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"content": "\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">To make CAR-T therapies, the pioneering cancer treatments, scientists introduce a gene into the body’s immune cells that \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2016/12/06/cancer-car-t-factory/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">turns them into cancer-homing attackers\u003c/a>. But in one case described by scientists Monday, the gene was inadvertently delivered to a cancer cell instead, camouflaging it from the therapy and allowing the cancer to develop resistance to treatment.[contextly_sidebar id=\"2oDy3tMb8Wl0Nea5cfkgpFgdjClpiQ4V\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">The patient ultimately died.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">The case, \u003ca href=\"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-018-0201-9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">reported\u003c/a> in the journal Nature Medicine, appears to have been exceedingly rare — one occurrence among \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/07/17/car-t-bottleneck-cell-collection-centers-feel-crunch/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">the hundreds of cases\u003c/a> of CAR-T treatment that have been examined.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">But as the treatments become more widely used, experts say, the case also points to the importance of researchers understanding all the ways in which \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/10/27/car-t-kite-cell-journey/\" rel=\"noopener\">the process of making them\u003c/a> can go wrong.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">“We’re going to need papers like this one” to identify how cancers can become resistant to CAR-Ts, said Dr. \u003ca href=\"https://faculty.mdanderson.org/profiles/jason_westin.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Jason Westin\u003c/a>, who leads the aggressive lymphoma team at MD Anderson Cancer Center and who was not involved in the new report. “But this CAR-T data is one of the most exciting things we’ve seen in cancer in forever. Having rare theoretical things that actually happen is concerning, but it should in no way temper the potential for the future of CAR-T cells.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study’s authors have discussed the case, which occurred about five years ago, at scientific meetings, helping to spread awareness. And the process of manufacturing CAR-Ts has improved over that time, reducing the chance that a cancer cell inadvertently receives the gene meant for immune cells.[contextly_sidebar id=\"sNFqnG5MPMrhzsMuBzMQ3TNcRwq8tXmr\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re getting much better at getting a purer starting population” of immune cells, said \u003ca href=\"https://www.med.upenn.edu/apps/faculty/index.php/g20001883/p8587263\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Jos Melenhorst\u003c/a>, an immunology expert at the University of Pennsylvania and one of the authors of the report.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The subject of the newly described case was a 20-year-old man with B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. He was participating in a Phase 1 clinical trial for a CAR-T product then called CTL019, which \u003ca href=\"https://www.pennmedicine.org/news/news-releases/2017/august/fda-approves-personalized-cellular-therapy-for-advanced-leukemia\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">was developed\u003c/a> by researchers at Penn and Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As with any CAR-T patient, the man had immune cells called T cells scooped out from his blood through a process called apheresis. Then, those cells were supercharged with a gene that codes for a receptor (the CAR in CAR-T) that turns the cells into bloodhounds on the scent for a specific marker on cancer cells — in this case, a protein called CD19.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The patient was infused with a phalanx of the killer T cells, which then swarmed and annihilated the cancer cells. Within a month, his cancer seemed to be in complete remission, Melenhorst said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But as researchers tracked the patient, they noticed something odd. They kept seeing signs of CAR-marked cells, but it wasn’t the body’s T cells expressing CAR anymore.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They ran a battery of experiments and confirmed their suspicions: a leukemic B cell had gotten lumped together with the T cells during the manufacturing process and had also taken up the CAR gene. As a result, the leukemia cell was expressing the CAR, which then attached to the CD19 markers, effectively shielding it from the CD19-sniffing machinery of the boosted T cells. It was as if in a game of musical chairs the targeted seat was already filled by the time the music stopped.[contextly_sidebar id=\"nOqcMe5IVLJeCcUCHhq3Pk58784HwGoF\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The CAR-T cell couldn’t bind to the CD19 molecule, and thereby it was essentially hiding in plain sight,” Melenhorst said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the T cells attacked the rest of the leukemia cells, this cell laid low for the most part, slowly proliferating into more resistant cancer cells over time. After about nine months, the patient’s cancer — now resistant to CAR-T — had fully returned. He ultimately died from complications from his leukemia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Melenhorst noted that the case reaches back to the early days of clinical CAR-T use and that improvements in technology since then have allowed manufacturers to ensure that the cells into which they are introducing the CAR gene are less likely to include B cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A version of the treatment the patient received was \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/08/30/novartis-car-t-cancer-approved/\" rel=\"noopener\">ultimately approved\u003c/a> as Novartis’s Kymriah in 2017; the paper published Monday includes some authors from Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research. In a statement, Novartis noted that the manufacturing process used in the case described in the paper was done at Penn and differs from the company’s manufacturing process, which was used in later clinical trials and now for commercial use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We are not aware of any cases of this happening in the more than 400 patients treated with CTL019/Kymriah manufactured by Novartis for clinical trials or the commercial setting,” the statement said.[contextly_sidebar id=\"DMUx1aVKuHIZSHJYTfdQfqpmBWfT4XxH\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The company said it has checks throughout the process to clear out B cells and that it is following Kymriah patients for 15 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Novartis is continually making improvements to our Kymriah manufacturing process to reduce variability and safely deliver this transformational, personalized treatment to patients in need around the world,” the statement said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">This \u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/10/01/car-t-resistance-cancer-cell-hiding/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">story\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/a>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was originally published by STAT, an online publication of Boston Globe Media that covers health, medicine, and scientific discovery.\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study’s authors have discussed the case, which occurred about five years ago, at scientific meetings, helping to spread awareness. And the process of manufacturing CAR-Ts has improved over that time, reducing the chance that a cancer cell inadvertently receives the gene meant for immune cells.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re getting much better at getting a purer starting population” of immune cells, said \u003ca href=\"https://www.med.upenn.edu/apps/faculty/index.php/g20001883/p8587263\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Jos Melenhorst\u003c/a>, an immunology expert at the University of Pennsylvania and one of the authors of the report.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The subject of the newly described case was a 20-year-old man with B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. He was participating in a Phase 1 clinical trial for a CAR-T product then called CTL019, which \u003ca href=\"https://www.pennmedicine.org/news/news-releases/2017/august/fda-approves-personalized-cellular-therapy-for-advanced-leukemia\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">was developed\u003c/a> by researchers at Penn and Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As with any CAR-T patient, the man had immune cells called T cells scooped out from his blood through a process called apheresis. Then, those cells were supercharged with a gene that codes for a receptor (the CAR in CAR-T) that turns the cells into bloodhounds on the scent for a specific marker on cancer cells — in this case, a protein called CD19.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The patient was infused with a phalanx of the killer T cells, which then swarmed and annihilated the cancer cells. 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It was as if in a game of musical chairs the targeted seat was already filled by the time the music stopped.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The CAR-T cell couldn’t bind to the CD19 molecule, and thereby it was essentially hiding in plain sight,” Melenhorst said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the T cells attacked the rest of the leukemia cells, this cell laid low for the most part, slowly proliferating into more resistant cancer cells over time. After about nine months, the patient’s cancer — now resistant to CAR-T — had fully returned. He ultimately died from complications from his leukemia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Melenhorst noted that the case reaches back to the early days of clinical CAR-T use and that improvements in technology since then have allowed manufacturers to ensure that the cells into which they are introducing the CAR gene are less likely to include B cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A version of the treatment the patient received was \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/08/30/novartis-car-t-cancer-approved/\" rel=\"noopener\">ultimately approved\u003c/a> as Novartis’s Kymriah in 2017; the paper published Monday includes some authors from Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research. In a statement, Novartis noted that the manufacturing process used in the case described in the paper was done at Penn and differs from the company’s manufacturing process, which was used in later clinical trials and now for commercial use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We are not aware of any cases of this happening in the more than 400 patients treated with CTL019/Kymriah manufactured by Novartis for clinical trials or the commercial setting,” the statement said.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The company said it has checks throughout the process to clear out B cells and that it is following Kymriah patients for 15 years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Novartis is continually making improvements to our Kymriah manufacturing process to reduce variability and safely deliver this transformational, personalized treatment to patients in need around the world,” the statement said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">This \u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/10/01/car-t-resistance-cancer-cell-hiding/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">story\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/a>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was originally published by STAT, an online publication of Boston Globe Media that covers health, medicine, and scientific discovery.\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQ6ggOdQz2k\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A new spinal implant developed by researchers at the Mayo Clinic and UC Los Angeles is allowing one man to walk again after a severe snowmobile accident left him partially paralyzed four years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers say the preliminary findings, published recently in the journal \u003ca href=\"https://go.redirectingat.com/?id=66960X1514734&xs=1&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41591-018-0175-7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\">\u003cem>Nature Medicine\u003c/em>\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1803588\">\u003cem>, \u003c/em>\u003c/a>shows great promise for those suffering from paralysis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Surgeons implanted the electrode below 29-year-old Jered Chinnock's spinal cord injury, which left him without motor control below the middle of his back. After 43 weeks of physical therapy, Chinook can now walk about the length of a football field with the help of a walker.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A\u003ca href=\"https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1803588\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> separate study\u003c/a> conducted at the University of Louisville reported similar results for patients who also received an electrode implant, which sends electrical pulses to the spinal cord.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers say the next stage of their work will focus on understanding why electrically stimulating the spinal cord allows the brain to regain control of the legs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>Officials at the world’s largest particle accelerator have suspended an Italian physicist pending an investigation of his “highly offensive” presentation on gender issues that raised new concerns about sexism in science.[contextly_sidebar id=\"2ka9F7Lfk5Eruw05hhTtIn4SXoFZFBoX\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, said Monday that Alessandro Strumia of the University of Pisa was out of line in his talk Friday for a seminar on “High Energy Theory and Gender.” The Geneva-area center said it had no prior knowledge of the content of the presentation and cited its “attacks on individuals” as “unacceptable in any professional context.”\u003c/p>\n\u003carticle id=\"contentArea\" class=\" noPrimaryImage \">\n\u003cdiv class=\"articleBody\">\n\u003cp>A CERN spokesman confirmed a slide presentation on Strumia’s talk found online but said a recording was not immediately available. One slide read “Physics invented and built by men, it’s not by invitation.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Laura Covi, who studies cosmology at Georg-August University in Goettingen, Germany and was at the Friday seminar, said Strumia’s comments didn’t go over well.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He was claiming that some of the positions women were getting, they’re getting positions with fewer (journal) citations than men,” she said. “I’m not so sure his thesis was supported by the data.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Covi acknowledged that some of the world’s most eminent physicists have been men, but said that was “mostly a historical bias” since men have been able to study physics longer than women.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She also disputed that citations are an indicator of quality and said it wasn’t her experience that female physicists were able to land jobs with fewer journal publications than men.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Covi said Strumia has frequently made provocative comments in the past and said after his presentation, he was challenged by many at the seminar — so much so that the chair had to abruptly end the session when it ran overtime.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“People were upset by what he was saying. And then he later started to make statements that were completely unscientific,” she said, declining to elaborate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I don’t think he represents the majority view,” Covi said. “There were a few men who were there but they didn’t support his view.”\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003c/article>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=899&v=ScuTG1bzSHY\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded Monday to two researchers from the United States and Japan for advances in discovering how the body’s immune system can fight off the scourge of cancer.[contextly_sidebar id=\"CWuF65jUQjKNMEH73SFwE7Eh0o965day\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The $1.01 million prize will be shared by James Allison and Tasuku Honjo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison conducted his research at the University of California-Berkeley and is now at the M.D. Anderson cancer center in Houston. Honju works at Japan’s Kyoto University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Their parallel work concerned proteins that act as brakes on the body’s immune system and it constitutes “a landmark in our fight against cancer,” said a statement from the Nobel Assembly of Sweden’s Karolinska Institute, which selects winners of the annual prestigious award.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison studied a known protein and developed the concept into a new treatment approach, while Honjo discovered a new protein that also operated as a brake on immune cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’m honored and humbled to receive this prestigious recognition,” Allison said in a statement released by the university’s MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, where he is a professor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“A driving motivation for scientists is simply to push the frontiers of knowledge. I didn’t set out to study cancer, but to understand the biology of T cells, these incredible cells that travel our bodies and work to protect us,” he said.[contextly_sidebar id=\"TrEVYlEaRWGIwxl3wZCxQN7b50EP4tx2\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison takes care in his statement to give credit to “a succession of graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and colleagues at MD Anderson, the University of California, Berkeley, and Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center” who joined in the research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison’s and Honjo’s prize-winning work started in the 1990s and was part of significant advances in cancer immunotherapy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In some patients, this therapy is remarkably effective,” Jeremy Berg, editor-in-chief of the \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> family of journals, told The Associated Press. “The number of different types of cancers for which this approach to immunotherapy is being found to be effective in at least some patients continues to grow.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Therapy developed from Honjo’s work led to long-term remission in patients with metastatic cancer that had been considered essentially untreatable, the Nobel Assembly said.[contextly_sidebar id=\"JxHmQ4y9gmGqrPe0YiiMCtrrGiOV1Oid\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Berg said that former President Jimmy Carter’s cancer, which had spread to his brain, was treated with one of the drugs developed from Honjo’s work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The physics prize is to be announced Tuesday, followed by chemistry. The winner of the Nobel Peace Prize will be named Friday and the economics laureate will be announced next Monday. No literature prize is being given this year.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/ScuTG1bzSHY'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/ScuTG1bzSHY'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cp>The Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded Monday to two researchers from the United States and Japan for advances in discovering how the body’s immune system can fight off the scourge of cancer.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The $1.01 million prize will be shared by James Allison and Tasuku Honjo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison conducted his research at the University of California-Berkeley and is now at the M.D. Anderson cancer center in Houston. Honju works at Japan’s Kyoto University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Their parallel work concerned proteins that act as brakes on the body’s immune system and it constitutes “a landmark in our fight against cancer,” said a statement from the Nobel Assembly of Sweden’s Karolinska Institute, which selects winners of the annual prestigious award.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison studied a known protein and developed the concept into a new treatment approach, while Honjo discovered a new protein that also operated as a brake on immune cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I’m honored and humbled to receive this prestigious recognition,” Allison said in a statement released by the university’s MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, where he is a professor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“A driving motivation for scientists is simply to push the frontiers of knowledge. I didn’t set out to study cancer, but to understand the biology of T cells, these incredible cells that travel our bodies and work to protect us,” he said.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison takes care in his statement to give credit to “a succession of graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and colleagues at MD Anderson, the University of California, Berkeley, and Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center” who joined in the research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Allison’s and Honjo’s prize-winning work started in the 1990s and was part of significant advances in cancer immunotherapy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In some patients, this therapy is remarkably effective,” Jeremy Berg, editor-in-chief of the \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> family of journals, told The Associated Press. “The number of different types of cancers for which this approach to immunotherapy is being found to be effective in at least some patients continues to grow.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Therapy developed from Honjo’s work led to long-term remission in patients with metastatic cancer that had been considered essentially untreatable, the Nobel Assembly said.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Berg said that former President Jimmy Carter’s cancer, which had spread to his brain, was treated with one of the drugs developed from Honjo’s work.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The physics prize is to be announced Tuesday, followed by chemistry. The winner of the Nobel Peace Prize will be named Friday and the economics laureate will be announced next Monday. No literature prize is being given this year.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Nobel Prizes Grapple With Widespread Gender Disparity",
