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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/victoria_crater_mro.jpg\">\u003cem>Victoria Crater on Mars, similar in size to the crater the\u003cbr>\nnear-Mars asteroid 2007 WD 5 would have produced.\u003cbr>\nCredit: NASA/Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The possibility that a sizable asteroid would strike the planet Mars on January 30th temporarily raised the excitement level in the astronomical community to a pretty high level in the last couple of months. We were even toying with the idea of having a 3:00 AM Mars Bashing Party at Chabot that morning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At one point astronomers had given odds of 1 in 25 that asteroid 2007 WD 5, newly discovered in November, would collide with Mars--which are astronomically great odds for this sort of thing. Alas, further observations refined our knowledge of the big rock’s trajectory, and the probability declined, \u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2007-152\">hitting rock bottom (0.0%) by January 9th\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Why blog about a non-event? I see it as an opportunity to talk about big rocks bashing planets in general--specifically, the Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While we haven't witnessed an event like this one (a big impact on a solid, Earth-like planet), we have examined the remains of past events, on Earth as well as other planets and moons—such as the hole in the Arizona desert called \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.meteorcrater.com/index.php\">Meteor Crater\u003c/a>,\" an impact basin roughly the size of what might have been gouged out on Mars by 2007 WD 5. And compared to the asteroid that is believed to have caused the \u003ca href=\"http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/SIC/impact_cratering/Chicxulub/Chicx_title.html\">extinction of the dinosaurs\u003c/a>, the Meteor Crater impact was a pipsqueak!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Smaller objects hit the Earth, or its atmosphere, all the time: \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/meteorites.html\">meteors and meteorites\u003c/a>. Fortunately we haven’t experienced a larger impact for a very long time. There was a significant impact of some kind in 1908, \u003ca href=\"http://www.psi.edu/projects/siberia/siberia.html\">over Siberia\u003c/a>--but luckily that wasn't a major catastrophe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nevertheless, the possibility of a big impact on Earth is something to take seriously. NASA certainly does. They even have a program for it: the \u003ca href=\"http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/\">Near Earth Object Program\u003c/a>, whose goal is to detect and track Near Earth Objects (NEOs) in order to warn of those that might eventually collide with the Earth. A NEO is defined as an asteroid or comet whose orbit carries it close to Earth. The program searches for NEOs that are 1 kilometer in size or larger--objects that would cause catastrophic local devastation and \"severe global consequences.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thus far, over 5,000 NEOs have been found, almost 800 of them 1 kilometer across or larger--and it is expected that there are plenty more out there that we haven't found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, is this a good idea? Do we really want to know that the end of the world is going to occur on such and such a date in the near future--or would it be better not to know, living our daily lives in blissful ignorance right up to the last, Earth-shattering day?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Well, whatever your philosophical approach to that question might be, there is a practical side to the NEO Program. If we can predict a NEO collision with enough advance warning, there may be something we can do to avert \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster\">disaster\u003c/a>. For example, we could send Bruce Willis out to destroy it... .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seriously, though, NASA is \u003ca href=\"http://www.freelists.org/archives/fmo/03-2007/msg00001.html\">working on methods\u003c/a> of diverting the course of a NEO, possibly with a spaceship that acts as a sort of tug boat, gently nudging the NEO off course far enough in advance of the impact to make it eventually miss the Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This month, however, Mars 1, asteroid 0. The Martians are quite relieved... \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8768\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.251\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/victoria_crater_mro.jpg\">\u003cem>Victoria Crater on Mars, similar in size to the crater the\u003cbr>\nnear-Mars asteroid 2007 WD 5 would have produced.\u003cbr>\nCredit: NASA/Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The possibility that a sizable asteroid would strike the planet Mars on January 30th temporarily raised the excitement level in the astronomical community to a pretty high level in the last couple of months. We were even toying with the idea of having a 3:00 AM Mars Bashing Party at Chabot that morning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>At one point astronomers had given odds of 1 in 25 that asteroid 2007 WD 5, newly discovered in November, would collide with Mars--which are astronomically great odds for this sort of thing. Alas, further observations refined our knowledge of the big rock’s trajectory, and the probability declined, \u003ca href=\"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2007-152\">hitting rock bottom (0.0%) by January 9th\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Why blog about a non-event? I see it as an opportunity to talk about big rocks bashing planets in general--specifically, the Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>While we haven't witnessed an event like this one (a big impact on a solid, Earth-like planet), we have examined the remains of past events, on Earth as well as other planets and moons—such as the hole in the Arizona desert called \"\u003ca href=\"http://www.meteorcrater.com/index.php\">Meteor Crater\u003c/a>,\" an impact basin roughly the size of what might have been gouged out on Mars by 2007 WD 5. And compared to the asteroid that is believed to have caused the \u003ca href=\"http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/SIC/impact_cratering/Chicxulub/Chicx_title.html\">extinction of the dinosaurs\u003c/a>, the Meteor Crater impact was a pipsqueak!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Smaller objects hit the Earth, or its atmosphere, all the time: \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/meteorites.html\">meteors and meteorites\u003c/a>. Fortunately we haven’t experienced a larger impact for a very long time. There was a significant impact of some kind in 1908, \u003ca href=\"http://www.psi.edu/projects/siberia/siberia.html\">over Siberia\u003c/a>--but luckily that wasn't a major catastrophe.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nevertheless, the possibility of a big impact on Earth is something to take seriously. NASA certainly does. They even have a program for it: the \u003ca href=\"http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/\">Near Earth Object Program\u003c/a>, whose goal is to detect and track Near Earth Objects (NEOs) in order to warn of those that might eventually collide with the Earth. A NEO is defined as an asteroid or comet whose orbit carries it close to Earth. The program searches for NEOs that are 1 kilometer in size or larger--objects that would cause catastrophic local devastation and \"severe global consequences.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Thus far, over 5,000 NEOs have been found, almost 800 of them 1 kilometer across or larger--and it is expected that there are plenty more out there that we haven't found.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, is this a good idea? Do we really want to know that the end of the world is going to occur on such and such a date in the near future--or would it be better not to know, living our daily lives in blissful ignorance right up to the last, Earth-shattering day?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Well, whatever your philosophical approach to that question might be, there is a practical side to the NEO Program. If we can predict a NEO collision with enough advance warning, there may be something we can do to avert \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster\">disaster\u003c/a>. For example, we could send Bruce Willis out to destroy it... .\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Seriously, though, NASA is \u003ca href=\"http://www.freelists.org/archives/fmo/03-2007/msg00001.html\">working on methods\u003c/a> of diverting the course of a NEO, possibly with a spaceship that acts as a sort of tug boat, gently nudging the NEO off course far enough in advance of the impact to make it eventually miss the Earth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This month, however, Mars 1, asteroid 0. The Martians are quite relieved... \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8768\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.251\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/ilc_gal_moll_5121.png\">\u003cem>Cosmic microwave background and the infant universe.\u003cbr>\nFrom the \u003ca href=\"http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/\">WMAP\u003c/a> science team.