSF molecular biologist Blackburn learned that she had received the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for her co-discovery of an enzyme that plays a key role in aging and cancer. Blackburn discusses a life in science. We encourage both scientists and non-scientists to come hear her reflections on an unfettered childhood, skirting the 'safe' scientific projects, the benefits of not listening to naysayers, and the difference between good and bad stress.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.789251 -122.400811\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/Liz1.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003cem> Liz Blackburn, the 2009 Nobel Prize Winner in Medicine or Physiology\u003c/em>\u003c/span> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have been running a science book club (\u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencecafesf.com\">DtaS book club\u003c/a>) for the past couple years. Last month, we read our \u003ca href=\"http://books.google.com/books?id=Rp8YfLX15gsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false\">first biography, that of Liz Blackburn\u003c/a>, the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/audio/the-graying-of-hiv\">2009 Nobel Laureate in Medicine from UCSF\u003c/a>. The book, available freely online via \u003ca href=\"http://books.google.com/books?id=Rp8YfLX15gsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false\">Google Books\u003c/a>, recounts Liz's meteoric rise in the scientific community, essentially birthing the study of \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PU_jZwt8KY\">telomeres\u003c/a> - the end caps of chromosomes. Her work revolved around greater understanding of telomerase, the enzyme which is involved in the lengthening and shortening of these end caps. The process is complicated and not fully understood, but the basic (and oversimplified) idea is that as cells divide - the ends of chromosomes shorten leading to their eventual death. Telomerase helps repair and lengthen these end pieces of DNA, affecting the life span of cells. This has implications in aging, cancer research, even \u003ca href=\"http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/The-poor-age-faster-than-the-rich-study/2006/07/21/1153166552145.html\">correlations to quality of life\u003c/a>. Liz came off as the heroine in this tale - she played the role of the curious scientist that fully committed to understanding the role of a specific biological system. Alongside a small group, Liz pioneered study in this area, leading to an explosion of research in this field. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tale of her scientific discovery is riveting, but nearly as fascinating as her personal tale. Liz is the only the 8th woman to win the Nobel Prize, indicative of the gender gap in scientific research. I was personally struck by a particular comment in the book: At 38, Liz had become a full professor at UC Berkeley and attained great respect within the field - she had finally \"achieved enough to have a child\". This struggle is \u003ca href=\"http://boingboing.net/2010/06/11/women-scientists-on.html\">oft-discussed and debated\u003c/a> within the science world, but I was absolutely struck by the brutal honesty of Liz's quote. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though Liz is widely seen as one of the most polite and thoughtful scientists you'll ever meet, she has found herself in the midst of many controversies. One in particular lead to great deal of fame, her widely publicized dismissal from \u003ca href=\"http://www.ucsusa.org/scientific_integrity/abuses_of_science/presidents-council-on.html\">President George W. Bush's Council on Bioethics in 2004\u003c/a>. This council was charged with making recommendations on policy surrounding embryonic stem cell research, but was often criticized by the scientific community for advancing the political agenda of the administration. Liz details her side of the story in an editorial to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp048072\">New England Journal of Medicine\u003c/a>, citing her frequent disputes with the chairman of the council, whom she accused of ignoring comments and input from the scientist council members. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Liz will be in conversation with \u003ca href=\"http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-04-11/news/20848505_1_cancer-drugs-treatment-for-breast-cancer-cancer-fighting\">Susan Desmond-Hellman\u003c/a>, the current Chancellor of UCSF, at the Commonwealth Club. Sue is certainly no stranger to this conversation - she is widely considered one of the foremost experts on cancer research today. Sue was formerly president of product development at Genentech and was involved the development of Herceptin and Avastin - two of the most effective cancer drugs on the market today.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Liz Blackburn: A Life in Science\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>When:\u003c/em>\u003cstrong>\u003cem> \u003c/em>\u003c/strong>Wednesday, August 4th 530-730 PM\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Where:\u003c/em> \u003ca href=\"http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=Commonwealth+Club+of+Calif,+San+Francisco,+CA&sll=37.0625,-95.677068&sspn=47.569986,114.169922&ie=UTF8&hq=Commonwealth+Club+of+Calif,&hnear=San+Francisco,+California&z=14&iwloc=A\">Commonwealth Club, San Francisco\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Cost:\u003c/em> $20 General, $12 Members, $7 Students\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Details:\u003c/em> On October 5, 2009, UCSF molecular biologist Blackburn learned that she had received the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for her co-discovery of an enzyme that plays a key role in aging and cancer. Blackburn discusses a life in science. We encourage both scientists and non-scientists to come hear her reflections on an unfettered childhood, skirting the 'safe' scientific projects, the benefits of not listening to naysayers, and the difference between good and bad stress.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.789251 -122.400811\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/FileVaccineBySandraRugio.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/fda.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Maybe the FDA could set up a sort of Consumer Reports for genetic testing.