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"content": "\u003cp>Nobel Prizes are the most prestigious awards on the planet but the aura of this year’s announcements has been dulled by questions over why so few women have entered the pantheon, particularly in the sciences.[contextly_sidebar id=\"5nZZhIC3YSdDRR5T9grpgNBAhed2FV9J\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The march of Nobel announcements begins Monday with the physiology/medicine prize.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since the first prizes were awarded in 1901, 892 individuals have received one, but just 48 of them have been women. Thirty of those women won either the literature or peace prize, highlighting the wide gender gap in the laureates for physics, chemistry and physiology/medicine. In addition, only one woman has won for the economics prize, which is not technically a Nobel but is associated with the prizes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=\"div-gpt-ad-1470255291270-0\" class=\"ad-placeholder\">\n\u003cp>Some of the disparity likely can be attributed to underlying structural reasons, such as the low representation of women in high-level science. The American Institute of Physics, for example, says in 2014, only 10 percent of full physics professorships were held by women.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But critics suggest that gender bias pervades the process of nominations, which come largely from tenured professors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The problem is the whole nomination process, you have these tenured professors who feel like they are untouchable. They can get away with everything from sexual harassment to micro-aggressions like assuming the woman in the room will take the notes, or be leaving soon to have babies,” said Anne-Marie Imafidon, the head of Stemettes, a British group that encourages girls and young women to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s little wonder that these people aren’t putting women forward for nominations. We need to be better at telling the stories of the women in science who are doing good things and actually getting recognition,” she said.[contextly_sidebar id=\"aUoC2OWK8qLbmqMMaIEkYePe6WoqBWuM\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Powerful men taking credit for the ideas and elbow grease of their female colleagues was turned on its head in 1903 when Pierre Curie made it clear he would not accept the physics prize unless his wife and fellow researcher Marie Curie was jointly honored. She was the first female winner of any Nobel prize, but only one other woman has won the physics prize since then.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More than 70 years later, Jocelyn Bell, a post-graduate student at Cambridge, was overlooked for the physics prize despite her crucial contribution to the discovery of pulsars. Her supervisor, Antony Hewish, took all of the Nobel credit.\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>Brian Keating, a physics professor at the University of California San Diego and author of the book “Losing the Nobel Prize: A Story of Cosmology, Ambition, and the Perils of Science’s Highest Honor,” says the Nobel Foundation should lift its restrictions on re-awarding for a breakthrough if an individual has been overlooked. He also says posthumous awards also should be considered and there should be no restriction on the number of individuals who can share a prize. Today the limit is three people for one prize.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“These measures would go a long way to addressing the injustice that so few of the brilliant women who have contributed so much to science through the years have been overlooked,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keating fears that simply accepting the disparity as structural will seriously harm the prestige of all the Nobel prizes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I think with the Hollywood #MeToo movement, it has already happened in the film prizes. It has happened with the literature prize. There is no fundamental law of nature that the Nobel science prizes will continue to be seen as the highest accolade,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year’s absence of a \u003ca href=\"https://apnews.com/d79fdb57df9148f98ba42afff1958ffb\">Nobel Literature prize\u003c/a> , which has been won by 14 women, puts an even sharper focus on the gender gap in science prizes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Swedish Academy, which awards the literature prize, said it would not pick a winner this year after sex abuse allegations and financial crimes scandals rocked the secretive panel, sharply dividing its 18 members, who are appointed for life. Seven members quit or distanced themselves from academy. Its permanent secretary, Anders Olsson, said the academy wanted “to commit time to recovering public confidence.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The academy plans to award both the 2018 prize and the 2019 prize next year — but even that is not guaranteed. The head of the Nobel Foundation, Lars Heikensten, has warned that if the Swedish Academy does not resolve its tarnished image another group could be chosen to select the literature prize each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stung by criticism about the diversity gap between former prize winners, the Nobel Foundation has asked that the science awarding panels for 2019 ask nominators to consider their own biases in the thousands of letters they send to solicit Nobel nominations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I am eager to see more nominations for women so they can be considered,” said Goran Hansson, secretary-general of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and vice chairman of the Nobel Foundation. “We have written to nominators asking them to make sure they do not miss women or people of other ethnicities or nationalities in their nominations. We hope this will make a difference for 2019.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s not the first time that Nobel officials have sought diversity. In his 1895 will, prize founder Alfred Nobel wrote: “It is my express wish that in the awarding of the prizes no consideration shall be given to national affiliations of any kind, so that the most worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be Scandinavian or not.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even so, the prizes remained overwhelmingly white and male for most of their existence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first 70 years, the peace prize skewed heavily toward Western white men, with just two of the 59 prizes awarded to individuals or institutions based outside Europe or North America. Only three of the winners in that period were female.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The 1973 peace prize shared by North Vietnam’s Le Duc Tho and American Henry Kissinger widened the horizons — since then more than half the Nobel Peace prizes have gone to African or Asian individuals or institutions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since 2000, six women have won the peace prize.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the medicine prize on Monday, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences will announce the Nobel in physics on Tuesday and in chemistry on Wednesday, while the Nobel Peace Prize will be awarded Friday by the Norwegian Nobel Committee. On Oct. 8, Sweden’s Central Bank announces the winner of the economics prize, given in honor of Alfred Nobel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=\"div-gpt-ad-1470255291270-0\" class=\"ad-placeholder\">\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Nobel Prizes are the most prestigious awards on the planet but the aura of this year’s announcements has been dulled by questions over why so few women have entered the pantheon, particularly in the sciences.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The march of Nobel announcements begins Monday with the physiology/medicine prize.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since the first prizes were awarded in 1901, 892 individuals have received one, but just 48 of them have been women. Thirty of those women won either the literature or peace prize, highlighting the wide gender gap in the laureates for physics, chemistry and physiology/medicine. In addition, only one woman has won for the economics prize, which is not technically a Nobel but is associated with the prizes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=\"div-gpt-ad-1470255291270-0\" class=\"ad-placeholder\">\n\u003cp>Some of the disparity likely can be attributed to underlying structural reasons, such as the low representation of women in high-level science. The American Institute of Physics, for example, says in 2014, only 10 percent of full physics professorships were held by women.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But critics suggest that gender bias pervades the process of nominations, which come largely from tenured professors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The problem is the whole nomination process, you have these tenured professors who feel like they are untouchable. They can get away with everything from sexual harassment to micro-aggressions like assuming the woman in the room will take the notes, or be leaving soon to have babies,” said Anne-Marie Imafidon, the head of Stemettes, a British group that encourages girls and young women to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s little wonder that these people aren’t putting women forward for nominations. We need to be better at telling the stories of the women in science who are doing good things and actually getting recognition,” she said.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Powerful men taking credit for the ideas and elbow grease of their female colleagues was turned on its head in 1903 when Pierre Curie made it clear he would not accept the physics prize unless his wife and fellow researcher Marie Curie was jointly honored. She was the first female winner of any Nobel prize, but only one other woman has won the physics prize since then.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More than 70 years later, Jocelyn Bell, a post-graduate student at Cambridge, was overlooked for the physics prize despite her crucial contribution to the discovery of pulsars. Her supervisor, Antony Hewish, took all of the Nobel credit.\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>Brian Keating, a physics professor at the University of California San Diego and author of the book “Losing the Nobel Prize: A Story of Cosmology, Ambition, and the Perils of Science’s Highest Honor,” says the Nobel Foundation should lift its restrictions on re-awarding for a breakthrough if an individual has been overlooked. He also says posthumous awards also should be considered and there should be no restriction on the number of individuals who can share a prize. Today the limit is three people for one prize.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“These measures would go a long way to addressing the injustice that so few of the brilliant women who have contributed so much to science through the years have been overlooked,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keating fears that simply accepting the disparity as structural will seriously harm the prestige of all the Nobel prizes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I think with the Hollywood #MeToo movement, it has already happened in the film prizes. It has happened with the literature prize. There is no fundamental law of nature that the Nobel science prizes will continue to be seen as the highest accolade,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year’s absence of a \u003ca href=\"https://apnews.com/d79fdb57df9148f98ba42afff1958ffb\">Nobel Literature prize\u003c/a> , which has been won by 14 women, puts an even sharper focus on the gender gap in science prizes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Swedish Academy, which awards the literature prize, said it would not pick a winner this year after sex abuse allegations and financial crimes scandals rocked the secretive panel, sharply dividing its 18 members, who are appointed for life. Seven members quit or distanced themselves from academy. Its permanent secretary, Anders Olsson, said the academy wanted “to commit time to recovering public confidence.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The academy plans to award both the 2018 prize and the 2019 prize next year — but even that is not guaranteed. The head of the Nobel Foundation, Lars Heikensten, has warned that if the Swedish Academy does not resolve its tarnished image another group could be chosen to select the literature prize each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Stung by criticism about the diversity gap between former prize winners, the Nobel Foundation has asked that the science awarding panels for 2019 ask nominators to consider their own biases in the thousands of letters they send to solicit Nobel nominations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I am eager to see more nominations for women so they can be considered,” said Goran Hansson, secretary-general of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and vice chairman of the Nobel Foundation. “We have written to nominators asking them to make sure they do not miss women or people of other ethnicities or nationalities in their nominations. We hope this will make a difference for 2019.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s not the first time that Nobel officials have sought diversity. In his 1895 will, prize founder Alfred Nobel wrote: “It is my express wish that in the awarding of the prizes no consideration shall be given to national affiliations of any kind, so that the most worthy shall receive the prize, whether he be Scandinavian or not.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even so, the prizes remained overwhelmingly white and male for most of their existence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first 70 years, the peace prize skewed heavily toward Western white men, with just two of the 59 prizes awarded to individuals or institutions based outside Europe or North America. Only three of the winners in that period were female.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The 1973 peace prize shared by North Vietnam’s Le Duc Tho and American Henry Kissinger widened the horizons — since then more than half the Nobel Peace prizes have gone to African or Asian individuals or institutions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since 2000, six women have won the peace prize.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the medicine prize on Monday, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences will announce the Nobel in physics on Tuesday and in chemistry on Wednesday, while the Nobel Peace Prize will be awarded Friday by the Norwegian Nobel Committee. On Oct. 8, Sweden’s Central Bank announces the winner of the economics prize, given in honor of Alfred Nobel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv id=\"div-gpt-ad-1470255291270-0\" class=\"ad-placeholder\">\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "How Trauma Strengthens Memory: Scientists Weigh In On Kavanaugh Hearing",
"title": "How Trauma Strengthens Memory: Scientists Weigh In On Kavanaugh Hearing",
"headTitle": "KQED Future of You | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>In Thursday's testimony at Judge Brett Kavanaugh's confirmation hearings, Christine Blasey Ford alleged Kavanaugh sexually assaulted her at a party in 1982, when she was 15 years old and he was 17.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kavanaugh staunchly denied these allegations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But memory is fallible. A question on many people's minds, is how well can anyone recall something that happened over 35 years ago?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pretty well, say scientists, if the memory is of a traumatic event. That's because of the key role emotions play in making and storing memories.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">‘Things that have more emotional significance tend to get more encoded.’\u003ccite>Jim Hopper, Harvard University\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>On any given day, our brains only store or \"encode\" some of the things we experience. \"What we pay attention to is what's more likely to get encoded,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://www.jimhopper.com/\">Jim Hopper\u003c/a>, a teaching associate in psychology at Harvard University and a consultant on sexual assault and trauma.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A region of the brain called the hippocampus plays an important role in this process. Ford referred to the hippocampus when questioned by Senator Dianne Feinstein, D-Calif., about how she was so sure that Kavanaugh was the perpetrator of the alleged assault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The hippocampus certainly plays a role in taking things into short-term memory and then transferring them and consolidating them into long-term memories,\" says Hopper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If an event elicits an emotional reaction in us, then it's more likely to make it into our memory. \"Things that have more emotional significance tend to get more encoded,\" says Hopper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And when something elicits an intense negative emotion, like a trauma, it's even more likely to be encoded in the brain.[contextly_sidebar id=\"L3kfMcbFb57nqlRcJppVmhyqT4zEaiHz\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The stress hormones, cortisol, norepinephrine, that are released during a terrifying trauma tend to render the experience vivid and memorable, especially the central aspect, the most meaningful aspects of the experience for the victim,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.mcnallylab.com/\">Richard McNally\u003c/a>, a psychologist at Harvard University and the the author of the book, \u003cem>Remembering Trauma\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's because a high stress state \"alters the function of the hippocampus and puts it into a super encoding mode,\" says Hopper, especially early on during an event. That's why \"the central details [of the event] get burned into their memory and they may never forget them.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether it's sexual assault victims, or soldiers in combat or survivors of an earthquake, people who've experienced traumatic events tend to remember the most essential and frightening elements of the events in vivid detail for life, says McNally.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, this doesn't mean that these memories include every detail of the event. The brain holds on to the most important stuff at the expense of the peripheral details.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Take for example, a clerk at convenience store who gets robbed at gunpoint, says McNally. \"The person may often encode the features of the weapon, the gun pointed at him, but not recall whether or not the person was wearing glasses, because their attention is focused on the most central features of the experience.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McNally says this would explain why Ford says she remembers what happened during the alleged assault, but she can't remember the date of the party or its location.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"They were forgotten because they were never encoded,\" says McNally. \"When somebody has an experience such as this, they're not necessarily saying, 'I better get down the address.' They're preoccupied with trying to escape this terrifying experience.