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It was on the UC Berkeley astronomy website this morning that I was reminded of something I had wanted to post for QUEST. About a month ago, Cal publicly announced the \u003ca href=\"http://bccp.lbl.gov/\">Berkeley Center for Cosmological Physics\u003c/a>. This was quite a big deal for the Physics and Astronomy departments at Berkeley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The center was founded by George Smoot, who won the Nobel Prize in 2006 and was the focus of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/view/251\">QUEST TV segment\u003c/a>. As described in our \u003ca href=\"http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/12/04_bccp.shtml\">press release\u003c/a>, George donated the bulk of his prize money to the founding of this new center. His donation seeded the center which now has an endowment exceeding $8 million in little more than a year of fund-raising. After watching my girlfriend raise funds for non-profits around SF, I can say that is quite impressive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The center and endowment ensure that Berkeley remains competitive for years to come in the field of cosmology research. It helps Cal recruit excellent researchers by providing funds for postdoctoral researchers and students. The people supported by the Center can choose any project in the department, projects that I have covered in several of my QUEST articles. It also gives new post-docs the freedom to explore the department before starting on a specific project. This differs from the usual postdoctoral researcher who is recruited by a specific faculty member for a specific project.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The center will also sponsor researchers' visits to Berkeley from other institutions, educational outreach to K-12 science teachers and several collaborative international workshops on cosmology each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Berkeley is actually both one of the first and one of the latest institutions to establish a center for cosmology research. In the '90s, we had the Center for Particle Astrophysics, which was funded for 10 years by NSF. I think this was one of the first of its kind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the last few years, a philanthropist named Fred Kavli has funded quite a few cosmology centers all around the world. I just learned that the \u003ca href=\"http://www.kavlifoundation.org/\">Kavli foundation\u003c/a> also funds centers in other fields, like nanoscience research at my \u003ca href=\"http://www.research.cornell.edu/KIC/\">alma mater\u003c/a>. The foundation funds 15 centers in all, including ones at \u003ca href=\"http://kni.caltech.edu/\">Caltech\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://kibm.ucsd.edu/\">UC San Diego\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www-group.slac.stanford.edu/KIPAC/\">Stanford\u003c/a>, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.kitp.ucsb.edu/\">UC Santa Barbara\u003c/a> in California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you're a big fan of MASH or Alan Alda, you'll be a big fan of Kavli foundation. I just looked at their web page and see that they have made him the narrator for their astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience initiatives. Maybe we can recruit Donald Sutherland to promote the movie version of the Berkeley Center for Cosmological Physics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: 37.8768\u003cspan class=\"latitude\">\u003c/span>, longitude: -122.251\u003cspan class=\"longitude\">\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.763553 -122.457913\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/ilc_gal_moll_5121.png\">\u003cem>Cosmic microwave background and the infant universe.\u003cbr>\nFrom the \u003ca href=\"http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/\">WMAP\u003c/a> science team.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It was on the UC Berkeley astronomy website this morning that I was reminded of something I had wanted to post for QUEST. About a month ago, Cal publicly announced the \u003ca href=\"http://bccp.lbl.gov/\">Berkeley Center for Cosmological Physics\u003c/a>. This was quite a big deal for the Physics and Astronomy departments at Berkeley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The center was founded by George Smoot, who won the Nobel Prize in 2006 and was the focus of a \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/view/251\">QUEST TV segment\u003c/a>. As described in our \u003ca href=\"http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/12/04_bccp.shtml\">press release\u003c/a>, George donated the bulk of his prize money to the founding of this new center. His donation seeded the center which now has an endowment exceeding $8 million in little more than a year of fund-raising. After watching my girlfriend raise funds for non-profits around SF, I can say that is quite impressive.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The center and endowment ensure that Berkeley remains competitive for years to come in the field of cosmology research. It helps Cal recruit excellent researchers by providing funds for postdoctoral researchers and students. The people supported by the Center can choose any project in the department, projects that I have covered in several of my QUEST articles. It also gives new post-docs the freedom to explore the department before starting on a specific project. This differs from the usual postdoctoral researcher who is recruited by a specific faculty member for a specific project.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The center will also sponsor researchers' visits to Berkeley from other institutions, educational outreach to K-12 science teachers and several collaborative international workshops on cosmology each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Berkeley is actually both one of the first and one of the latest institutions to establish a center for cosmology research. In the '90s, we had the Center for Particle Astrophysics, which was funded for 10 years by NSF. I think this was one of the first of its kind.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the last few years, a philanthropist named Fred Kavli has funded quite a few cosmology centers all around the world. I just learned that the \u003ca href=\"http://www.kavlifoundation.org/\">Kavli foundation\u003c/a> also funds centers in other fields, like nanoscience research at my \u003ca href=\"http://www.research.cornell.edu/KIC/\">alma mater\u003c/a>. The foundation funds 15 centers in all, including ones at \u003ca href=\"http://kni.caltech.edu/\">Caltech\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://kibm.ucsd.edu/\">UC San Diego\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://www-group.slac.stanford.edu/KIPAC/\">Stanford\u003c/a>, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.kitp.ucsb.edu/\">UC Santa Barbara\u003c/a> in California.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you're a big fan of MASH or Alan Alda, you'll be a big fan of Kavli foundation. I just looked at their web page and see that they have made him the narrator for their astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience initiatives. Maybe we can recruit Donald Sutherland to promote the movie version of the Berkeley Center for Cosmological Physics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: 37.8768\u003cspan class=\"latitude\">\u003c/span>, longitude: -122.251\u003cspan class=\"longitude\">\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.763553 -122.457913\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>A single email on Sunday afternoon brought my weekend to a screeching halt. Some collaborators made a very exciting discovery and needed to confirm if it was real. This would be the last time we'd have for almost another year on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.keckobservatory.org/\">10 meter Keck Telescope\u003c/a> so I jumped at the chance and scheduled it into our observing run Monday night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I spent the rest of Sunday studying similar projects and forming my observing strategy. Early Monday morning, with only two hours before the final deadline, I finally got the images I needed from the collaborators. I quickly examined these images and identified the interesting galaxies for our observations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I chose the galaxies which looked to be the most distant. We were hoping to find a cluster of galaxies some 10-12 billion light years away. Confirming so many distant galaxies is only possible with a large telescope like Keck.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first two hours of the night we observed these galaxies using \u003ca href=\"http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/camp/spectroscopy_intro.html\">spectroscopy\u003c/a>. This technique is essentially inspired by the rainbows at the end of a thunderstorm. Just like the raindrops that create a rainbow, the spectrograph has a prism that separates light into its fundamental colors. The difference in my observations is the light comes from distant galaxies instead of the sun.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/prismdispersion.gif\" title=\"Prism Dispersion\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/prismdispersion.gif\" alt=\"Prism Dispersion\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\nBecause there are so many galaxies and stars in the sky, the important galaxies have to be singled out and shielded from the not-so-important galaxies--sometimes I wonder if some astronomer in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/andromeda.htm\">Andromeda galaxy\u003c/a> is flagging our Milky Way as one of those not-so-important galaxies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All of the distractions on the sky are blocked from view with a slitmask. A long and narrow slit is milled into a sheet of aluminum for each object you are studying. The slitmask is aligned to match the positions of the objects that are being targeted. If you were to peek at the sky through the slitmask and telescope, you would only see the handful of galaxies that were hand-selected. Everything else would be blocked by the mask.