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last few years, a bunch of companies have sprouted up that offer genetic testing over the Internet. The most controversial of these are the ones that offer consumers the chance to predict their future health risks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These particular direct to consumer (DTC) tests took a real kick in the teeth from Congress this month. It was a big enough wallop that I don’t think the companies will be able to survive in their current form. The real question now is what they will look like \u003ca href=\"http://energycommerce.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2083:hearing-on-direct-to-consumer-genetic-testing-and-the-consequences-to-the-public-health&catid=133:subcommittee-on-oversight-and-investigations&Itemid=73\">when all of this shakes out\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There has been some low level concern by the FDA about this sort of testing for quite a while now. But what really focused their attention was when a small company from San Diego made plans to offer their test through Walgreens. What the FDA saw was a test that promised more than it could deliver.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To be honest, this is true in one way or another about most if not all of these genetic testing companies. Few of them are able to deliver everything that many consumers think they can.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the FDA has set out to right this wrong. Unfortunately, because of the industry’s lack of organization, the FDA lumps all these testing companies together. This is not fair.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some companies like 23andMe, deCODEme and Navigeneics are basically good companies that need some FDA guidance. Other companies are rip-offs that should be shut down. One of the genetic testing industry’s tasks now is to provide the FDA with the tools to distinguish between these two groups of companies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What might help is some sort of Better Business Bureau for genetic testing. Or maybe some sort of self policing umbrella organization that only the best companies can join. Or some outside group that evaluates each company. Any of these would help both Congress and consumers have a better idea about which companies they should use for their testing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These companies can already be \u003ca href=\"http://www.cms.gov/clia/\">CLIA certified\u003c/a> but that isn’t necessarily that helpful from a results perspective. It is important in that it tells a consumer that the company runs the tests very well according to professional standards. What it doesn’t do is tell consumers which claims are believable, which ones are iffy, and which ones are straight out lies. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though it will be very tricky to police the results, these companies need to figure out a way to do this or they’ll continue to get lumped together. And consumers will lose the chance to get testing through some of the better companies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Maybe the FDA could set up a sort of Consumer Reports for genetic testing. It would be staffed by a few genetic scientists who would look at the scientific merit of these tests and determine whether the claims are true or not. This would then be published on a website and companies that were up to snuff would get a seal of approval. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now I don’t think any company except maybe \u003ca href=\"http://www.dnadirect.com\">DNA Direct\u003c/a> would get that seal. So maybe we need some sort of rating system instead. One DNA helix means stay away, five means a perfectly legitimate company, etc. This could let consumers know which are the better companies without the FDA having to straightjacket the industry into irrelevance. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'll tackle the problem of interpreting and presenting data in my next blog. What I’ll try to do is propose some ways to present the data so that any potential customers won’t be bamboozled (or at least minimize the risk). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before I leave, I do want to voice a word of caution. A working assumption in the discussion here is that the better companies are pretty good. A sting operation by the GAO (no, really) may cast some doubt on this. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you listen to this YouTube video, think about the fact that the first example is from Navigenics, one of the good companies. The good ones need to be more careful with their communications to the public or they may be wrongfully lumped in with the bad ones. Or with too many examples like this, maybe I should say rightfully… \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cobject width=\"480\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/ngdRUoPAQM0&hl=en_US&fs=1\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/ngdRUoPAQM0&hl=en_US&fs=1\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"480\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/FileVaccineBySandraRugio.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2010/08/fda.jpg\" alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003cem>Maybe the FDA could set up a sort of Consumer Reports for genetic testing.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last few years, a bunch of companies have sprouted up that offer genetic testing over the Internet. The most controversial of these are the ones that offer consumers the chance to predict their future health risks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These particular direct to consumer (DTC) tests took a real kick in the teeth from Congress this month. It was a big enough wallop that I don’t think the companies will be able to survive in their current form. The real question now is what they will look like \u003ca href=\"http://energycommerce.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2083:hearing-on-direct-to-consumer-genetic-testing-and-the-consequences-to-the-public-health&catid=133:subcommittee-on-oversight-and-investigations&Itemid=73\">when all of this shakes out\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There has been some low level concern by the FDA about this sort of testing for quite a while now. But what really focused their attention was when a small company from San Diego made plans to offer their test through Walgreens. What the FDA saw was a test that promised more than it could deliver.