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Also, \"people in general are not good about dating events, whether they're traumatic events or non traumatic events,\" he adds. Unless there are other clues to the date, most people tend to forget when something happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the memory of perpetrators of sexual assault, there's been little research on it, says Hopper. But what the research on emotions and memory suggests is the perpetrator's memory will depend on their emotional state, he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If holding someone down and trying to take their clothes off was an entertaining experience, or a routine, familiar experience you're less likely to store that,\" he says. \"It really depends on how the perpetrator is relating to things.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another factor that affects how memories are stored is alcohol use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Generally alcohol can make people forget things,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://www.muhealth.org/doctors/mary-miller-phd\">Mary Beth Miller\u003c/a>, a clinical psychologist at the University of Missouri-Columbia, who has studied the impact of alcohol consumption on making and retrieving memories.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earlier this month, \u003ca href=\"https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/california-professor-writer-of-confidential-brett-kavanaugh-letter-speaks-out-about-her-allegation-of-sexual-assault/2018/09/16/46982194-b846-11e8-94eb-3bd52dfe917b_story.html?utm_term=.4ec990e35857\">Ford told\u003c/a> \u003cem>The Washington Post\u003c/em> that she remembers Kavanaugh being \"stumbling drunk,\" whereas she recalls having one beer that night.[contextly_sidebar id=\"lcYeMn0WbceR2Ykc6LIyqTORnCVNryrk\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Other accusers who did not testify Thursday have also suggested Kavanaugh was part of a group of friends who indulged in heavy drinking in the 1980s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In his testimony, Kavanaugh said he likes beer, but denied ever drinking so much that he didn't remember things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miller says memory loss from alcohol — blackouts — \u003ca href=\"https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa63/aa63.htm\">are very common\u003c/a> among young people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"In a blackout, you're walking around, talking to people,\" says Miller. \"And a lot of times in a blackout people will be very coherent. You're just doing your thing, and people don't know, because it's hard to know if someone's in a blackout state.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These blackouts are what scientists call \"fragmentary\" blackouts, where someone has partial memory loss, but \"you can usually recall, if someone reminds you later.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These fragmentary blackouts can occur at low blood alcohol concentrations, as low as 0.06, she says. (For comparison, the legal limit for driving is 0.08.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miller also says that animal studies suggest that \"adolescent brains are actually more sensitive to the memory impairing effects of alcohol.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A permanent memory impairment, what scientists call \"en bloc blackout,\" has a beginning and an end, says Miller, and the person cannot remember anything that happened in between. She says these typically occur at a higher blood alcohol concentrations, around 0.24.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because higher amounts of alcohol prevent short-term memory from being converted to long-term memory, says Miller.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"And people with a history of heavy drinking are more likely to have more memory deficits,\" she adds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2018 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=How+Trauma+Affects+Memory%3A+Scientists+Weigh+In+On+The+Kavanaugh+Hearing&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"excerpt": "In Thursday's testimony, Christine Blasey Ford said that she was 100 percent certain that Judge Kavanaugh assaulted her in 1982. How can she be sure? What does science say about memory and trauma?",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>In Thursday's testimony at Judge Brett Kavanaugh's confirmation hearings, Christine Blasey Ford alleged Kavanaugh sexually assaulted her at a party in 1982, when she was 15 years old and he was 17.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Kavanaugh staunchly denied these allegations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But memory is fallible. A question on many people's minds, is how well can anyone recall something that happened over 35 years ago?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pretty well, say scientists, if the memory is of a traumatic event. That's because of the key role emotions play in making and storing memories.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">‘Things that have more emotional significance tend to get more encoded.’\u003ccite>Jim Hopper, Harvard University\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>On any given day, our brains only store or \"encode\" some of the things we experience. \"What we pay attention to is what's more likely to get encoded,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://www.jimhopper.com/\">Jim Hopper\u003c/a>, a teaching associate in psychology at Harvard University and a consultant on sexual assault and trauma.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A region of the brain called the hippocampus plays an important role in this process. Ford referred to the hippocampus when questioned by Senator Dianne Feinstein, D-Calif., about how she was so sure that Kavanaugh was the perpetrator of the alleged assault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The hippocampus certainly plays a role in taking things into short-term memory and then transferring them and consolidating them into long-term memories,\" says Hopper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If an event elicits an emotional reaction in us, then it's more likely to make it into our memory. \"Things that have more emotional significance tend to get more encoded,\" says Hopper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And when something elicits an intense negative emotion, like a trauma, it's even more likely to be encoded in the brain.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The stress hormones, cortisol, norepinephrine, that are released during a terrifying trauma tend to render the experience vivid and memorable, especially the central aspect, the most meaningful aspects of the experience for the victim,\" says \u003ca href=\"http://www.mcnallylab.com/\">Richard McNally\u003c/a>, a psychologist at Harvard University and the the author of the book, \u003cem>Remembering Trauma\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's because a high stress state \"alters the function of the hippocampus and puts it into a super encoding mode,\" says Hopper, especially early on during an event. That's why \"the central details [of the event] get burned into their memory and they may never forget them.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whether it's sexual assault victims, or soldiers in combat or survivors of an earthquake, people who've experienced traumatic events tend to remember the most essential and frightening elements of the events in vivid detail for life, says McNally.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, this doesn't mean that these memories include every detail of the event. The brain holds on to the most important stuff at the expense of the peripheral details.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Take for example, a clerk at convenience store who gets robbed at gunpoint, says McNally. \"The person may often encode the features of the weapon, the gun pointed at him, but not recall whether or not the person was wearing glasses, because their attention is focused on the most central features of the experience.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>McNally says this would explain why Ford says she remembers what happened during the alleged assault, but she can't remember the date of the party or its location.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"They were forgotten because they were never encoded,\" says McNally. \"When somebody has an experience such as this, they're not necessarily saying, 'I better get down the address.' They're preoccupied with trying to escape this terrifying experience.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Also, \"people in general are not good about dating events, whether they're traumatic events or non traumatic events,\" he adds. Unless there are other clues to the date, most people tend to forget when something happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the memory of perpetrators of sexual assault, there's been little research on it, says Hopper. But what the research on emotions and memory suggests is the perpetrator's memory will depend on their emotional state, he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If holding someone down and trying to take their clothes off was an entertaining experience, or a routine, familiar experience you're less likely to store that,\" he says. \"It really depends on how the perpetrator is relating to things.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another factor that affects how memories are stored is alcohol use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Generally alcohol can make people forget things,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://www.muhealth.org/doctors/mary-miller-phd\">Mary Beth Miller\u003c/a>, a clinical psychologist at the University of Missouri-Columbia, who has studied the impact of alcohol consumption on making and retrieving memories.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Earlier this month, \u003ca href=\"https://www.washingtonpost.com/investigations/california-professor-writer-of-confidential-brett-kavanaugh-letter-speaks-out-about-her-allegation-of-sexual-assault/2018/09/16/46982194-b846-11e8-94eb-3bd52dfe917b_story.html?utm_term=.4ec990e35857\">Ford told\u003c/a> \u003cem>The Washington Post\u003c/em> that she remembers Kavanaugh being \"stumbling drunk,\" whereas she recalls having one beer that night.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Other accusers who did not testify Thursday have also suggested Kavanaugh was part of a group of friends who indulged in heavy drinking in the 1980s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In his testimony, Kavanaugh said he likes beer, but denied ever drinking so much that he didn't remember things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miller says memory loss from alcohol — blackouts — \u003ca href=\"https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa63/aa63.htm\">are very common\u003c/a> among young people.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"In a blackout, you're walking around, talking to people,\" says Miller. \"And a lot of times in a blackout people will be very coherent. You're just doing your thing, and people don't know, because it's hard to know if someone's in a blackout state.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These blackouts are what scientists call \"fragmentary\" blackouts, where someone has partial memory loss, but \"you can usually recall, if someone reminds you later.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These fragmentary blackouts can occur at low blood alcohol concentrations, as low as 0.06, she says. (For comparison, the legal limit for driving is 0.08.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Miller also says that animal studies suggest that \"adolescent brains are actually more sensitive to the memory impairing effects of alcohol.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A permanent memory impairment, what scientists call \"en bloc blackout,\" has a beginning and an end, says Miller, and the person cannot remember anything that happened in between. She says these typically occur at a higher blood alcohol concentrations, around 0.24.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is because higher amounts of alcohol prevent short-term memory from being converted to long-term memory, says Miller.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"And people with a history of heavy drinking are more likely to have more memory deficits,\" she adds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2018 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=How+Trauma+Affects+Memory%3A+Scientists+Weigh+In+On+The+Kavanaugh+Hearing&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>In her testimony to a Senate committee, the woman who accused Brett Kavanaugh of sexually assaulting her when they were teenagers dipped briefly into the mechanics of memory. Experts say she got it pretty much right.[contextly_sidebar id=\"MgBzvQhdBHjEstqurrr3K1yckpneYUdI\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When asked Thursday how she could be sure it was Kavanaugh who put a hand over her mouth to keep her quiet, psychologist Christine Blasey Ford cited levels of chemical messengers called norepinephrine and epinephrine in her brain at the time of the alleged attack.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>She said those chemicals helped encode memories in a brain region called the hippocampus, so that the main memory was “locked there” while other details “kind of drift.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Later, she said a memory of Kavanaugh and another teen laughing during the assault was “indelible in the hippocampus.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Memories are not highly detailed recordings of events retrieved with perfect accuracy. They are shaped by beliefs and expectations. For that reason, experts told The Associated Press last week that both Ford and Kavanaugh, who denies that any assault happened, may both firmly believe what they say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which one believes his or her version more strongly is no tipoff to what really happened, experts say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Confidence is not a good guide to whether or not someone is telling the truth,” said Nora Newcombe, a psychology professor at Temple University in Philadelphia. “If they think they’re telling the truth, they could plausibly both be confident about it.”[contextly_sidebar id=\"amJ6lQEUSDSPlTWgnGoBA7CSFAZGM5RJ\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a situation where a woman fears being raped by a man, her memories might be shaped by that fear into a recollection that overestimates the threat, whereas the man might consider it “just playing around” and forget it, said David Rubin, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And both people could be completely honest about their recollections, he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rubin noted the obvious fact that people can forget things they did while drunk. But he said the man in that scenario could forget about the event even if he had been sober.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Experts in memory and the brain said Ford’s quick tour of memory machinery was generally correct. Levels of the brain substances she cited go up when a person is alarmed, and they help memories become laid down more strongly in the hippocampus, said Elizabeth Phelps, a Harvard University psychologist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That helps people vividly recall central parts of an emotional experience, while details are typically lost, said Lila Davachi of Columbia University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While it’s clear the hippocampus is key to the initial laying down of memory, there’s some debate about its role in long-term memory, Phelps said. Various pieces of an experience — sounds, sights and thoughts — are perceived in different parts of the brain. And initially the hippocampus serves as sort of the center of a web that holds those perceptions together as a memory, she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After years pass and the memory becomes consolidated, it’s not clear whether the hippocampus continues to play that central role, or whether the various parts of a memory are connected by other means, she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>___\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Associated Press Health & Science Department receives \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/2G0n9w6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">support\u003c/a> from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Department of Science Education. The AP is solely responsible for all content.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which one believes his or her version more strongly is no tipoff to what really happened, experts say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Confidence is not a good guide to whether or not someone is telling the truth,” said Nora Newcombe, a psychology professor at Temple University in Philadelphia. “If they think they’re telling the truth, they could plausibly both be confident about it.”\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In a situation where a woman fears being raped by a man, her memories might be shaped by that fear into a recollection that overestimates the threat, whereas the man might consider it “just playing around” and forget it, said David Rubin, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And both people could be completely honest about their recollections, he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Rubin noted the obvious fact that people can forget things they did while drunk. But he said the man in that scenario could forget about the event even if he had been sober.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Experts in memory and the brain said Ford’s quick tour of memory machinery was generally correct. Levels of the brain substances she cited go up when a person is alarmed, and they help memories become laid down more strongly in the hippocampus, said Elizabeth Phelps, a Harvard University psychologist.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That helps people vividly recall central parts of an emotional experience, while details are typically lost, said Lila Davachi of Columbia University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While it’s clear the hippocampus is key to the initial laying down of memory, there’s some debate about its role in long-term memory, Phelps said. Various pieces of an experience — sounds, sights and thoughts — are perceived in different parts of the brain. And initially the hippocampus serves as sort of the center of a web that holds those perceptions together as a memory, she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After years pass and the memory becomes consolidated, it’s not clear whether the hippocampus continues to play that central role, or whether the various parts of a memory are connected by other means, she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>___\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Associated Press Health & Science Department receives \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/2G0n9w6\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">support\u003c/a> from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute’s Department of Science Education. The AP is solely responsible for all content.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Updated at 3:45 pm ET\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Department of Health and Human Services says it is reviewing all medical research involving human fetal tissue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>HHS \u003ca href=\"https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2018/09/24/statement-from-the-department-of-health-and-human-services.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">said this week\u003c/a> that it will conduct an audit of “all acquisitions involving human fetal tissue” as well as “all research involving fetal tissue to ensure consistency with statutes and regulations governing such research and to ensure the adequacy of procedures and oversight of this research in light of the serious regulatory, moral, and ethical considerations involved.”[contextly_sidebar id=”SsrZIxp3cgGelsMqmovjR5mXFrobSZOz”]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In addition, HHS announced that it has canceled \u003ca href=\"https://www.fpds.gov/ezsearch/search.do?q=advanced+bioscience+resources+VENDOR_DUNS_NUMBER%3A%22786845982%22&s=FPDSNG.COM&templateName=1.4.4&indexName=awardfull&sortBy=SIGNED_DATE&desc=Y\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">a $15,000 contract\u003c/a> for a California-based company called Advanced Bioscience Resources to provide the Food and Drug Administration with human fetal tissue to develop testing protocols. The contract was terminated, HHS said, because the department “was not sufficiently assured that the contract included the appropriate protections applicable to fetal tissue research or met all other procurement requirements.