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In spectroscopy, the light from a galaxy passes through the slit, then through the prism and into the camera. In an observation of a sun-like star using color film, the resulting image would look a lot like a rainbow. In this case I was not observing a star and I was not using color film. The image loses the fancy colors but still carries the same amount of information.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Believe it or not, a rainbow can be just as beautiful in black and white as it is in color. The black and white rainbow tells you how much light is at every wavelength. From this information you can infer the properties and the \u003ca href=\"http://space.about.com/od/glossaries/g/redshift.htm\">redshift\u003c/a> of the galaxy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what happened in last night's observations? We haven't finished the analysis, but I did take a quick look at the data before calling it a night. Skimming through the spectra of all the galaxies in the slitmask, I didn’t find the features I was hoping for. I'll look more carefully at the final processed data, but I have a bad feeling that we didn't confirm this new discovery. Maybe we'll have better luck next year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">19.5228\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-155.152 \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>A single email on Sunday afternoon brought my weekend to a screeching halt. Some collaborators made a very exciting discovery and needed to confirm if it was real. This would be the last time we'd have for almost another year on the \u003ca href=\"http://www.keckobservatory.org/\">10 meter Keck Telescope\u003c/a> so I jumped at the chance and scheduled it into our observing run Monday night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I spent the rest of Sunday studying similar projects and forming my observing strategy. Early Monday morning, with only two hours before the final deadline, I finally got the images I needed from the collaborators. I quickly examined these images and identified the interesting galaxies for our observations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I chose the galaxies which looked to be the most distant. We were hoping to find a cluster of galaxies some 10-12 billion light years away. Confirming so many distant galaxies is only possible with a large telescope like Keck.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first two hours of the night we observed these galaxies using \u003ca href=\"http://loke.as.arizona.edu/~ckulesa/camp/spectroscopy_intro.html\">spectroscopy\u003c/a>. This technique is essentially inspired by the rainbows at the end of a thunderstorm. Just like the raindrops that create a rainbow, the spectrograph has a prism that separates light into its fundamental colors. The difference in my observations is the light comes from distant galaxies instead of the sun.\u003cbr>\n\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/prismdispersion.gif\" title=\"Prism Dispersion\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/prismdispersion.gif\" alt=\"Prism Dispersion\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\nBecause there are so many galaxies and stars in the sky, the important galaxies have to be singled out and shielded from the not-so-important galaxies--sometimes I wonder if some astronomer in the \u003ca href=\"http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/andromeda.htm\">Andromeda galaxy\u003c/a> is flagging our Milky Way as one of those not-so-important galaxies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>All of the distractions on the sky are blocked from view with a slitmask. A long and narrow slit is milled into a sheet of aluminum for each object you are studying. The slitmask is aligned to match the positions of the objects that are being targeted. If you were to peek at the sky through the slitmask and telescope, you would only see the handful of galaxies that were hand-selected. Everything else would be blocked by the mask.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In spectroscopy, the light from a galaxy passes through the slit, then through the prism and into the camera. In an observation of a sun-like star using color film, the resulting image would look a lot like a rainbow. In this case I was not observing a star and I was not using color film. The image loses the fancy colors but still carries the same amount of information.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Believe it or not, a rainbow can be just as beautiful in black and white as it is in color. The black and white rainbow tells you how much light is at every wavelength. From this information you can infer the properties and the \u003ca href=\"http://space.about.com/od/glossaries/g/redshift.htm\">redshift\u003c/a> of the galaxy.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what happened in last night's observations? We haven't finished the analysis, but I did take a quick look at the data before calling it a night. Skimming through the spectra of all the galaxies in the slitmask, I didn’t find the features I was hoping for. I'll look more carefully at the final processed data, but I have a bad feeling that we didn't confirm this new discovery. Maybe we'll have better luck next year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">19.5228\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-155.152 \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>There's nothing like a trip away from the city lights to remind you just how bad light pollution can be here in the Bay Area. \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/blog_death_valley_night.jpg\">\u003cem>The Milky Way in the skies of Death Valley's\u003cbr>\nDevil's Racetrack. Credit: Dan Duriscoe, U.S. National\u003cbr>\nPark Service\u003c/em>\u003c/span>I just got back from my semi-yearly pilgrimage to my favorite spot on Earth: Death Valley National Park. My main reasons for returning to this place again and again have mostly to do with hiking in the stunning natural beauty of the place, reconnecting with good times in my childhood, and reflecting spiritually on life, the Universe, and everything.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, I can't go to a place like that and not feel more connected with outer space. Not only is the night sky a celestial spectacle--but it's darned cold there too, this time of year! Cold, like space. Each turn of the Earth through its own shadow is like a quick dip in the icy pool of space….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After twilight had faded, after the campfire had burned to embers--and as the frigid cold of the desert winter night started seeping through my layers of clothing--I lay down on the picnic bench and raised my binoculars to my eyes...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>...and that's all I had to do. Arcing overhead was the section of the Milky Way around the constellations Cassiopeia, Perseus, Andromeda, Pegasus--a section of the sky rich in a variety of \"deep sky\" objects (objects typically only visible through binoculars or telescopes).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There was the \u003ca href=\"http://www.darkskyimages.com/doublec.htm\">Double Cluster in Perseus\u003c/a>--a pair of \"open\" clusters of stars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://seds.org/messier/open.html\">Open clusters\u003c/a> are stars bound together gravitationally, still clinging to each other after their \"group infancy\" in the gaseous cloud that gave birth to them. Stars in these clusters are young--and because of their youth, open clusters often contain a number of large, bright, blue stars that shine brilliantly--but which have short life spans as stars go, being more prolific hydrogen-burners (gas guzzlers). (In a word, you can't find an old blue giant star.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can't avoid seeing open clusters in this region; the place is positively littered with them….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is also where the famous \u003ca href=\"http://www.seds.org/Messier/M/m031.html\">Andromeda Galaxy\u003c/a> can be found, in the constellation Andromeda (where else?). What's special about the Andromeda Galaxy? For one, it's the closest large galaxy to our own, as well as the most distant object in the Universe that can be seen with the unaided human eye (without telescopic help). Looking at the Andromeda is like looking through a peephole into the realm beyond our Milky Way…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I could go on and on yakking about what I got to see in the clear, dark Death Valley skies last week, so I'll have to stop myself now. Suffice to say that with a dark sky, a pair of binoculars, and a segment of the Milky Way in view, encountering the celestial wonders of the Universe in a very personal way is like shooting ducks in a barrel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But don't let the light polluted skies of the Bay Area stop you from trying it from your own backyard; there's a lot to behold despite the city lights…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>There's nothing like a trip away from the city lights to remind you just how bad light pollution can be here in the Bay Area. \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2008/01/blog_death_valley_night.jpg\">\u003cem>The Milky Way in the skies of Death Valley's\u003cbr>\nDevil's Racetrack. Credit: Dan Duriscoe, U.S. National\u003cbr>\nPark Service\u003c/em>\u003c/span>I just got back from my semi-yearly pilgrimage to my favorite spot on Earth: Death Valley National Park. My main reasons for returning to this place again and again have mostly to do with hiking in the stunning natural beauty of the place, reconnecting with good times in my childhood, and reflecting spiritually on life, the Universe, and everything.