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To be honest, this is true in one way or another about most if not all of these genetic testing companies. Few of them are able to deliver everything that many consumers think they can.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So the FDA has set out to right this wrong. Unfortunately, because of the industry’s lack of organization, the FDA lumps all these testing companies together. This is not fair.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some companies like 23andMe, deCODEme and Navigeneics are basically good companies that need some FDA guidance. Other companies are rip-offs that should be shut down. One of the genetic testing industry’s tasks now is to provide the FDA with the tools to distinguish between these two groups of companies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What might help is some sort of Better Business Bureau for genetic testing. Or maybe some sort of self policing umbrella organization that only the best companies can join. Or some outside group that evaluates each company. Any of these would help both Congress and consumers have a better idea about which companies they should use for their testing. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These companies can already be \u003ca href=\"http://www.cms.gov/clia/\">CLIA certified\u003c/a> but that isn’t necessarily that helpful from a results perspective. It is important in that it tells a consumer that the company runs the tests very well according to professional standards. What it doesn’t do is tell consumers which claims are believable, which ones are iffy, and which ones are straight out lies. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even though it will be very tricky to police the results, these companies need to figure out a way to do this or they’ll continue to get lumped together. And consumers will lose the chance to get testing through some of the better companies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Maybe the FDA could set up a sort of Consumer Reports for genetic testing. It would be staffed by a few genetic scientists who would look at the scientific merit of these tests and determine whether the claims are true or not. This would then be published on a website and companies that were up to snuff would get a seal of approval. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Right now I don’t think any company except maybe \u003ca href=\"http://www.dnadirect.com\">DNA Direct\u003c/a> would get that seal. So maybe we need some sort of rating system instead. One DNA helix means stay away, five means a perfectly legitimate company, etc. This could let consumers know which are the better companies without the FDA having to straightjacket the industry into irrelevance. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'll tackle the problem of interpreting and presenting data in my next blog. What I’ll try to do is propose some ways to present the data so that any potential customers won’t be bamboozled (or at least minimize the risk). \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before I leave, I do want to voice a word of caution. A working assumption in the discussion here is that the better companies are pretty good. A sting operation by the GAO (no, really) may cast some doubt on this. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you listen to this YouTube video, think about the fact that the first example is from Navigenics, one of the good companies. The good ones need to be more careful with their communications to the public or they may be wrongfully lumped in with the bad ones. Or with too many examples like this, maybe I should say rightfully… \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cobject width=\"480\" height=\"385\">\u003cparam name=\"movie\" value=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/ngdRUoPAQM0&hl=en_US&fs=1\">\u003cparam name=\"allowFullScreen\" value=\"true\">\u003cparam name=\"allowscriptaccess\" value=\"always\">\u003cembed src=\"http://www.youtube.com/v/ngdRUoPAQM0&hl=en_US&fs=1\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" width=\"480\" height=\"385\">\u003c/embed>\u003c/object>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7749295 -122.4194155\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'm most excited to check out the sessions on Citizen Science in Biology. Tito Jankowski of \u003ca href=\"http://www.pearlbiotech.com/\">Pearl Biotech \u003c/a>will be discussing his work on OpenPCR, a <$1000 machine that allows anyone to work on \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction\">DNA sequencing\u003c/a>. Another session in that track is on ethics, safety and security concerns, opening into a discussion on Open Source BioDefense.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In case you can't make the event, follow the event with \u003ca href=\"http://search.twitter.com/search?q=oss2010\">live tweeting of sessions\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://opensciencesummit.com/\">Open Science Summit\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>When:\u003c/em>\u003cstrong>\u003cem> \u003c/em>\u003c/strong>Thursday, July 29th-July 31st\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Where:\u003c/em> \u003ca href=\"http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=Chevron+Auditorium,+International+House+2299+Piedmont+Avenue+Berkeley,+CA+94720-2320&sll=37.0625,-95.677068&sspn=47.569986,114.169922&ie=UTF8&hq=Chevron+Auditorium,+International+House&hnear=2299+Piedmont+Ave,+Berkeley,+Alameda,+California+94704&z=16\">Chevron Auditorium, International House, Berkeley\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Cost:\u003c/em> \u003ca href=\"http://opensciencesummit.eventbrite.com/\">$100\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Details:\u003c/em> The Open Science Summit is the first and only event to consider what happens throughout the entire innovation chain as reform in one area influences the prospects in others. The three day conference will cover many aspects of the Open Science spectrum and is open to anyone. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.87241 -122.259616\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"soldout": {
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"title": "SOLD OUT: Rethinking Housing in America",
"tagline": "A new future for housing",
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