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists use fetal tissue in medical research because it grows quickly and is highly versatile and long-lasting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It allows us to answer specific questions that can’t be answered by adult tissue, which is far more specialized,”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NIH Associate Director for Science Policy Carrie Wolinetz \u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/09/29/444214443/research-on-fetal-tissue-draws-renewed-political-scientific-scrutiny\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">told NPR’s Rob Stein\u003c/a> in 2015. “Fetal tissue can contain information — about structural features, or the architecture of organs — that cells in a dish alone can’t provide. And this is sometimes very important to our understanding of disease.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fetal tissue used in scientific research often comes from aborted fetuses. In an email to NPR, \u003ca href=\"https://law.wisc.edu/profiles/racharo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alta Charo\u003c/a>, a professor of law and bioethics at the University of Wisconsin, explains why that is.[contextly_sidebar id=”G1kyrCYVpzDmWCInUE7H0cF8gc9zn4Ce”]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Miscarriages are not often an available source, as they do not take place in a controlled environment and may be due to genetic or other anomalies that would render the cadaveric tissues useless,” she says. “Therefore, the tissue usually comes from a fetus that has been aborted.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite the small size of the canceled FDA contract, some observers said the larger political symbolism is evident.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“My instinct is that this is driven by politics, and is part of the overall effort to stigmatize and eventually criminalize abortion, as well as part of a larger campaign to roll-back the clock on sexual and reproductive rights,” Charo says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, \u003ca href=\"https://lozierinstitute.org/team-member/david-prentice/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">David Prentice\u003c/a>, vice president and research director for the Charlotte Lozier Institute, a conservative think tank opposed to abortion, says the HHS announcement doesn’t go far enough.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Canceling a small FDA contract … seems designed to mollify some Members of Congress and groups who were outraged by the continuing funding of fetal tissue research with taxpayer dollars,” Prentice writes in an email to NPR. “But what’s needed is wholesale reform across the breadth of HHS. Use of fetal tissue is antiquated research, and [HHS Secretary Alex] Azar should redirect those funds to modern science and better alternatives, including adult stem cells.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Science\u003c/em> notes that on earlier this month, 45 groups opposed to abortion \u003ca href=\"https://www.sba-list.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Group-Letter-to-Azar-FDA-and-fetal-tissue-FINAL-with-Signatures.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sent a letter\u003c/a> to Azar calling the FDA contract for fetal tissue “shocking” and “unacceptable.” A few days later, 85 members of Congress \u003ca href=\"https://chrissmith.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2018-09-17_-chs-hartzler-walker_letter_on_fda_fetal_tissue_contract.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sent a letter\u003c/a> to the FDA’s commissioner, urging the agency to cancel the contract.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The National Institutes of Health, which also falls under HHS, spent $98 million last fiscal year on research that involved human fetal tissue. The NIH said it “concurs that it is important that research involving human fetal tissue should be consistent with the statutes and regulation governing such research and that it is important to have adequate procedures for oversight.”[contextly_sidebar id=”xJs8IF14XoPynhHrniTrS5E5qgAhyVmm”]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Use of fetal tissue in research has been controversial for some time, \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> magazine reported on Tuesday:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>“In 2016, \u003ca href=\"https://energycommerce.house.gov/news/press-release/house-creates-select-panel-investigate-handling-infant-lives/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Republican members of the House of Representatives\u003c/a>, led by Representative Marsha Blackburn (TN), \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/01/fact-checking-congress-s-fetal-tissue-report\">produced a report\u003c/a> that urged the federal government to transition to obtaining fetal tissue from miscarriages and stillbirths. But opponents of fetal tissue research have failed repeatedly to pass legislation that would end funding for research using tissue from electively aborted fetuses — most recently earlier this month, when language prohibiting such funding was stripped from a 2019 HHS spending bill.”\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://trentcenter.duke.edu/node/221\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Ross McKinney\u003c/a>, chief scientific officer at the Association of American Medical Colleges, says fetal tissue was key in the development of major medical advances such as vaccines for polio, rubella, measles, chickenpox, adenovirus and rabies, as well as treatments for diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, cystic fibrosis and hemophilia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The unique characteristics of this tissue are essential to the study of fetal diseases, like those caused by Zika virus, and hold promise for advancing biomedical research in other areas as well, bringing hope to patients struggling with diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and multiple sclerosis,” he writes in an email to NPR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Fetal tissue continues to be an important resource for biomedical research, and the Association of American Medical Colleges fully supports its availability as one of the scientific methods that could save and improve lives.”[contextly_sidebar id=”GY9wMG5EY8EjMrFWoS2AArgcQmiE5UTu”]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During \u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/2016/01/28/464594826/in-wake-of-videos-planned-parenthood-investigations-find-no-fetal-tissue-sales\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">a 2015 brouhaha\u003c/a>, the Obama-era HHS \u003ca href=\"https://www.plannedparenthood.org/files/3514/4709/3497/HHS_Letter_2015_08_14_-_FT_Research.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sent a letter\u003c/a> to two Republican senators calling the use of fetal tissue in medical research “an instrumental component of our attempts to understand, treat, and cure a number of conditions and diseases that affect millions of Americans,” noting that scientists in the U.S. have been working with fetal tissue \u003ca href=\"https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44129.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">since the 1930s\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>NPR science correspondent Rob Stein contributed to this report.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2018 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=Health+And+Human+Services+Says+It%27s+Reviewing+Use+Of+Fetal+Tissue+For+Research&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"excerpt": "The audit has been called a political gesture to placate anti-abortion groups that oppose use of the tissue. Fetal tissue has played a part in developing vaccines and medical treatments.",
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"title": "Is the Federal Government Politicizing Research Involving Fetal Tissue?",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Updated at 3:45 pm ET\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Department of Health and Human Services says it is reviewing all medical research involving human fetal tissue.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>HHS \u003ca href=\"https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2018/09/24/statement-from-the-department-of-health-and-human-services.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">said this week\u003c/a> that it will conduct an audit of “all acquisitions involving human fetal tissue” as well as “all research involving fetal tissue to ensure consistency with statutes and regulations governing such research and to ensure the adequacy of procedures and oversight of this research in light of the serious regulatory, moral, and ethical considerations involved.”\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In addition, HHS announced that it has canceled \u003ca href=\"https://www.fpds.gov/ezsearch/search.do?q=advanced+bioscience+resources+VENDOR_DUNS_NUMBER%3A%22786845982%22&s=FPDSNG.COM&templateName=1.4.4&indexName=awardfull&sortBy=SIGNED_DATE&desc=Y\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">a $15,000 contract\u003c/a> for a California-based company called Advanced Bioscience Resources to provide the Food and Drug Administration with human fetal tissue to develop testing protocols. The contract was terminated, HHS said, because the department “was not sufficiently assured that the contract included the appropriate protections applicable to fetal tissue research or met all other procurement requirements.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists use fetal tissue in medical research because it grows quickly and is highly versatile and long-lasting.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It allows us to answer specific questions that can’t be answered by adult tissue, which is far more specialized,”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NIH Associate Director for Science Policy Carrie Wolinetz \u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/09/29/444214443/research-on-fetal-tissue-draws-renewed-political-scientific-scrutiny\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">told NPR’s Rob Stein\u003c/a> in 2015. “Fetal tissue can contain information — about structural features, or the architecture of organs — that cells in a dish alone can’t provide. And this is sometimes very important to our understanding of disease.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fetal tissue used in scientific research often comes from aborted fetuses. In an email to NPR, \u003ca href=\"https://law.wisc.edu/profiles/racharo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alta Charo\u003c/a>, a professor of law and bioethics at the University of Wisconsin, explains why that is.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Miscarriages are not often an available source, as they do not take place in a controlled environment and may be due to genetic or other anomalies that would render the cadaveric tissues useless,” she says. “Therefore, the tissue usually comes from a fetus that has been aborted.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite the small size of the canceled FDA contract, some observers said the larger political symbolism is evident.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“My instinct is that this is driven by politics, and is part of the overall effort to stigmatize and eventually criminalize abortion, as well as part of a larger campaign to roll-back the clock on sexual and reproductive rights,” Charo says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>However, \u003ca href=\"https://lozierinstitute.org/team-member/david-prentice/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">David Prentice\u003c/a>, vice president and research director for the Charlotte Lozier Institute, a conservative think tank opposed to abortion, says the HHS announcement doesn’t go far enough.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Canceling a small FDA contract … seems designed to mollify some Members of Congress and groups who were outraged by the continuing funding of fetal tissue research with taxpayer dollars,” Prentice writes in an email to NPR. “But what’s needed is wholesale reform across the breadth of HHS. Use of fetal tissue is antiquated research, and [HHS Secretary Alex] Azar should redirect those funds to modern science and better alternatives, including adult stem cells.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Science\u003c/em> notes that on earlier this month, 45 groups opposed to abortion \u003ca href=\"https://www.sba-list.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Group-Letter-to-Azar-FDA-and-fetal-tissue-FINAL-with-Signatures.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sent a letter\u003c/a> to Azar calling the FDA contract for fetal tissue “shocking” and “unacceptable.” A few days later, 85 members of Congress \u003ca href=\"https://chrissmith.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2018-09-17_-chs-hartzler-walker_letter_on_fda_fetal_tissue_contract.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sent a letter\u003c/a> to the FDA’s commissioner, urging the agency to cancel the contract.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The National Institutes of Health, which also falls under HHS, spent $98 million last fiscal year on research that involved human fetal tissue. The NIH said it “concurs that it is important that research involving human fetal tissue should be consistent with the statutes and regulation governing such research and that it is important to have adequate procedures for oversight.”\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Use of fetal tissue in research has been controversial for some time, \u003cem>Science\u003c/em> magazine reported on Tuesday:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>“In 2016, \u003ca href=\"https://energycommerce.house.gov/news/press-release/house-creates-select-panel-investigate-handling-infant-lives/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Republican members of the House of Representatives\u003c/a>, led by Representative Marsha Blackburn (TN), \u003ca href=\"https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/01/fact-checking-congress-s-fetal-tissue-report\">produced a report\u003c/a> that urged the federal government to transition to obtaining fetal tissue from miscarriages and stillbirths. But opponents of fetal tissue research have failed repeatedly to pass legislation that would end funding for research using tissue from electively aborted fetuses — most recently earlier this month, when language prohibiting such funding was stripped from a 2019 HHS spending bill.”\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://trentcenter.duke.edu/node/221\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Ross McKinney\u003c/a>, chief scientific officer at the Association of American Medical Colleges, says fetal tissue was key in the development of major medical advances such as vaccines for polio, rubella, measles, chickenpox, adenovirus and rabies, as well as treatments for diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, cystic fibrosis and hemophilia.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The unique characteristics of this tissue are essential to the study of fetal diseases, like those caused by Zika virus, and hold promise for advancing biomedical research in other areas as well, bringing hope to patients struggling with diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and multiple sclerosis,” he writes in an email to NPR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Fetal tissue continues to be an important resource for biomedical research, and the Association of American Medical Colleges fully supports its availability as one of the scientific methods that could save and improve lives.”\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During \u003ca href=\"https://www.npr.org/2016/01/28/464594826/in-wake-of-videos-planned-parenthood-investigations-find-no-fetal-tissue-sales\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">a 2015 brouhaha\u003c/a>, the Obama-era HHS \u003ca href=\"https://www.plannedparenthood.org/files/3514/4709/3497/HHS_Letter_2015_08_14_-_FT_Research.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sent a letter\u003c/a> to two Republican senators calling the use of fetal tissue in medical research “an instrumental component of our attempts to understand, treat, and cure a number of conditions and diseases that affect millions of Americans,” noting that scientists in the U.S. have been working with fetal tissue \u003ca href=\"https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44129.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">since the 1930s\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>NPR science correspondent Rob Stein contributed to this report.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"fullattribution\">Copyright 2018 NPR. To see more, visit http://www.npr.org/.\u003cimg decoding=\"async\" src=\"https://www.google-analytics.com/__utm.gif?utmac=UA-5828686-4&utmdt=Health+And+Human+Services+Says+It%27s+Reviewing+Use+Of+Fetal+Tissue+For+Research&utme=8(APIKey)9(MDAxOTAwOTE4MDEyMTkxMDAzNjczZDljZA004)\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Is the End of HIV Transmission in the U.S. Near?",
"title": "Is the End of HIV Transmission in the U.S. Near?",
"headTitle": "KQED Future of You | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">\u003cspan class=\"big-cap-wrap\">\u003cspan class=\"big-cap\">A \u003c/span>\u003c/span>mere decade ago, 45,000 Americans a year were contracting HIV. Since the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention started collecting data on HIV-related deaths just over 30 years ago, more than half a million of those people have died from AIDS.[contextly_sidebar id=\"lO0syDiO3AlElegX7fRdQulfH7k681UG\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">And yet, today, the struggle against HIV may be undergoing a sea change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">U.S. health officials and HIV experts are beginning to talk about a future \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/03/29/cdc-director-hiv-remarks/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">in which transmission in the United States could be halted\u003c/a>. And that future, they say, could come not within a generation, but in the span of just a few years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">“We have the science to solve the AIDS epidemic,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the CDC, himself a longtime HIV researcher and clinician, told STAT in a recent interview. “We’ve invested in it. Let’s put it into action.‘’\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">Other leaders in the HIV field have been musing about the idea, buoyed by the astonishing impact effective HIV medications have wrought, both on the lives of people infected with or at risk of contracting the virus, and on the trajectory of the epidemic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">“It’s certainly doable in the United States,” said Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and a researcher whose study focused on HIV from the earliest days of the AIDS epidemic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fauci and other health experts are quick to point out that the goal of stopping transmission entirely is largely theoretical. There will always be some new cases, and the barriers to providing treatment to existing cases remain significant. There are still just under 40,000 people in the U.S. each year contracting HIV. As Fauci put it: “We live in a real world, we don’t live in a theoretical world.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But “if we implement all the tools that we have and if we can theoretically, conceptually, get everybody who’s HIV infected on antiretroviral drug so that they will not transmit the infection to anyone else, theoretically you could end the epidemic tomorrow by doing that,” he added.[contextly_sidebar id=\"wauS1YFripUOWbpsTIa7lXm8j8pGcJjw\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the absence of a highly effective vaccine — and likely, even, in the presence of one — consigning the global HIV/AIDS epidemic to the history books would be impossible. And at the moment, that’s moot: Despite decades of research on HIV vaccines, the holy grail of HIV control remains an unmet goal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, even without a vaccine, experts believe transmission could be largely stopped in this country — a goal that until the past few years would have been unthinkable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In March, Redfield told CDC staff that he believed HIV transmission in the United States \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/03/29/cdc-director-hiv-remarks/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">could be halted over the next three to seven years\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The foundation of the dream is the realization that, if taken correctly, today’s potent antiretroviral drugs will drive down the amount of virus in an HIV-infected person’s system to undetectable levels. People who reach that state, known as viral suppression, are not contagious — even, it seems, if they have unprotected sex.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Accumulated data from several studies show that in nearly 80,000 condomless sex acts between pairs of men who had discordant HIV status — one was negative, the other was positive, but virally suppressed — not a single new infection occurred.