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But, I can't go to a place like that and not feel more connected with outer space. Not only is the night sky a celestial spectacle--but it's darned cold there too, this time of year! Cold, like space. Each turn of the Earth through its own shadow is like a quick dip in the icy pool of space….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After twilight had faded, after the campfire had burned to embers--and as the frigid cold of the desert winter night started seeping through my layers of clothing--I lay down on the picnic bench and raised my binoculars to my eyes...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>...and that's all I had to do. Arcing overhead was the section of the Milky Way around the constellations Cassiopeia, Perseus, Andromeda, Pegasus--a section of the sky rich in a variety of \"deep sky\" objects (objects typically only visible through binoculars or telescopes).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There was the \u003ca href=\"http://www.darkskyimages.com/doublec.htm\">Double Cluster in Perseus\u003c/a>--a pair of \"open\" clusters of stars.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://seds.org/messier/open.html\">Open clusters\u003c/a> are stars bound together gravitationally, still clinging to each other after their \"group infancy\" in the gaseous cloud that gave birth to them. Stars in these clusters are young--and because of their youth, open clusters often contain a number of large, bright, blue stars that shine brilliantly--but which have short life spans as stars go, being more prolific hydrogen-burners (gas guzzlers). (In a word, you can't find an old blue giant star.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You can't avoid seeing open clusters in this region; the place is positively littered with them….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is also where the famous \u003ca href=\"http://www.seds.org/Messier/M/m031.html\">Andromeda Galaxy\u003c/a> can be found, in the constellation Andromeda (where else?). What's special about the Andromeda Galaxy? For one, it's the closest large galaxy to our own, as well as the most distant object in the Universe that can be seen with the unaided human eye (without telescopic help). Looking at the Andromeda is like looking through a peephole into the realm beyond our Milky Way…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I could go on and on yakking about what I got to see in the clear, dark Death Valley skies last week, so I'll have to stop myself now. Suffice to say that with a dark sky, a pair of binoculars, and a segment of the Milky Way in view, encountering the celestial wonders of the Universe in a very personal way is like shooting ducks in a barrel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But don't let the light polluted skies of the Bay Area stop you from trying it from your own backyard; there's a lot to behold despite the city lights…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp> \u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/blog_io_erupt.gif\">\u003cem>A volcanic eruption on the surface of Io\u003cbr>\ntaken by the Voyager spacecraft. Credit: NASA/Voyager\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Planets hog a lot of press, inside and outside the Solar System, but there's a lot to be said for those \"second class\" worlds that are the satellites of the planets--some of which would be true planets (fascinating ones, too) if it weren't for the fact that they orbit another planet instead of the Sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'd like to point out a few things about these little worlds of which you may not be aware.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have to start with Earth's own satellite--\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/moons_and_rings.html\">the Moon\u003c/a> (or Luna, by the Latin name). Whether or not large moons are common around Earth-sized planets, they really are not common in our Solar System. Earth has one very sizable moon, a quarter the diameter of Earth itself, whereas none of the other \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_planet\">terrestrial planets\u003c/a> really do. Mars' two moons are pint-sized--roughly comparable to \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/exploration/view/543\">Mount Diablo\u003c/a> in size. And that's it. (I can avoid talking about Pluto's moon, Charon, since Pluto isn't an official planet... please don't throw the rotten fruit!)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars' satellites--\u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/facts/moons.html\">14-mile Phobos and 6-mile Deimos\u003c/a>--are possibly asteroids captured from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.crystalinks.com/asteroids.html\">Asteroid Belt\u003c/a>, which neighbors Mars. Many of Jupiter's current count of 63 moons are also probably absconded asteroids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's Jupiter where the satellite worlds truly begin, Luna notwithstanding. As I mentioned, some moons would be planets if only they orbited the Sun directly. Jupiter's largest moon (the Solar System's largest, for that matter) is \u003ca href=\"http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ganymede/fact.html\">Ganymede\u003c/a>, with a diameter that exceeds that of Mercury.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another of Jupiter's four large \"Galilean\" moons, \u003ca href=\"http://www.planetaryexploration.net/jupiter/io/\">Io\u003c/a>, is the most volcanically active object known in the Solar System. \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071213180823.htm\">Europa\u003c/a> has \u003ca href=\"http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu/~pesti/europa/\">probable oceans of water\u003c/a> hidden under its fractured icy crust --oceans, I said, perhaps as deep as 30 miles! Think of the possibilities with that much liquid water! The heating that powers Io's volcanoes and keeps Europa's oceans thawed comes from tidal stressing by Jupiter's powerful gravity--another interesting planet-moon interaction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One oddity about many of the moons of the Solar System--including our own--is that they are \u003ca href=\"http://www.lunarpedia.org/index.php?title=Tidal_lock\">gravitationally locked\u003c/a> to their parent planet. That is, like our Moon, they always keep the same side facing their planet. What this also means is that, as the moon orbits its planet, the same face always leads \"forward,\" in its direction of travel, the other side always trailing aft--in some cases producing amusing results. For example, \u003ca href=\"http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sat_Iapetus\">Saturn's Iapetus\u003c/a> is half bright white and half dark, its face that leads the way in its orbit around Saturn collecting ice particles in much the way that the wind-ward side of a house collects snow, which piles up on that side.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saturn's Titan is definitely a world unto itself, with a cold nitrogen atmosphere much thicker than even Earth's, clouds and haze of methane and ethane, as well as precipitation, runoff, \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap070207.html\">lakes\u003c/a>, and even seas of these compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then there are the ice volcanoes of \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/enceladu.htm\">Enceladus\u003c/a> (Saturn) and \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap971123.html\">Triton\u003c/a> (Neptune), the great ice chasm of \u003ca href=\"http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/image-details.cfm?imageID=1011\">Tethys\u003c/a> (Saturn), and... much more than I can even list in this blog!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And don't forget the one thing moons have that their planets don't: location! Imagine the view you'd have from the moon of a gas giant planet: a view of the gas giant-- magnificent clouded Jupiter, stunning ringed Saturn, blue-green Uranus and Neptune. You don't find views like these from a planet... at least, not in our Solar System.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8148\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.178\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp> \u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/blog_io_erupt.gif\">\u003cem>A volcanic eruption on the surface of Io\u003cbr>\ntaken by the Voyager spacecraft. Credit: NASA/Voyager\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Planets hog a lot of press, inside and outside the Solar System, but there's a lot to be said for those \"second class\" worlds that are the satellites of the planets--some of which would be true planets (fascinating ones, too) if it weren't for the fact that they orbit another planet instead of the Sun.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I'd like to point out a few things about these little worlds of which you may not be aware.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I have to start with Earth's own satellite--\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/moons_and_rings.html\">the Moon\u003c/a> (or Luna, by the Latin name). Whether or not large moons are common around Earth-sized planets, they really are not common in our Solar System. Earth has one very sizable moon, a quarter the diameter of Earth itself, whereas none of the other \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_planet\">terrestrial planets\u003c/a> really do. Mars' two moons are pint-sized--roughly comparable to \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/quest/exploration/view/543\">Mount Diablo\u003c/a> in size. And that's it. (I can avoid talking about Pluto's moon, Charon, since Pluto isn't an official planet... please don't throw the rotten fruit!)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars' satellites--\u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/facts/moons.html\">14-mile Phobos and 6-mile Deimos\u003c/a>--are possibly asteroids captured from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.crystalinks.com/asteroids.html\">Asteroid Belt\u003c/a>, which neighbors Mars. Many of Jupiter's current count of 63 moons are also probably absconded asteroids.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It's Jupiter where the satellite worlds truly begin, Luna notwithstanding. As I mentioned, some moons would be planets if only they orbited the Sun directly. Jupiter's largest moon (the Solar System's largest, for that matter) is \u003ca href=\"http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ganymede/fact.html\">Ganymede\u003c/a>, with a diameter that exceeds that of Mercury.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Another of Jupiter's four large \"Galilean\" moons, \u003ca href=\"http://www.planetaryexploration.net/jupiter/io/\">Io\u003c/a>, is the most volcanically active object known in the Solar System. \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071213180823.htm\">Europa\u003c/a> has \u003ca href=\"http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu/~pesti/europa/\">probable oceans of water\u003c/a> hidden under its fractured icy crust --oceans, I said, perhaps as deep as 30 miles! Think of the possibilities with that much liquid water! The heating that powers Io's volcanoes and keeps Europa's oceans thawed comes from tidal stressing by Jupiter's powerful gravity--another interesting planet-moon interaction.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One oddity about many of the moons of the Solar System--including our own--is that they are \u003ca href=\"http://www.lunarpedia.org/index.php?title=Tidal_lock\">gravitationally locked\u003c/a> to their parent planet. That is, like our Moon, they always keep the same side facing their planet. What this also means is that, as the moon orbits its planet, the same face always leads \"forward,\" in its direction of travel, the other side always trailing aft--in some cases producing amusing results. For example, \u003ca href=\"http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sat_Iapetus\">Saturn's Iapetus\u003c/a> is half bright white and half dark, its face that leads the way in its orbit around Saturn collecting ice particles in much the way that the wind-ward side of a house collects snow, which piles up on that side.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Saturn's Titan is definitely a world unto itself, with a cold nitrogen atmosphere much thicker than even Earth's, clouds and haze of methane and ethane, as well as precipitation, runoff, \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap070207.html\">lakes\u003c/a>, and even seas of these compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Then there are the ice volcanoes of \u003ca href=\"http://www.solarviews.com/eng/enceladu.htm\">Enceladus\u003c/a> (Saturn) and \u003ca href=\"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap971123.html\">Triton\u003c/a> (Neptune), the great ice chasm of \u003ca href=\"http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/image-details.cfm?imageID=1011\">Tethys\u003c/a> (Saturn), and... much more than I can even list in this blog!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And don't forget the one thing moons have that their planets don't: location! Imagine the view you'd have from the moon of a gas giant planet: a view of the gas giant-- magnificent clouded Jupiter, stunning ringed Saturn, blue-green Uranus and Neptune. You don't find views like these from a planet... at least, not in our Solar System.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8148\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.178\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Winds of change: the climate of the solar system",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/blog_sst.jpg\">\u003c/span>Several billion years ago, our solar system was nothing more than a nondescript cloud of gas. There was no sun, no planets-- just a lot of hydrogen, a bit of helium, and trace amounts of the carbon, oxygen and the other elements that we take for granted here on Earth. How is it that the Earth came look so different from that original cloud?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may remember from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/\">brief description of the planets\u003c/a> in \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/12/05/global-warming-on-venus/\">my last post\u003c/a> that the composition of the inner planets is actually quite different from that of the outer planets. The inner planets are dense and rocky while the outer planets are composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/blog_aurora.jpg\">\u003c/span>It is not a coincidence that the composition of the outer planets so closely resembles the original solar system. As that \u003ca href=\"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/nebular.html\">primordial cloud of hydrogen and helium\u003c/a> began to collapse, specific climate patterns began to settle across the solar system. Those climate patterns are almost entirely responsible for the ways in which each planet formed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It should come as no surprise that the regions of the solar system closest to the sun became the hottest and the regions furthest from the sun the coldest. Like climate on Earth, winds permeate the solar system, and material is thrown off the surface of the Sun and into space. This material is ejected at a rate equal in mass to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=transamericapyramid-sanfrancisco-ca-usa\">Transamerica Pyramid building\u003c/a> every second! This stream of particles is called \u003ca href=\"http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml\">the solar wind\u003c/a>. Although you cannot see the solar wind, you may have noticed it indirectly-- the solar wind is responsible for such lovely phenomena as \u003ca href=\"http://www.travel.hickerphoto.com/aurora_borealis.jsp\">aurora\u003c/a> and comet tails.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The temperature differences also helped create the solar system we see now. High temperatures closer to the sun boiled the hydrogen and helium off the forming inner planets, like steam rising from a pot of water. At present, what little hydrogen is left on the inner planets is locked up in compounds like water and methane. After the boiling, storms of solar wind swept away the stray particles, pushing them into the outer reaches of the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outer planets were much cooler and much more massive, and captured a lot of that stray helium and hydrogen. The hydrogen and helium on Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune did not boil at a temperature high enough to escape the planets' gravity and remain even today. Because of this capture of the original gases in the solar system, the outer planets look a lot like the original gas cloud that spawned all of us. But given that we need the atmosphere we have, we are probably better off here on Earth. It has all worked out for the best.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/blog_sst.jpg\">\u003c/span>Several billion years ago, our solar system was nothing more than a nondescript cloud of gas. There was no sun, no planets-- just a lot of hydrogen, a bit of helium, and trace amounts of the carbon, oxygen and the other elements that we take for granted here on Earth. How is it that the Earth came look so different from that original cloud?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may remember from the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/\">brief description of the planets\u003c/a> in \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/12/05/global-warming-on-venus/\">my last post\u003c/a> that the composition of the inner planets is actually quite different from that of the outer planets. The inner planets are dense and rocky while the outer planets are composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/blog_aurora.jpg\">\u003c/span>It is not a coincidence that the composition of the outer planets so closely resembles the original solar system. As that \u003ca href=\"http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/nebular.html\">primordial cloud of hydrogen and helium\u003c/a> began to collapse, specific climate patterns began to settle across the solar system. Those climate patterns are almost entirely responsible for the ways in which each planet formed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It should come as no surprise that the regions of the solar system closest to the sun became the hottest and the regions furthest from the sun the coldest. Like climate on Earth, winds permeate the solar system, and material is thrown off the surface of the Sun and into space. This material is ejected at a rate equal in mass to the \u003ca href=\"http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=transamericapyramid-sanfrancisco-ca-usa\">Transamerica Pyramid building\u003c/a> every second! This stream of particles is called \u003ca href=\"http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml\">the solar wind\u003c/a>. Although you cannot see the solar wind, you may have noticed it indirectly-- the solar wind is responsible for such lovely phenomena as \u003ca href=\"http://www.travel.hickerphoto.com/aurora_borealis.jsp\">aurora\u003c/a> and comet tails.