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the HIV world, that finding has given rise to a slogan: U = U, or undetectable equals untransmissible. To maximize the benefits of viral suppression, though, people must know their HIV status and start treatment if they are infected. Currently the CDC estimates that 15 percent of infected Americans are unaware they are HIV positive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“People with HIV infection need to be diagnosed, getting care, stay in care, get on antiretrovirals, and get their viral load down to undetectable,” Redfield said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pairing the power of viral suppression with another tool further increases the chances of stopping spread of the virus. That other tool is \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/07/24/digital-pill-prep-truvada/\">PrEP\u003c/a>, pre-exposure prophylaxis — antiretroviral drugs used to prevent infection in people who are at high risk of contracting the virus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Taken correctly, PrEP reduces the risk of contracting HIV from an infected partner by 95 percent. If the infected partner is virally suppressed, the risk is lower still.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the benefits of PrEP can only be reaped if people use it. Currently too few do. The CDC estimates that about 1.1 million people in the U.S. should be taking PrEP, including men who have sex with men, sex workers, and transgender women, a population with a highly elevated risk of contracting HIV. But only about 200,000 are actually using it, Redfield said.[contextly_sidebar id=\"cMA1JnuuPTnJDbxO5uh5Kz0WejZJ8v2u\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Paradoxically, doctors bear part of the blame for that gap.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There is a large number of people who are not comfortable prescribing PrEP or have not been taught how to prescribe PrEP, whether it be in their residency, fellowship, or post-graduate training,” said Dr. Robert Goldstein, medical director of the transgender health program at Massachusetts General Hospital and an instructor at Harvard Medical School.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re limited by stigma within the medical community and within the LGBT community. We’re limited by lack of provider knowledge. We’re limited by awareness among those at highest risk of HIV infection,” Goldstein said. “And those limitations result in rising rates of new HIV infections in men who have sex with men while we see across the country actually dropping rates of new HIV infections year after year.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some cases, the problem of too little PrEP prescribing is due to a lack of training, and in other cases, something else may be at play, suggested Dr. Demetre Daskalakis, the New York Department of Health’s deputy commissioner of disease control.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We still have to sell this to [clinicians] who are like, ‘Why would I be offering people PrEP, if it’s going to encourage them to have condomless sex?’” he said. “And our answer tends to be, ‘They’re already having condomless sex and this prevents HIV.’”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New York is one of several cities — San Francisco and Washington, D.C., among them — that have moved aggressively to harness the power of the treatment and prevention, working to actively identify people who are HIV-positive but who haven’t yet been tested, or haven’t yet started taking antiretroviral drugs, as well as people who should be using PrEP, but are not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New York has expanded the remit of its sexual health clinics to help identify these patients and get them into treatment, said Daskalakis, who explained it’s about “snagging” the people most at risk “where they come for service.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Anyone who is newly diagnosed with HIV is offered antiretroviral drugs immediately. No waiting for a follow-up appointment, which increases the possibility the patient won’t return. And it’s working “with just staggering success,” said Daskalakis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we’re finding is that they get virally suppressed faster,” he said. “It’s sort of the dream, that when you start people on medicines for infections they have on the day of their diagnosis, all of a sudden you see that they’re interested in connecting to care and actually follow through.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Likewise, people who test negative for HIV but who are deemed at risk of becoming infected are offered a starter pack of PrEP. The efforts led to a sharp upswing in the number of people taking PrEP — and a swift decline in the number of new HIV diagnoses. In 2016, new infections dropped 10 percent overall, and 15 percent among men who have sex with men, Daskalakis said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cost of PrEP is steep — $1,500 a month without insurance or assistance from the manufacturer. But New York state has an assistance program that helps with the cost of the medical care PrEP use requires, and there’s a patient assistance program for those who can’t pay for the drug. At the end of the day, Daskalakis said, with a combination of programs, most patients can access PrEP.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In New York, the answer is yes. But I would be more worried about talking to someone in Mississippi,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That isn’t an insignificant consideration. The epidemic in the United States is currently being driven, in large part, by infections among African-American and Latino men who have sex with men in several Southern states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fauci is a believer in the active style of HIV interventions New York and other cities are employing. “You can’t do business as usual,” he said. “You’ve got to have an aggressive approach.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But he’s always cognizant that translating the successes of Washington or New York to less urban settings — where access to care is more limited and stigma may be greater — likely won’t be as simple as changing some wording on some brochures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Is that going to work in Alabama? In Georgia? In Mississippi and Louisiana? That’s where we’ve got to put the focus on,” Fauci said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another challenge that likely won’t be easily overcome relates to the opioid epidemic. The growth in the use of injectable drugs — specifically the sharing of syringes — has driven up HIV and hepatitis C rates in people using illicit substances.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Research shows that needle exchange programs reduce those infections. Separately, a number of cities — San Francisco, Philadelphia, New York, and Seattle, among them— have been exploring opening \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/12/13/supervised-injection-facilities-doctor/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">safe injection sites\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But just as some doctors associate PrEP prescription with enabling unsafe behavior, the notion of sanctioned injection sites and syringe programs draws the ire of people who believe they encourage illegal activity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In an opinion piece in the New York Times, Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein warned the Department of Justice would take swift action against cities that open such facilities, calling them illegal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Americans struggling with addiction need treatment and reduced access to deadly drugs. They do not need a taxpayer-sponsored haven to shoot up,” he wrote.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Public health experts counter that criminalizing drug use hasn’t worked. Officials can’t “punish people into getting well,” said Dr. Sarah Wakeman, medical director of the substance use disorder program at Mass. General.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“At the highest levels of our government, there’s a lot of opposition and antipathy to the idea of harm reduction,” Wakeman said of Rosenstein’s commentary. “And in fact, in that op-ed, it was very clearly stated that these efforts are ‘enabling’ — which I think is one of the many kind of myths around harm reduction.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ll never get to a place where we can stop the spread of HIV unless we are willing to rethink the way we take care of, and our policy towards people who use drugs in this country,” she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Needle exchange programs have some high-profile supporters, including top officials who have had up-close experience with the problem. The CDC’s Redfield has a son \u003ca href=\"https://www.apnews.com/8cc276150f7e4860bc05bdd4ac04d5e0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">who has struggled with opioid addiction\u003c/a>; Surgeon General Jerome Adams \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/12/07/surgeon-general-and-his-brother/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">has a younger brother who has fought addiction\u003c/a> for two decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We believe there is clear evidence that needle exchange programs can reduce the risk of transmission of HIV infection,” said Redfield. Adams \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/20/surgeon-general-jerome-adams-year-one/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">told STAT\u003c/a> last week: “When I see a [needle exchange] program close, what that says to me is that we haven’t done a good enough job communicating to the community why this program is important and the value that it provides.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The hardest sell yet may be to convince authorities that successfully containing the spread of HIV in the U.S. requires addressing transmission in prisons. Prisons, in theory, “should be easy, because it’s a confined population,” said Fauci. He acknowledged, however, the gap is wide here between theory and reality.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You’ve just got to get really flexible in what you do and recognize that there is sex going on, there is injection drug use going on. And if you really want to address it, you really have to address it in those settings,” he said. “And that, I know, is going to raise a lot of eyebrows. But it’s got to be done.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">This \u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/26/hiv-aids-end-of-transmission-goal/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">story\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/a>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was originally published by STAT, an online publication of Boston Globe Media that covers health, medicine, and scientific discovery.\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n",
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"description": "A mere decade ago, 45,000 Americans a year were contracting HIV. Since the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention started collecting data on HIV-related deaths just over 30 years ago, more than half a million of those people have died from AIDS. And yet, today, the struggle against HIV may be undergoing a sea change.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">\u003cspan class=\"big-cap-wrap\">\u003cspan class=\"big-cap\">A \u003c/span>\u003c/span>mere decade ago, 45,000 Americans a year were contracting HIV. Since the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention started collecting data on HIV-related deaths just over 30 years ago, more than half a million of those people have died from AIDS.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">And yet, today, the struggle against HIV may be undergoing a sea change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"danger-zone\">U.S. health officials and HIV experts are beginning to talk about a future \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/03/29/cdc-director-hiv-remarks/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">in which transmission in the United States could be halted\u003c/a>. And that future, they say, could come not within a generation, but in the span of just a few years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">“We have the science to solve the AIDS epidemic,” Dr. Robert Redfield, the director of the CDC, himself a longtime HIV researcher and clinician, told STAT in a recent interview. “We’ve invested in it. Let’s put it into action.‘’\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">Other leaders in the HIV field have been musing about the idea, buoyed by the astonishing impact effective HIV medications have wrought, both on the lives of people infected with or at risk of contracting the virus, and on the trajectory of the epidemic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"\">“It’s certainly doable in the United States,” said Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and a researcher whose study focused on HIV from the earliest days of the AIDS epidemic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fauci and other health experts are quick to point out that the goal of stopping transmission entirely is largely theoretical. There will always be some new cases, and the barriers to providing treatment to existing cases remain significant. There are still just under 40,000 people in the U.S. each year contracting HIV. As Fauci put it: “We live in a real world, we don’t live in a theoretical world.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But “if we implement all the tools that we have and if we can theoretically, conceptually, get everybody who’s HIV infected on antiretroviral drug so that they will not transmit the infection to anyone else, theoretically you could end the epidemic tomorrow by doing that,” he added.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the absence of a highly effective vaccine — and likely, even, in the presence of one — consigning the global HIV/AIDS epidemic to the history books would be impossible. And at the moment, that’s moot: Despite decades of research on HIV vaccines, the holy grail of HIV control remains an unmet goal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, even without a vaccine, experts believe transmission could be largely stopped in this country — a goal that until the past few years would have been unthinkable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In March, Redfield told CDC staff that he believed HIV transmission in the United States \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/03/29/cdc-director-hiv-remarks/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">could be halted over the next three to seven years\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The foundation of the dream is the realization that, if taken correctly, today’s potent antiretroviral drugs will drive down the amount of virus in an HIV-infected person’s system to undetectable levels. People who reach that state, known as viral suppression, are not contagious — even, it seems, if they have unprotected sex.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Accumulated data from several studies show that in nearly 80,000 condomless sex acts between pairs of men who had discordant HIV status — one was negative, the other was positive, but virally suppressed — not a single new infection occurred.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the HIV world, that finding has given rise to a slogan: U = U, or undetectable equals untransmissible. To maximize the benefits of viral suppression, though, people must know their HIV status and start treatment if they are infected. Currently the CDC estimates that 15 percent of infected Americans are unaware they are HIV positive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“People with HIV infection need to be diagnosed, getting care, stay in care, get on antiretrovirals, and get their viral load down to undetectable,” Redfield said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pairing the power of viral suppression with another tool further increases the chances of stopping spread of the virus. That other tool is \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/07/24/digital-pill-prep-truvada/\">PrEP\u003c/a>, pre-exposure prophylaxis — antiretroviral drugs used to prevent infection in people who are at high risk of contracting the virus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Taken correctly, PrEP reduces the risk of contracting HIV from an infected partner by 95 percent. If the infected partner is virally suppressed, the risk is lower still.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the benefits of PrEP can only be reaped if people use it. Currently too few do. The CDC estimates that about 1.1 million people in the U.S. should be taking PrEP, including men who have sex with men, sex workers, and transgender women, a population with a highly elevated risk of contracting HIV. But only about 200,000 are actually using it, Redfield said.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Paradoxically, doctors bear part of the blame for that gap.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There is a large number of people who are not comfortable prescribing PrEP or have not been taught how to prescribe PrEP, whether it be in their residency, fellowship, or post-graduate training,” said Dr. Robert Goldstein, medical director of the transgender health program at Massachusetts General Hospital and an instructor at Harvard Medical School.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re limited by stigma within the medical community and within the LGBT community. We’re limited by lack of provider knowledge. We’re limited by awareness among those at highest risk of HIV infection,” Goldstein said. “And those limitations result in rising rates of new HIV infections in men who have sex with men while we see across the country actually dropping rates of new HIV infections year after year.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In some cases, the problem of too little PrEP prescribing is due to a lack of training, and in other cases, something else may be at play, suggested Dr. Demetre Daskalakis, the New York Department of Health’s deputy commissioner of disease control.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We still have to sell this to [clinicians] who are like, ‘Why would I be offering people PrEP, if it’s going to encourage them to have condomless sex?’” he said. “And our answer tends to be, ‘They’re already having condomless sex and this prevents HIV.’”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New York is one of several cities — San Francisco and Washington, D.C., among them — that have moved aggressively to harness the power of the treatment and prevention, working to actively identify people who are HIV-positive but who haven’t yet been tested, or haven’t yet started taking antiretroviral drugs, as well as people who should be using PrEP, but are not.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>New York has expanded the remit of its sexual health clinics to help identify these patients and get them into treatment, said Daskalakis, who explained it’s about “snagging” the people most at risk “where they come for service.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Anyone who is newly diagnosed with HIV is offered antiretroviral drugs immediately. No waiting for a follow-up appointment, which increases the possibility the patient won’t return. And it’s working “with just staggering success,” said Daskalakis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we’re finding is that they get virally suppressed faster,” he said. “It’s sort of the dream, that when you start people on medicines for infections they have on the day of their diagnosis, all of a sudden you see that they’re interested in connecting to care and actually follow through.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Likewise, people who test negative for HIV but who are deemed at risk of becoming infected are offered a starter pack of PrEP. The efforts led to a sharp upswing in the number of people taking PrEP — and a swift decline in the number of new HIV diagnoses. In 2016, new infections dropped 10 percent overall, and 15 percent among men who have sex with men, Daskalakis said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cost of PrEP is steep — $1,500 a month without insurance or assistance from the manufacturer. But New York state has an assistance program that helps with the cost of the medical care PrEP use requires, and there’s a patient assistance program for those who can’t pay for the drug. At the end of the day, Daskalakis said, with a combination of programs, most patients can access PrEP.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In New York, the answer is yes. But I would be more worried about talking to someone in Mississippi,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That isn’t an insignificant consideration. The epidemic in the United States is currently being driven, in large part, by infections among African-American and Latino men who have sex with men in several Southern states.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fauci is a believer in the active style of HIV interventions New York and other cities are employing. “You can’t do business as usual,” he said. “You’ve got to have an aggressive approach.