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The temperature differences also helped create the solar system we see now. High temperatures closer to the sun boiled the hydrogen and helium off the forming inner planets, like steam rising from a pot of water. At present, what little hydrogen is left on the inner planets is locked up in compounds like water and methane. After the boiling, storms of solar wind swept away the stray particles, pushing them into the outer reaches of the solar system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The outer planets were much cooler and much more massive, and captured a lot of that stray helium and hydrogen. The hydrogen and helium on Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune did not boil at a temperature high enough to escape the planets' gravity and remain even today. Because of this capture of the original gases in the solar system, the outer planets look a lot like the original gas cloud that spawned all of us. But given that we need the atmosphere we have, we are probably better off here on Earth. It has all worked out for the best.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/opportunityatvictoriacraterblog.jpg\">\u003cem>Picture of the edge of Victoria Crater superimposed with\u003cbr>\nimage of the rover Opportunity.\u003cbr>\nCredit: NASA/JPL\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Mars is not only on the horizon, it's become a sky-high creature of the night...and so, it's time to blog about the Red Planet once again, and to showcase a few favorite pictures from the veteran robots presently exploring that world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars reaches \"\u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/allabout/nightsky/nightsky03.html\" target=\"_blank\">opposition\u003c/a>\" on December 24th. This is the time when Earth crosses directly between the Sun and Mars--in other words, when Mars is at the opposite end of the sky from the Sun and at its closest distance from Earth--this time about 55 million miles. You can see Mars yourself in the evening hours if you face east and look high: it's that steady, bright, orange dot right between \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_(constellation)\" target=\"_blank\">Gemini\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)\" target=\"_blank\">Taurus\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what's been happening on Mars, exploration-wise? Here's a quick summary on that score:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/home/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/mission/status_spirit.html\" target=\"_blank\">Spirit\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/mission/status_opportunity.html\" target=\"_blank\">Opportunity\u003c/a>, have had their tours of duty extended a \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/20071015a.html\" target=\"_blank\">fifth time\u003c/a>, which should keep the rovers going--their health willing--possibly through 2009. Having landed on Mars in January of 2004 for a nominal \u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20030411a.html\" target=\"_blank\">90 day mission\u003c/a>, the robot pair has now lasted almost four years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Spirit, which landed in the huge \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusev_Crater\" target=\"_blank\">Gusev Crater\u003c/a>, has traveled four and a half miles from its landing point and is now exploring a range of hills on a volcanic plateau. Probably topping the list of \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070503_mars_volcanoes.html\" target=\"_blank\">scientific evidence\u003c/a> it has turned up is that water, in some form, has altered the chemistry in the environment, sometime in the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Opportunity, on the opposite side of the planet from Spirit, is currently exploring the half-mile-wide \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/20070913a.html\" target=\"_blank\">Victoria Crater\u003c/a>. Exposed rock layers in the walls of the crater are expected to be an excellent \"book\" of Mars' geologic history for Opportunity's various instruments to read.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In its more than seven mile journey, Opportunity has revealed even stronger evidence that Mars' distant past may have been warmer and wetter, and that, at least in Opportunity's neck of the woods (\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/mars/places/meridiani_planum.html\" target=\"_blank\">Meridiani Planum\u003c/a>), there may have been extended periods with \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/hematite_blueberries_040319.html\" target=\"_blank\">liquid surface water\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/\" target=\"_blank\">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\u003c/a> spacecraft, with its array of instruments and super-powerful camera, has produced the most discerning orbital imagery of Mars' surface to date, giving us aerial views of the Martian deserts, canyons, ice caps, plateaus, volcanoes, craters, drainage channels, sand dunes, and so on, that look like they could have been taken from the window of a small airplane flying at very low altitude.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even as Spirit and Opportunity send back postcard after postcard from the ground, like a pair of camera-happy tourists, that tantalize us with evidence of possible lakes, seas, and oceans in Mars' past, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter with its more global viewpoint has revealed evidence that suggest another possibility: that the apparently periodic \"bursts\" of water activity might have been the work of large meteoroid impacts blasting through layers of ice and creating temporary \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/newsroom/pressreleases/20070920a.html\" target=\"_blank\">episodes of water melt\u003c/a>...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To round out the role-call, NASA's \u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/\" target=\"_blank\">2001 Mars Odyssey\u003c/a> and Europe's \u003ca href=\"http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/\" target=\"_blank\">Mars Express\u003c/a> orbiters are also still in business and contributing to our already huge--but nowhere near complete--body of knowledge of that wandering orange dot in the sky...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8148\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.178\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7631 -122.409\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"description": "Picture of the edge of Victoria Crater superimposed with image of the rover Opportunity. Credit: NASA/JPLMars is not only on the horizon, it's become a sky-high creature of the night...and so, it's time to blog about the Red Planet once again, and to showcase a few favorite pictures from the veteran robots presently exploring that",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/opportunityatvictoriacraterblog.jpg\">\u003cem>Picture of the edge of Victoria Crater superimposed with\u003cbr>\nimage of the rover Opportunity.\u003cbr>\nCredit: NASA/JPL\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Mars is not only on the horizon, it's become a sky-high creature of the night...and so, it's time to blog about the Red Planet once again, and to showcase a few favorite pictures from the veteran robots presently exploring that world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Mars reaches \"\u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/allabout/nightsky/nightsky03.html\" target=\"_blank\">opposition\u003c/a>\" on December 24th. This is the time when Earth crosses directly between the Sun and Mars--in other words, when Mars is at the opposite end of the sky from the Sun and at its closest distance from Earth--this time about 55 million miles. You can see Mars yourself in the evening hours if you face east and look high: it's that steady, bright, orange dot right between \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_(constellation)\" target=\"_blank\">Gemini\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)\" target=\"_blank\">Taurus\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So what's been happening on Mars, exploration-wise? Here's a quick summary on that score:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/home/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers\u003c/a>, \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/mission/status_spirit.html\" target=\"_blank\">Spirit\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/mission/status_opportunity.html\" target=\"_blank\">Opportunity\u003c/a>, have had their tours of duty extended a \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/20071015a.html\" target=\"_blank\">fifth time\u003c/a>, which should keep the rovers going--their health willing--possibly through 2009. Having landed on Mars in January of 2004 for a nominal \u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mer/newsroom/pressreleases/20030411a.html\" target=\"_blank\">90 day mission\u003c/a>, the robot pair has now lasted almost four years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Spirit, which landed in the huge \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusev_Crater\" target=\"_blank\">Gusev Crater\u003c/a>, has traveled four and a half miles from its landing point and is now exploring a range of hills on a volcanic plateau. Probably topping the list of \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070503_mars_volcanoes.html\" target=\"_blank\">scientific evidence\u003c/a> it has turned up is that water, in some form, has altered the chemistry in the environment, sometime in the past.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Opportunity, on the opposite side of the planet from Spirit, is currently exploring the half-mile-wide \u003ca href=\"http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/newsroom/pressreleases/20070913a.html\" target=\"_blank\">Victoria Crater\u003c/a>. Exposed rock layers in the walls of the crater are expected to be an excellent \"book\" of Mars' geologic history for Opportunity's various instruments to read.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In its more than seven mile journey, Opportunity has revealed even stronger evidence that Mars' distant past may have been warmer and wetter, and that, at least in Opportunity's neck of the woods (\u003ca href=\"http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/mars/places/meridiani_planum.html\" target=\"_blank\">Meridiani Planum\u003c/a>), there may have been extended periods with \u003ca href=\"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/hematite_blueberries_040319.html\" target=\"_blank\">liquid surface water\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/\" target=\"_blank\">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\u003c/a> spacecraft, with its array of instruments and super-powerful camera, has produced the most discerning orbital imagery of Mars' surface to date, giving us aerial views of the Martian deserts, canyons, ice caps, plateaus, volcanoes, craters, drainage channels, sand dunes, and so on, that look like they could have been taken from the window of a small airplane flying at very low altitude.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Even as Spirit and Opportunity send back postcard after postcard from the ground, like a pair of camera-happy tourists, that tantalize us with evidence of possible lakes, seas, and oceans in Mars' past, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter with its more global viewpoint has revealed evidence that suggest another possibility: that the apparently periodic \"bursts\" of water activity might have been the work of large meteoroid impacts blasting through layers of ice and creating temporary \u003ca href=\"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/newsroom/pressreleases/20070920a.html\" target=\"_blank\">episodes of water melt\u003c/a>...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To round out the role-call, NASA's \u003ca href=\"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/odyssey/\" target=\"_blank\">2001 Mars Odyssey\u003c/a> and Europe's \u003ca href=\"http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/\" target=\"_blank\">Mars Express\u003c/a> orbiters are also still in business and contributing to our already huge--but nowhere near complete--body of knowledge of that wandering orange dot in the sky...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8148\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.178\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> 37.7631 -122.409\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Global Warming on Venus?",
"title": "Global Warming on Venus?",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/starsflash_blog.jpg\">\u003cem>Credit: T. Credner & S. Kohle, AlltheSky.com\u003c/em>\u003c/span>You may be surprised to hear that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/venus_worldbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Venus\u003c/a> is the warmest planet in the solar system. Venus has an average temperature of 850 degrees Fahrenheit. This is much warmer than the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/earth_worldbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Earth\u003c/a>, at 60 degrees, and even warmer than \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/mercury_worldbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Mercury\u003c/a>, which sits much closer to the sun, at 350 degrees. A reader asked if the high temperature on Venus was related to the composition of the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out that the atmosphere of Venus is actually made almost entirely of carbon dioxide, and a lot of it. Because of this thick atmosphere and clouds of reflective sulfuric acid, not much was known about the planet's surface until recently. Before 1960, astronomers couldn't even estimate the length of one day on Venus! Now \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite\" target=\"_blank\">satellites\u003c/a>, like the \u003ca href=\"http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=64\" target=\"_blank\">Venus Express\u003c/a>, orbit around the planet and \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lander_%28spacecraft%29\" target=\"_blank\">landers\u003c/a>, like the \u003ca href=\"http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/venera.html\" target=\"_blank\">Soviet Venera\u003c/a>, have reached the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We now know that the surface of Venus is scarred with impact craters, lava flows and more volcanoes than any other planet in the solar system. We know that the atmosphere is almost entirely carbon dioxide and that this atmosphere is responsible for severe global warming on the planet. However, we don't know if any of these volcanoes are still active, how much water was originally present, or if conditions were ever conducive to life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reading the stats on Venus got me thinking about the conditions on the other planets. Looking for the details, I came across a nice website dedicated to the solar system, \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/\" target=\"_blank\">www.nineplanets.org\u003c/a>. Although each planet has a very complex composition, I list here only the one or two most common gases in each planet's atmosphere. \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/mercury.html\" target=\"_blank\">Mercury\u003c/a>: essentially no atmosphere;\u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/venus.html\" target=\"_blank\"> Venus\u003c/a>: almost 100 times pressure at Earth's surface, mostly carbon dioxide, very hot; \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmosphere\" target=\"_blank\">Earth\u003c/a>: roughly 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, very little carbon dioxide; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/mars.html\" target=\"_blank\">Mars\u003c/a>: Very thin, atmospheric pressure 100 times less than Earth, mostly carbon dioxide; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/jupiter.html\" target=\"_blank\">Jupiter\u003c/a>: atmosphere indistinguishable from surface, 90% hydrogen and 10% helium; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/saturn.html\" target=\"_blank\">Saturn\u003c/a>: 75% hydrogen, 25% helium; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/uranus.html\" target=\"_blank\">Uranus\u003c/a>: 83% hydrogen, 15% helium; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/neptune.html\" target=\"_blank\">Neptune\u003c/a>: mostly hydrogen and helium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In reading over the description of the planetary atmospheres, you may notice some interesting trends. For one thing, the Earth definitely stands out with its atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen. Maybe all of the life on Earth's surface is responsible? Maybe the water??\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may also notice that the planets which are furthest from the sun are made up almost entirely of hydrogen and helium. In composition, the gaseous outer planets actually resemble the original nebula that gave birth to the solar system, a feature not shared with the inner rocky planets. Why did all of the hydrogen and helium disappear from the inner planets? For that matter, where is the atmosphere of Mercury?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.6797\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-121.698\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"description": "Credit: T. Credner & S. Kohle, AlltheSky.comYou may be surprised to hear that Venus is the warmest planet in the solar system. Venus has an average temperature of 850 degrees Fahrenheit. This is much warmer than the Earth, at 60 degrees, and even warmer than Mercury, which sits much closer to the sun, at 350",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/12/starsflash_blog.jpg\">\u003cem>Credit: T. Credner & S. Kohle, AlltheSky.com\u003c/em>\u003c/span>You may be surprised to hear that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/venus_worldbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Venus\u003c/a> is the warmest planet in the solar system. Venus has an average temperature of 850 degrees Fahrenheit. This is much warmer than the \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/earth_worldbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Earth\u003c/a>, at 60 degrees, and even warmer than \u003ca href=\"http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/mercury_worldbook.html\" target=\"_blank\">Mercury\u003c/a>, which sits much closer to the sun, at 350 degrees. A reader asked if the high temperature on Venus was related to the composition of the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out that the atmosphere of Venus is actually made almost entirely of carbon dioxide, and a lot of it. Because of this thick atmosphere and clouds of reflective sulfuric acid, not much was known about the planet's surface until recently. Before 1960, astronomers couldn't even estimate the length of one day on Venus! Now \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite\" target=\"_blank\">satellites\u003c/a>, like the \u003ca href=\"http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/area/index.cfm?fareaid=64\" target=\"_blank\">Venus Express\u003c/a>, orbit around the planet and \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lander_%28spacecraft%29\" target=\"_blank\">landers\u003c/a>, like the \u003ca href=\"http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/venera.html\" target=\"_blank\">Soviet Venera\u003c/a>, have reached the surface.