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But he’s always cognizant that translating the successes of Washington or New York to less urban settings — where access to care is more limited and stigma may be greater — likely won’t be as simple as changing some wording on some brochures.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Is that going to work in Alabama? In Georgia? In Mississippi and Louisiana? That’s where we’ve got to put the focus on,” Fauci said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another challenge that likely won’t be easily overcome relates to the opioid epidemic. The growth in the use of injectable drugs — specifically the sharing of syringes — has driven up HIV and hepatitis C rates in people using illicit substances.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Research shows that needle exchange programs reduce those infections. Separately, a number of cities — San Francisco, Philadelphia, New York, and Seattle, among them— have been exploring opening \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/12/13/supervised-injection-facilities-doctor/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">safe injection sites\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But just as some doctors associate PrEP prescription with enabling unsafe behavior, the notion of sanctioned injection sites and syringe programs draws the ire of people who believe they encourage illegal activity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In an opinion piece in the New York Times, Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein warned the Department of Justice would take swift action against cities that open such facilities, calling them illegal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Americans struggling with addiction need treatment and reduced access to deadly drugs. They do not need a taxpayer-sponsored haven to shoot up,” he wrote.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Public health experts counter that criminalizing drug use hasn’t worked. Officials can’t “punish people into getting well,” said Dr. Sarah Wakeman, medical director of the substance use disorder program at Mass. General.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“At the highest levels of our government, there’s a lot of opposition and antipathy to the idea of harm reduction,” Wakeman said of Rosenstein’s commentary. “And in fact, in that op-ed, it was very clearly stated that these efforts are ‘enabling’ — which I think is one of the many kind of myths around harm reduction.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ll never get to a place where we can stop the spread of HIV unless we are willing to rethink the way we take care of, and our policy towards people who use drugs in this country,” she said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Needle exchange programs have some high-profile supporters, including top officials who have had up-close experience with the problem. The CDC’s Redfield has a son \u003ca href=\"https://www.apnews.com/8cc276150f7e4860bc05bdd4ac04d5e0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">who has struggled with opioid addiction\u003c/a>; Surgeon General Jerome Adams \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/12/07/surgeon-general-and-his-brother/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">has a younger brother who has fought addiction\u003c/a> for two decades.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We believe there is clear evidence that needle exchange programs can reduce the risk of transmission of HIV infection,” said Redfield. Adams \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/20/surgeon-general-jerome-adams-year-one/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">told STAT\u003c/a> last week: “When I see a [needle exchange] program close, what that says to me is that we haven’t done a good enough job communicating to the community why this program is important and the value that it provides.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The hardest sell yet may be to convince authorities that successfully containing the spread of HIV in the U.S. requires addressing transmission in prisons. Prisons, in theory, “should be easy, because it’s a confined population,” said Fauci. He acknowledged, however, the gap is wide here between theory and reality.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You’ve just got to get really flexible in what you do and recognize that there is sex going on, there is injection drug use going on. And if you really want to address it, you really have to address it in those settings,” he said. “And that, I know, is going to raise a lot of eyebrows. But it’s got to be done.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">This \u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/26/hiv-aids-end-of-transmission-goal/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">story\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/a>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was originally published by STAT, an online publication of Boston Globe Media that covers health, medicine, and scientific discovery.\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Antibiotic-resistant bacteria that have infected more than 100 people and that have been linked to pet store puppies appear to have spread at least in part because healthy dogs were given \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/14/gottlieb-idea-antibiotic-resistance/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">antibiotics \u003c/a>— a decision that all but surely fostered \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/01/12/nevada-woman-superbug-resistant/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">antibiotic resistance\u003c/a>.[contextly_sidebar id=\"HDE34Sd5YWLlXCnShh6EZNM8CydbBxW9\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is shocking,” said Lance Price, head of George Washington University’s Antibiotic Resistance Action Center. “This is an important study that’s shining a light on something that we need to spend more time on.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More than half of the puppies in a sample of roughly 150 dogs studied as part of the outbreak investigation were given antibiotics not because they were sick, but to keep them from becoming so, according to a new \u003ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/wr/mm6737a3.htm?s_cid=mm6737a3_w\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">study \u003c/a>published Thursday. The technique, called prophylaxis, has been widely used in food animal production and is blamed for fueling antibiotic resistance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We just have to change how we’re thinking about antibiotics,” warned \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/03/19/antibiotics-food-animals-superbugs/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Matthew Wellington\u003c/a>, antibiotics program director for U.S. PIRG, the Public Interest Research Group.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outbreak of the bacteria, Campylobacter jejuni, which causes diarrheal disease, started in early 2016 and continued until February of this year. People from 18 states fell ill, including 29 pet store employees. The investigation, which began in August of 2017, discovered that puppies were the source of the problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thursday’s study was published in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, a journal produced by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It revealed how many antibiotics the dogs had been given as well as the results of testing done on bacterial samples — known as isolates — from 10 of the sick people and eight of the puppies to see which drugs might kill the bacteria.[contextly_sidebar id=\"q4wh1QIIYj2SgExEJSBT0dpA9hyykGIx\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Outbreak isolates were resistant by antibiotic susceptibility testing to all antibiotics commonly used to treat Campylobacter infections,” the authors reported.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This outbreak demonstrates that puppies can be a source of multidrug-resistant Campylobacter infections in humans, warranting a closer look at antimicrobial use in the commercial dog industry.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outbreak involved six pet store chains, but the problem likely is a broader one, the study showed. Officials in four states visited 20 pet stores and collected antibiotic administration records for about 150 puppies. Of those, 95 percent had received at least one course of drugs —\u003cbr>\nand many received more than one — before reaching the store or while at the store. Sixteen different types of antibiotics were used. And about half the treated dogs were not sick — they were given the drugs to prevent illness.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Senior author Mark Laughlin, a veterinarian with CDC’s division of foodborne, waterborne and environmental diseases, said investigators were taken aback by the scale of antibiotic use in the industry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We were surprised to see the large number of different types of drugs and the large number of courses that the dogs were exposed to. These are pretty young animals on the whole,” he told STAT.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Initially the CDC thought it might be able to trace the infections to a single source — one breeder or commercial breeding facility where the bacterium had spread. But as the investigators learned more about the byzantine world of the breeding and distribution of dogs sold in pet stores, it became clear there wasn’t a single source.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In effect, the system was creating the problem. “These dogs were coming from a large variety of sources,” Laughlin said.[contextly_sidebar id=\"y0nEJMe3DFJWuNjaVc0QYWLkG8UyuJYo\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Price wasn’t impressed. “If your system requires a constant or regular dose of antibiotics to keep the animals healthy, your system’s broken. You’ve designed a system that makes sick animals,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wellington agreed. “Antibiotics should only be used to treat illness, not to compensate for poor practices — whether it’s trucking dogs long distances and having poor hygiene in the process along the way,” he said. “These are lifesaving medicines that should only be used to treat sick animals or sick people.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Campylobacter jejuni is a common infection; the CDC estimates that about 1.3 million cases occur every year in the U.S. Fortunately most people recover without needing medical care.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Both Wellington and Price have been vocal critics of misuse of antibiotics in food animal production. But use of the drugs in the commercial dog industry wasn’t on their radar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Price was startled by the report. “For me, this is an indication that they need to be raising these animals differently. They’re creating this terrible distribution system for multidrug-resistant bacteria,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reality is that, although the outbreak appears to have ended, there could well be ongoing cases because the practices that led to puppies becoming infected with multidrug resistant drugs are still being used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Laughlin said the CDC is working with veterinarian associations and the commercial dog industry, which he said was concerned and keen to make changes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They must, Wellington insisted.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is one of the clearest examples I’ve seen where resistant bacteria are originating in animals from antibiotic overuse, and they’re passing directly to people and spreading rapidly,” he said. “So I think this is one of those situations where it’s incredibly clear that this is a problem we need to solve.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">This \u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/20/antibiotics-resistant-bacteria-puppies-people/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">story\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/a>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was originally published by STAT, an online publication of Boston Globe Media that covers health, medicine, and scientific discovery.\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003cbr>\n\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Antibiotic-resistant bacteria that have infected more than 100 people and that have been linked to pet store puppies appear to have spread at least in part because healthy dogs were given \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/14/gottlieb-idea-antibiotic-resistance/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">antibiotics \u003c/a>— a decision that all but surely fostered \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2017/01/12/nevada-woman-superbug-resistant/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">antibiotic resistance\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is shocking,” said Lance Price, head of George Washington University’s Antibiotic Resistance Action Center. “This is an important study that’s shining a light on something that we need to spend more time on.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>More than half of the puppies in a sample of roughly 150 dogs studied as part of the outbreak investigation were given antibiotics not because they were sick, but to keep them from becoming so, according to a new \u003ca href=\"https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/wr/mm6737a3.htm?s_cid=mm6737a3_w\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">study \u003c/a>published Thursday. The technique, called prophylaxis, has been widely used in food animal production and is blamed for fueling antibiotic resistance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We just have to change how we’re thinking about antibiotics,” warned \u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/03/19/antibiotics-food-animals-superbugs/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Matthew Wellington\u003c/a>, antibiotics program director for U.S. PIRG, the Public Interest Research Group.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outbreak of the bacteria, Campylobacter jejuni, which causes diarrheal disease, started in early 2016 and continued until February of this year. People from 18 states fell ill, including 29 pet store employees. The investigation, which began in August of 2017, discovered that puppies were the source of the problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thursday’s study was published in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, a journal produced by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It revealed how many antibiotics the dogs had been given as well as the results of testing done on bacterial samples — known as isolates — from 10 of the sick people and eight of the puppies to see which drugs might kill the bacteria.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Outbreak isolates were resistant by antibiotic susceptibility testing to all antibiotics commonly used to treat Campylobacter infections,” the authors reported.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This outbreak demonstrates that puppies can be a source of multidrug-resistant Campylobacter infections in humans, warranting a closer look at antimicrobial use in the commercial dog industry.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outbreak involved six pet store chains, but the problem likely is a broader one, the study showed. Officials in four states visited 20 pet stores and collected antibiotic administration records for about 150 puppies. Of those, 95 percent had received at least one course of drugs —\u003cbr>\nand many received more than one — before reaching the store or while at the store. Sixteen different types of antibiotics were used. And about half the treated dogs were not sick — they were given the drugs to prevent illness.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Senior author Mark Laughlin, a veterinarian with CDC’s division of foodborne, waterborne and environmental diseases, said investigators were taken aback by the scale of antibiotic use in the industry.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We were surprised to see the large number of different types of drugs and the large number of courses that the dogs were exposed to. These are pretty young animals on the whole,” he told STAT.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Initially the CDC thought it might be able to trace the infections to a single source — one breeder or commercial breeding facility where the bacterium had spread. But as the investigators learned more about the byzantine world of the breeding and distribution of dogs sold in pet stores, it became clear there wasn’t a single source.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In effect, the system was creating the problem. “These dogs were coming from a large variety of sources,” Laughlin said.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Price wasn’t impressed. “If your system requires a constant or regular dose of antibiotics to keep the animals healthy, your system’s broken. You’ve designed a system that makes sick animals,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wellington agreed. “Antibiotics should only be used to treat illness, not to compensate for poor practices — whether it’s trucking dogs long distances and having poor hygiene in the process along the way,” he said. “These are lifesaving medicines that should only be used to treat sick animals or sick people.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Campylobacter jejuni is a common infection; the CDC estimates that about 1.3 million cases occur every year in the U.S. Fortunately most people recover without needing medical care.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Both Wellington and Price have been vocal critics of misuse of antibiotics in food animal production. But use of the drugs in the commercial dog industry wasn’t on their radar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Price was startled by the report. “For me, this is an indication that they need to be raising these animals differently. They’re creating this terrible distribution system for multidrug-resistant bacteria,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reality is that, although the outbreak appears to have ended, there could well be ongoing cases because the practices that led to puppies becoming infected with multidrug resistant drugs are still being used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Laughlin said the CDC is working with veterinarian associations and the commercial dog industry, which he said was concerned and keen to make changes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They must, Wellington insisted.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is one of the clearest examples I’ve seen where resistant bacteria are originating in animals from antibiotic overuse, and they’re passing directly to people and spreading rapidly,” he said. “So I think this is one of those situations where it’s incredibly clear that this is a problem we need to solve.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">This \u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003ca href=\"https://www.statnews.com/2018/09/20/antibiotics-resistant-bacteria-puppies-people/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">story\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003c/a>\u003ci>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\"> was originally published by STAT, an online publication of Boston Globe Media that covers health, medicine, and scientific discovery.\u003c/span>\u003c/i>\u003cspan style=\"font-weight: 400\">\u003cbr>\n\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Why ‘Boys Will be Boys’ is an Unscientific Excuse for Assault",
"title": "Why ‘Boys Will be Boys’ is an Unscientific Excuse for Assault",
"headTitle": "KQED Future of You | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>Politics aside, the \u003ca href=\"https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/how-the-sexual-assault-accusation-against-kavanaugh-unfolded-in-one-timeline\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sexual assault allegation\u003c/a> against Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh has raised questions — and misconceptions — about adolescent development, the teenage brain and how we remember traumatic events.[contextly_sidebar id=\"oVwS9sAVwJuJIuPB30rT7TxJBIWVcbC9\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One: “Boys will be boys,” or the idea that teenagers can’t help but follow their impulses. \u003ca href=\"https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2018/09/16/what-kavanaugh-did-teen-irrelevant-so-whether-hes-nice/1328274002/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In USA Today,\u003c/a> education professor Jonathan Zimmerman wrote that “Of course [Kavanaugh] was different then; he was a third of the age he is now. And teens do stupid, dangerous and destructive things.” Law journalist Emily Bazelon of New York Times Magazine \u003ca href=\"https://art19.com/shows/today-explained/episodes/29d28815-9a41-43af-9430-1d102f3f5920\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">said\u003c/a> that “we know the adolescent brain is still developing, and teenagers on average aren’t super good at impulse control.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another centers around what Christine Blasey Ford, who accused Kavanaugh of sexually assaulting her while the two were teenagers, remembered. Fox News’ Tucker Carlson said Tuesday that “Human memory is notoriously unreliable, especially over time” and Vox’s Alvin Chang echoed “To be clear, Carlson’s point isn’t entirely off-base. Research shows that our \u003ca href=\"https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/4/20/17109764/deepfake-ai-false-memory-psychology-mandela-effect\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">memory is pretty bad\u003c/a>, which is why most of us probably don’t remember a drunken night last month, much less 36 years ago.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These characterizations oversimplify how the teenage brain and memories work, particularly when it comes to sexual trauma, according to four neuroscientists and three criminologists who spoke with the PBS NewsHour.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While it is tempting to write off sexual aggression as an unfortunate consequence of adolescent impulsivity, in reality, risky behaviors like sexual assault involve brain capabilities that are established before and after our teenage years. Moreover, the company we keep plays as big a role in sexual assault as impulses. And traumatic memories tend to last for the survivors, no matter the age they are when an incident occurs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s what science tells us know about teenagers, sexual assault and remembering trauma.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: Only certain kinds of people commit sexual assault\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: There’s really no typical profile for a sexual assaulter because so few cases are reported.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Around 750,000 people \u003ca href=\"https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv14.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">were raped and sexually assaulted in 2015 and 2016\u003c/a>, but only 37 percent of these cases were reported to the police, according to the National Crime Victimization Survey. This limits our understanding of who commits sexual assault and why.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Unlike other types of criminal offenders, those who commit sexual offenses can be very varied,” said Elizabeth Jeglic, a clinical psychologist at John Jay College of Criminal Justice. “We see people in the Catholic Church. We see doctors, we see lawyers but we also see people who have less education. It’s across the board, across socioeconomic status, across race and ethnicity.”[contextly_sidebar id=\"LN4oM3H9IgZZNB6Oa5vxQB6txCbEDXeZ\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>General patterns do emerge:\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Men commit \u003ca href=\"https://bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/SOO.PDF\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">90 to 95 percent\u003c/a> of sexual assaults.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://ovc.ncjrs.gov/sartkit/about/about-sa-notes.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Most of the perpetrators are white \u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>The overwhelming majority of these cases involve men attacking women, though \u003ca href=\"https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/11/the-understudied-female-sexual-predator/503492/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">male-on-male and female-on-male sex crimes\u003c/a> are common, too.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>Data also shows sexual assault disproportionately affects youth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Younger persons are more likely to be both offenders and victims of crime, including rape and sexual assault,” said Janet L. Lauritsen, a criminology and criminal justice professor at University of Missouri – St. Louis. “Adolescents — ages 12 to 17 — have slightly higher [sexual victimization] rates than 18 to 34 year old. The risks are about eight to nine times greater for women under age 34 than for women ages 50 and above.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These sexual offenses begin to spike right as men head to college. Once puberty begins around the age of 10, the rate of arrests for rape begins to steadily rise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On average, 18.5 per 100,000 males aged 10 to 17 are arrested for rape, according to data provided to the PBS NewsHour by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. For college-aged men, this figure nearly doubles to 32.9 per 100,000, but arrests drop off as males reach their mid- to late-20s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These trends in sexual offenses parallel key stages in mental development.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: The teenage brain is underdeveloped and reckless\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: Impulsivity is a tendency with adolescence, not an absolute. Young children and teenagers can make rational decisions and exhibit impulse control.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Self-control, regardless of age, involves a balance between rational decision-making and our desires for rewards like sex, food and emotional fulfillment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These exist in two separate parts of the brain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The primal part of the brain that handles emotions, impulses and aggression resides toward the back of our heads, near our ears. Our decision-making centers — for controlling impulses, planning and organization and judging consequences — live right behind the forehead in the frontal lobes, namely, the prefrontal cortex.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How we balance the two depends on how our brains build their wiring. This happens as soon as we’re born and lasts through about age 30. When we’re born, our brains are messy. We have more neurons (nerve cells) than we need to survive and an overabundance of communication lines between those cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During childhood and adolescence, our minds constantly rewire — pruning and rebuilding connections — through a process called synaptic plasticity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“All the building blocks for synaptic plasticity are set at higher levels in the childhood and adolescent brain than they will be in adults,” said Frances Jensen, chair of neurology department at the University of Pennsylvania and co-author of \u003ca href=\"https://www.harpercollins.com/9780062067869/the-teenage-brain\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Teenage Brain: A Neuroscientist’s Survival Guide to Raising Adolescents and Young Adults\u003c/a>. “That’s why adolescents and children can learn things much more rapidly than adults.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our primal areas become fully wired before the ones made for rational thinking. That’s because some of the messages sent between neurons must travel long distances across paths coated in a fatty substance called myelin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This process starts in the back of the brain, with the emotions; myelin development here wraps up by early adolescence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Mapping-brain-maturation-and-cognitive-development-Paus/45c4a3f12f1bdceb150875be7a8c66488310cd32\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Frontal lobes lag behind\u003c/a>, which means the paths that carry decision-making skills don’t catch up until your late 20s. Some studies show the parts of the brain controlling emotionality, sexuality and risk-reward are turned on twice as much in teenagers compared to adults exposed to the same experience, Jensen said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a result, teenagers can be quick to react emotionally and to seek instant gratification — because those parts of their brains are operating at a faster speed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is why adolescents can become addicted to all manner of things — opioids, cannabis videogames,” Jensen said. “Addiction is just another form of plasticity, except with your reward circuit. They are more rapidly hardwiring themselves.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This tendency to overvalue rewards and emotions continues until the frontal lobes catch up, plug into the primal brain and suppress these reactions. Girls grow out of these habits about two years, on average, before boys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Overall, that’s why teenagers often get cast as unruly louts, whose actions are ruled by their impulsive choices. But that’s not the whole story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“People often talk about adolescence as if we do not have the cognitive ability to decide what is right and wrong or to control our behaviors. This is not true. It’s too simplistic,” said Tomas Paus, director of the population neuroscience and developmental neuroimaging program at the Bloorview Research Institute in Toronto. “By the age of 12 or 13, our brains are pretty mature. There is no hardcore evidence that young people completely lack impulse control.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: Sexual assault is driven largely by impulses.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: Peer pressure serves as one of the most powerful determinants of sexual assault, said Walter DeKeseredy, a sociologist and the director of the Research Center on Violence at West Virginia University.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we find with college students is that those who are most likely to sexually assault women have friends who encourage that and friends who do it,” DeKeseredy said. “If men in these groups feel that they’re not getting as much sex as their friends, then they’re more likely to engage in sexual aggression so that they could live up to their peers’ expectations.”[contextly_sidebar id=\"UGfNM1LxoY5BttEBSH2MEuVdPGl56a1H\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This concept becomes apparent when you consider how teenagers behave under peer pressure. Our brains are continually shaped — from childhood to adulthood — by our social enclave, Paus said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Behavioral experiments show if a teenager is sitting alone in a room, they’re much less likely to take risks than if they are in the presence of their peers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s something about being around your peers during adolescence that changes the way your brain works,” said Laurence Steinberg, a psychologist at Temple University who led the work behind this discovery. Using brain scans, his team found the sway of peer pressure fades as people age into adulthood.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This pattern means the adolescent brain can decide between right and wrong. They can choose to suppress their impulses in the right context, Paus said. Teenage girls go through the same evolution of their primal brains, emotions and impulses as boys — but are far less likely to commit sexual assault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>DeKeseredy argued that sexual assault has more ties to power and control than impulsivity. Psychological tests show individuals with histories of rape tend to struggle with impulse control, but not everybody who commits rape has an impulse control problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jeglic and Steinberg agreed, citing that a large number of rapes are premeditated. About 90 percent of sexually assaults involve people who already knew each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: Our memories are fickle, so we cannot trust ones from long ago.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: Every time you recall a traumatic memory, its details get stronger.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our memories guide how we behave in the future. When we encounter a welcoming person or place, we build memories to lead us back there. In contrast, if something hurts us — like the first time we burn our hands on a stove — we remember to avoid it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Traumatic experiences take normal memory formation to another level.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Any experience that threatens our survival is remembered and recorded very fast,” said Jacek Debiec, a psychiatrist and neuroscientist at the University of Michigan who studies traumatic memories and how their stored in the brain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humans typically need repetition to learn and remember. But traumatic memories can form after a single, life-threatening event because, from an evolutionary perspective, your brain may have only one chance to capture it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For this reason, traumatic memories last our whole lives and are vivid — filled with details like sounds, scents and sights. Traumatic memories are reinforced by our brain’s fear center — the amygdala — as well as by stress hormones like cortisol.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But memories aren’t static — in the short-term or in the long-term.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the immediate hours after we make a memory, it is unstable and vulnerable to editing. Once this window of opportunity passes, our memories become more lasting and persistent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recalling an event after days, months or years can also open the door to memory editing due to phenomena called reactivation and reconsolidation. Tucker Carlson and Alvin Chang hint at these processes in their commentaries — but leave out a crucial exception:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recalling a traumatic memory typically strengthens it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In our experiments, when the traumatic memories are activated, there is an associated arousal and higher levels of norepinephrine, which mediates arousal,” Debiec said. “Then these traumatic memories are strengthened.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When editing does occur, it tends to only influence peripheral details — like what an attacker was wearing. Central aspects surrounding an event, namely ones with emotional significance — like the people involved and the mode attack — stay consistent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What happens to memory formation when a person is drunk?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blasey Ford said she had one beer the night of incident but alleges that Kavanaugh and Judge were heavily intoxicated. (Kavanaugh has “categorically and unequivocally” denied the allegation of sexual assault altogether). Large amounts of alcohol can block memory formation, Debiec said, but if a person is able to remember details that accompany the event, then it’s likely the alcohol didn’t distort the original memory\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The traumatic memories are biologically privileged,” Debiec said. “Unlearning trauma takes much more time and effort, and it probably never could be fully complete.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Politics aside, the \u003ca href=\"https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/how-the-sexual-assault-accusation-against-kavanaugh-unfolded-in-one-timeline\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">sexual assault allegation\u003c/a> against Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh has raised questions — and misconceptions — about adolescent development, the teenage brain and how we remember traumatic events.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One: “Boys will be boys,” or the idea that teenagers can’t help but follow their impulses. \u003ca href=\"https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2018/09/16/what-kavanaugh-did-teen-irrelevant-so-whether-hes-nice/1328274002/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">In USA Today,\u003c/a> education professor Jonathan Zimmerman wrote that “Of course [Kavanaugh] was different then; he was a third of the age he is now. And teens do stupid, dangerous and destructive things.” Law journalist Emily Bazelon of New York Times Magazine \u003ca href=\"https://art19.com/shows/today-explained/episodes/29d28815-9a41-43af-9430-1d102f3f5920\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">said\u003c/a> that “we know the adolescent brain is still developing, and teenagers on average aren’t super good at impulse control.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another centers around what Christine Blasey Ford, who accused Kavanaugh of sexually assaulting her while the two were teenagers, remembered. Fox News’ Tucker Carlson said Tuesday that “Human memory is notoriously unreliable, especially over time” and Vox’s Alvin Chang echoed “To be clear, Carlson’s point isn’t entirely off-base. Research shows that our \u003ca href=\"https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/4/20/17109764/deepfake-ai-false-memory-psychology-mandela-effect\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">memory is pretty bad\u003c/a>, which is why most of us probably don’t remember a drunken night last month, much less 36 years ago.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These characterizations oversimplify how the teenage brain and memories work, particularly when it comes to sexual trauma, according to four neuroscientists and three criminologists who spoke with the PBS NewsHour.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While it is tempting to write off sexual aggression as an unfortunate consequence of adolescent impulsivity, in reality, risky behaviors like sexual assault involve brain capabilities that are established before and after our teenage years. Moreover, the company we keep plays as big a role in sexual assault as impulses. And traumatic memories tend to last for the survivors, no matter the age they are when an incident occurs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here’s what science tells us know about teenagers, sexual assault and remembering trauma.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: Only certain kinds of people commit sexual assault\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: There’s really no typical profile for a sexual assaulter because so few cases are reported.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Around 750,000 people \u003ca href=\"https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv14.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">were raped and sexually assaulted in 2015 and 2016\u003c/a>, but only 37 percent of these cases were reported to the police, according to the National Crime Victimization Survey. This limits our understanding of who commits sexual assault and why.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Unlike other types of criminal offenders, those who commit sexual offenses can be very varied,” said Elizabeth Jeglic, a clinical psychologist at John Jay College of Criminal Justice. “We see people in the Catholic Church. We see doctors, we see lawyers but we also see people who have less education. It’s across the board, across socioeconomic status, across race and ethnicity.”\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>General patterns do emerge:\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Men commit \u003ca href=\"https://bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/SOO.PDF\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">90 to 95 percent\u003c/a> of sexual assaults.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://ovc.ncjrs.gov/sartkit/about/about-sa-notes.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Most of the perpetrators are white \u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>The overwhelming majority of these cases involve men attacking women, though \u003ca href=\"https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/11/the-understudied-female-sexual-predator/503492/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">male-on-male and female-on-male sex crimes\u003c/a> are common, too.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>Data also shows sexual assault disproportionately affects youth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Younger persons are more likely to be both offenders and victims of crime, including rape and sexual assault,” said Janet L. Lauritsen, a criminology and criminal justice professor at University of Missouri – St. Louis. “Adolescents — ages 12 to 17 — have slightly higher [sexual victimization] rates than 18 to 34 year old. The risks are about eight to nine times greater for women under age 34 than for women ages 50 and above.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These sexual offenses begin to spike right as men head to college. Once puberty begins around the age of 10, the rate of arrests for rape begins to steadily rise.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On average, 18.5 per 100,000 males aged 10 to 17 are arrested for rape, according to data provided to the PBS NewsHour by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. For college-aged men, this figure nearly doubles to 32.9 per 100,000, but arrests drop off as males reach their mid- to late-20s.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These trends in sexual offenses parallel key stages in mental development.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: The teenage brain is underdeveloped and reckless\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: Impulsivity is a tendency with adolescence, not an absolute. Young children and teenagers can make rational decisions and exhibit impulse control.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Self-control, regardless of age, involves a balance between rational decision-making and our desires for rewards like sex, food and emotional fulfillment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These exist in two separate parts of the brain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The primal part of the brain that handles emotions, impulses and aggression resides toward the back of our heads, near our ears. Our decision-making centers — for controlling impulses, planning and organization and judging consequences — live right behind the forehead in the frontal lobes, namely, the prefrontal cortex.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>How we balance the two depends on how our brains build their wiring. This happens as soon as we’re born and lasts through about age 30. When we’re born, our brains are messy. We have more neurons (nerve cells) than we need to survive and an overabundance of communication lines between those cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During childhood and adolescence, our minds constantly rewire — pruning and rebuilding connections — through a process called synaptic plasticity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“All the building blocks for synaptic plasticity are set at higher levels in the childhood and adolescent brain than they will be in adults,” said Frances Jensen, chair of neurology department at the University of Pennsylvania and co-author of \u003ca href=\"https://www.harpercollins.com/9780062067869/the-teenage-brain\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Teenage Brain: A Neuroscientist’s Survival Guide to Raising Adolescents and Young Adults\u003c/a>. “That’s why adolescents and children can learn things much more rapidly than adults.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our primal areas become fully wired before the ones made for rational thinking. That’s because some of the messages sent between neurons must travel long distances across paths coated in a fatty substance called myelin.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This process starts in the back of the brain, with the emotions; myelin development here wraps up by early adolescence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Mapping-brain-maturation-and-cognitive-development-Paus/45c4a3f12f1bdceb150875be7a8c66488310cd32\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Frontal lobes lag behind\u003c/a>, which means the paths that carry decision-making skills don’t catch up until your late 20s. Some studies show the parts of the brain controlling emotionality, sexuality and risk-reward are turned on twice as much in teenagers compared to adults exposed to the same experience, Jensen said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a result, teenagers can be quick to react emotionally and to seek instant gratification — because those parts of their brains are operating at a faster speed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“This is why adolescents can become addicted to all manner of things — opioids, cannabis videogames,” Jensen said. “Addiction is just another form of plasticity, except with your reward circuit. They are more rapidly hardwiring themselves.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This tendency to overvalue rewards and emotions continues until the frontal lobes catch up, plug into the primal brain and suppress these reactions. Girls grow out of these habits about two years, on average, before boys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Overall, that’s why teenagers often get cast as unruly louts, whose actions are ruled by their impulsive choices. But that’s not the whole story.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“People often talk about adolescence as if we do not have the cognitive ability to decide what is right and wrong or to control our behaviors. This is not true. It’s too simplistic,” said Tomas Paus, director of the population neuroscience and developmental neuroimaging program at the Bloorview Research Institute in Toronto. “By the age of 12 or 13, our brains are pretty mature. There is no hardcore evidence that young people completely lack impulse control.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: Sexual assault is driven largely by impulses.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: Peer pressure serves as one of the most powerful determinants of sexual assault, said Walter DeKeseredy, a sociologist and the director of the Research Center on Violence at West Virginia University.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“What we find with college students is that those who are most likely to sexually assault women have friends who encourage that and friends who do it,” DeKeseredy said. “If men in these groups feel that they’re not getting as much sex as their friends, then they’re more likely to engage in sexual aggression so that they could live up to their peers’ expectations.”\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This concept becomes apparent when you consider how teenagers behave under peer pressure. Our brains are continually shaped — from childhood to adulthood — by our social enclave, Paus said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Behavioral experiments show if a teenager is sitting alone in a room, they’re much less likely to take risks than if they are in the presence of their peers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There’s something about being around your peers during adolescence that changes the way your brain works,” said Laurence Steinberg, a psychologist at Temple University who led the work behind this discovery. Using brain scans, his team found the sway of peer pressure fades as people age into adulthood.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This pattern means the adolescent brain can decide between right and wrong. They can choose to suppress their impulses in the right context, Paus said. Teenage girls go through the same evolution of their primal brains, emotions and impulses as boys — but are far less likely to commit sexual assault.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>DeKeseredy argued that sexual assault has more ties to power and control than impulsivity. Psychological tests show individuals with histories of rape tend to struggle with impulse control, but not everybody who commits rape has an impulse control problem.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jeglic and Steinberg agreed, citing that a large number of rapes are premeditated. About 90 percent of sexually assaults involve people who already knew each other.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Myth: Our memories are fickle, so we cannot trust ones from long ago.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Fact: Every time you recall a traumatic memory, its details get stronger.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Our memories guide how we behave in the future. When we encounter a welcoming person or place, we build memories to lead us back there. In contrast, if something hurts us — like the first time we burn our hands on a stove — we remember to avoid it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Traumatic experiences take normal memory formation to another level.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Any experience that threatens our survival is remembered and recorded very fast,” said Jacek Debiec, a psychiatrist and neuroscientist at the University of Michigan who studies traumatic memories and how their stored in the brain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Humans typically need repetition to learn and remember. But traumatic memories can form after a single, life-threatening event because, from an evolutionary perspective, your brain may have only one chance to capture it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For this reason, traumatic memories last our whole lives and are vivid — filled with details like sounds, scents and sights. Traumatic memories are reinforced by our brain’s fear center — the amygdala — as well as by stress hormones like cortisol.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But memories aren’t static — in the short-term or in the long-term.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the immediate hours after we make a memory, it is unstable and vulnerable to editing. Once this window of opportunity passes, our memories become more lasting and persistent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recalling an event after days, months or years can also open the door to memory editing due to phenomena called reactivation and reconsolidation. Tucker Carlson and Alvin Chang hint at these processes in their commentaries — but leave out a crucial exception:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recalling a traumatic memory typically strengthens it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In our experiments, when the traumatic memories are activated, there is an associated arousal and higher levels of norepinephrine, which mediates arousal,” Debiec said. “Then these traumatic memories are strengthened.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When editing does occur, it tends to only influence peripheral details — like what an attacker was wearing. Central aspects surrounding an event, namely ones with emotional significance — like the people involved and the mode attack — stay consistent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What happens to memory formation when a person is drunk?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Blasey Ford said she had one beer the night of incident but alleges that Kavanaugh and Judge were heavily intoxicated. (Kavanaugh has “categorically and unequivocally” denied the allegation of sexual assault altogether). Large amounts of alcohol can block memory formation, Debiec said, but if a person is able to remember details that accompany the event, then it’s likely the alcohol didn’t distort the original memory\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The traumatic memories are biologically privileged,” Debiec said. “Unlearning trauma takes much more time and effort, and it probably never could be fully complete.”\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "What Do Kavanaugh Accusations Tell Us About Memory?",
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"content": "\u003cp>She says he sexually assaulted her; he denies it. Is somebody deliberately lying?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not necessarily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Experts say that because of how memory works, it’s possible that both Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh and Christine Blasey Ford — the woman who says a drunken Kavanaugh pinned her to a bed and groped her at a party when they were teenagers in the early 1980s — believe what they say.[contextly_sidebar id=\"aGFI2U13RVFON4GWTLLls7lLOiR2jou1\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And which one of them believes his or her version more strongly is no tipoff to what really happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Confidence is not a good guide to whether or not someone is telling the truth,” said Nora Newcombe, a psychology professor at Temple University in Philadelphia. “If they think they’re telling the truth, they could plausibly both be confident about it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the nation ponders the accusations from Ford that could derail Kavanaugh’s nomination, the possibility that one of them simply got it wrong has been floated on Capitol Hill. Ford’s lawyers have said some senators appear to have made up their mind that she is “mistaken” and confused. Republican Sen. Orrin Hatch of Utah told CNN, “Somebody’s mixed up.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Experts say a person’s memory is not like a video recorder, perfectly capturing an objective record of everything that happens for later retrieval.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Memory is mostly true but sometimes unreliable,” said psychologist Jennifer Talarico of Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania. Generally, “we get the gist mostly right.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Your beliefs and expectations shape what you perceive in your life and how you later remember those events, researchers say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You are constructing the reality out there as it happens, and therefore you get stuck with that ... as the most accurate you can have for your memory,” said David Rubin, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University. “That’s all you have to base your memory on.”[contextly_sidebar id=\"whv9WgAL0RAIu9Kk3FDpIVBBXEXkxLjZ\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So in a situation where a woman fears being raped by a man, her memories might be shaped by that fear into a recollection that overestimates the threat, whereas the man might consider it “just playing around” and simply forget it later on, Rubin said. And both could be completely honest about their recollections.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Typically, when people make mistakes in recalling an event, they unknowingly slip in details that would be typical on such occasions, Talarico said. (She would not speculate on particular memories at issue in the Kavanaugh matter.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When it comes to emotionally charged events, it’s typical to remember a central person or an item such as a gun but forget the context and details, Newcombe said. “You have this vivid central thing and everything else is fuzzy,” she said. “Emotion makes one thing go up and the other go down.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So it would be wrong to challenge Ford’s memory of the alleged incident over inability to recall details, Newcombe said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ford, a 51-year-old California psychology professor, told The Washington Post that she told nobody about the alleged incident in any detail until 2012, while in couples therapy. Her husband said he recalled her using Kavanaugh’s last name at that time.[contextly_sidebar id=\"JPgu1jHhQDzw6C74gfXRYE1kGCDVjvC4\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some experts cited a classic case of how memory can fail: the 1973 Senate committee testimony of John Dean, former counsel to President Richard Nixon, regarding the Watergate affair. He testified about conversations that, it later turned out, had been recorded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1981, a psychologist published a comparison of his testimony to the tapes and found that even though Dean was basically right about the existence of a cover-up, his accounts of conversations were often wrong.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the Kavanaugh matter, Rubin said, “We don’t have the tapes for what happened at the party.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>She says he sexually assaulted her; he denies it. Is somebody deliberately lying?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not necessarily.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Experts say that because of how memory works, it’s possible that both Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh and Christine Blasey Ford — the woman who says a drunken Kavanaugh pinned her to a bed and groped her at a party when they were teenagers in the early 1980s — believe what they say.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And which one of them believes his or her version more strongly is no tipoff to what really happened.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Confidence is not a good guide to whether or not someone is telling the truth,” said Nora Newcombe, a psychology professor at Temple University in Philadelphia. “If they think they’re telling the truth, they could plausibly both be confident about it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the nation ponders the accusations from Ford that could derail Kavanaugh’s nomination, the possibility that one of them simply got it wrong has been floated on Capitol Hill. Ford’s lawyers have said some senators appear to have made up their mind that she is “mistaken” and confused. Republican Sen. Orrin Hatch of Utah told CNN, “Somebody’s mixed up.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Experts say a person’s memory is not like a video recorder, perfectly capturing an objective record of everything that happens for later retrieval.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Memory is mostly true but sometimes unreliable,” said psychologist Jennifer Talarico of Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania. Generally, “we get the gist mostly right.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Your beliefs and expectations shape what you perceive in your life and how you later remember those events, researchers say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“You are constructing the reality out there as it happens, and therefore you get stuck with that ... as the most accurate you can have for your memory,” said David Rubin, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University. “That’s all you have to base your memory on.”\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So in a situation where a woman fears being raped by a man, her memories might be shaped by that fear into a recollection that overestimates the threat, whereas the man might consider it “just playing around” and simply forget it later on, Rubin said. And both could be completely honest about their recollections.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Typically, when people make mistakes in recalling an event, they unknowingly slip in details that would be typical on such occasions, Talarico said. (She would not speculate on particular memories at issue in the Kavanaugh matter.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When it comes to emotionally charged events, it’s typical to remember a central person or an item such as a gun but forget the context and details, Newcombe said. “You have this vivid central thing and everything else is fuzzy,” she said. “Emotion makes one thing go up and the other go down.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So it would be wrong to challenge Ford’s memory of the alleged incident over inability to recall details, Newcombe said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ford, a 51-year-old California psychology professor, told The Washington Post that she told nobody about the alleged incident in any detail until 2012, while in couples therapy. Her husband said he recalled her using Kavanaugh’s last name at that time.\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some experts cited a classic case of how memory can fail: the 1973 Senate committee testimony of John Dean, former counsel to President Richard Nixon, regarding the Watergate affair. He testified about conversations that, it later turned out, had been recorded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 1981, a psychologist published a comparison of his testimony to the tapes and found that even though Dean was basically right about the existence of a cover-up, his accounts of conversations were often wrong.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As for the Kavanaugh matter, Rubin said, “We don’t have the tapes for what happened at the party.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
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"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
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"possible": {
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"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"radiolab": {
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},
"rightnowish": {
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"title": "Rightnowish",
"tagline": "Art is where you find it",
"info": "Rightnowish digs into life in the Bay Area right now… ish. Journalist Pendarvis Harshaw takes us to galleries painted on the sides of liquor stores in West Oakland. We'll dance in warehouses in the Bayview, make smoothies with kids in South Berkeley, and listen to classical music in a 1984 Cutlass Supreme in Richmond. Every week, Pen talks to movers and shakers about how the Bay Area shapes what they create, and how they shape the place we call home.",
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"info": "The Snap Judgment radio show and podcast mixes real stories with killer beats to produce cinematic, dramatic radio. Snap's musical brand of storytelling dares listeners to see the world through the eyes of another. This is storytelling... with a BEAT!! Snap first aired on public radio stations nationwide in July 2010. Today, Snap Judgment airs on over 450 public radio stations and is brought to the airwaves by KQED & PRX.",
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"soldout": {
"id": "soldout",
"title": "SOLD OUT: Rethinking Housing in America",
"tagline": "A new future for housing",
"info": "Sold Out: Rethinking Housing in America",
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