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We now know that the surface of Venus is scarred with impact craters, lava flows and more volcanoes than any other planet in the solar system. We know that the atmosphere is almost entirely carbon dioxide and that this atmosphere is responsible for severe global warming on the planet. However, we don't know if any of these volcanoes are still active, how much water was originally present, or if conditions were ever conducive to life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reading the stats on Venus got me thinking about the conditions on the other planets. Looking for the details, I came across a nice website dedicated to the solar system, \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/\" target=\"_blank\">www.nineplanets.org\u003c/a>. Although each planet has a very complex composition, I list here only the one or two most common gases in each planet's atmosphere. \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/mercury.html\" target=\"_blank\">Mercury\u003c/a>: essentially no atmosphere;\u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/venus.html\" target=\"_blank\"> Venus\u003c/a>: almost 100 times pressure at Earth's surface, mostly carbon dioxide, very hot; \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmosphere\" target=\"_blank\">Earth\u003c/a>: roughly 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, very little carbon dioxide; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/mars.html\" target=\"_blank\">Mars\u003c/a>: Very thin, atmospheric pressure 100 times less than Earth, mostly carbon dioxide; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/jupiter.html\" target=\"_blank\">Jupiter\u003c/a>: atmosphere indistinguishable from surface, 90% hydrogen and 10% helium; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/saturn.html\" target=\"_blank\">Saturn\u003c/a>: 75% hydrogen, 25% helium; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/uranus.html\" target=\"_blank\">Uranus\u003c/a>: 83% hydrogen, 15% helium; \u003ca href=\"http://www.nineplanets.org/neptune.html\" target=\"_blank\">Neptune\u003c/a>: mostly hydrogen and helium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In reading over the description of the planetary atmospheres, you may notice some interesting trends. For one thing, the Earth definitely stands out with its atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen. Maybe all of the life on Earth's surface is responsible? Maybe the water??\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You may also notice that the planets which are furthest from the sun are made up almost entirely of hydrogen and helium. In composition, the gaseous outer planets actually resemble the original nebula that gave birth to the solar system, a feature not shared with the inner rocky planets. Why did all of the hydrogen and helium disappear from the inner planets? For that matter, where is the atmosphere of Mercury?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.6797\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-121.698\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/11/blog_canciri.jpg\">\u003cem>Artist concept of a Neptune-sized planet\u003cbr>\norbiting the star 55 Cancri. Credit: NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Another milestone has been reached in the two-decade old search for \"extrasolar planets,\" a.k.a \u003cstrong>exoplanets\u003c/strong>-- planets that orbit stars other than our Sun. In November it was announced that the leading exoplanet research team-- the California and Carnegie Planet Search Team, led on the California side by U. C. Berkeley’s Dr. Geoff Marcy-- has succeeded in detecting \u003cstrong>five\u003c/strong>, count 'em, \u003cstrong>five\u003c/strong> planets orbiting the \u003ca href=\"http://spaceports.blogspot.com/2007/11/five-planets-discovered-around-star-55.html\">same parent star\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The star, 55 Cancri, a Sun-like star in the constellation Cancer, has been under exoplanet surveillance for 20 years, and yielded the secret of its first planet in 1996. Over the years of continued observations, one by one more planets in its retinue have been coaxed out of the data.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Personally, moments like this are an impetus to step back and reflect on the state of our understanding of the universe. How much more we know now than we did when I was a starry-eyed child back in the 1960s! We knew of no planets beyond our Solar System when I was a kid. In fact, further observation of our own Solar System has, ironically, reduced the number of planets at home from nine to eight! Even pictures of places like Mars, and certainly the moons of outer solar system planets like Jupiter and Saturn, were blurry, grainy images lacking much detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, more than 260 planets orbiting other stars have been found (although we don't have actual pictures of them at this point). Still, going from my childhood, when exoplanets were theoretical and the question was still asked whether our Solar System is somehow special, even unique, to have planets at all, to today's solid body count of \"worlds out there\"...is simply breathtaking.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most exoplanet detections are made by the measurement of the slight wobbling motion a star makes due to the gravitational pull of any planets it might possess. You might be imagining astronomers taking video of a star and playing it back at high speed to see it slither like a snake-- but that isn't how it's done. Instead, the measurement is made using the Doppler Shift-- observing changes in the star's speed by measuring the corresponding change in the wavelength of its light. (This is the same way that the Highway Patrol nabs speeders on the freeway, using radio-frequency waves.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071106133058.htm\">what’s the 55 Cancri system like\u003c/a>? Well, by virtue of the fact that current exoplanet detection techniques can only reveal large planets--gas giants like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune-- all five of the 55 Cancri planets are such. One of them, in fact, is four times the size of Jupiter--and another, Neptune-sized world orbits so close that it only takes only 2.8 days to make one circuit around its star. Not much like the Solar System we know and love--but there's plenty of room for variety in the universe, after all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next big move in the exoplanet hunt will be for Earth-sized planets orbiting their stars at Earth-like distances-- a feat to be attempted by \u003ca href=\"http://kepler.nasa.gov/\">NASA's Kepler mission\u003c/a> coming up in 2008. As always, stay tuned...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8148\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.178\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"description": "Artist concept of a Neptune-sized planet orbiting the star 55 Cancri. Credit: NASAAnother milestone has been reached in the two-decade old search for "extrasolar planets," a.k.a exoplanets-- planets that orbit stars other than our Sun. In November it was announced that the leading exoplanet research team-- the California and Carnegie Planet Search Team, led on",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/11/blog_canciri.jpg\">\u003cem>Artist concept of a Neptune-sized planet\u003cbr>\norbiting the star 55 Cancri. Credit: NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Another milestone has been reached in the two-decade old search for \"extrasolar planets,\" a.k.a \u003cstrong>exoplanets\u003c/strong>-- planets that orbit stars other than our Sun. In November it was announced that the leading exoplanet research team-- the California and Carnegie Planet Search Team, led on the California side by U. C. Berkeley’s Dr. Geoff Marcy-- has succeeded in detecting \u003cstrong>five\u003c/strong>, count 'em, \u003cstrong>five\u003c/strong> planets orbiting the \u003ca href=\"http://spaceports.blogspot.com/2007/11/five-planets-discovered-around-star-55.html\">same parent star\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The star, 55 Cancri, a Sun-like star in the constellation Cancer, has been under exoplanet surveillance for 20 years, and yielded the secret of its first planet in 1996. Over the years of continued observations, one by one more planets in its retinue have been coaxed out of the data.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Personally, moments like this are an impetus to step back and reflect on the state of our understanding of the universe. How much more we know now than we did when I was a starry-eyed child back in the 1960s! We knew of no planets beyond our Solar System when I was a kid. In fact, further observation of our own Solar System has, ironically, reduced the number of planets at home from nine to eight! Even pictures of places like Mars, and certainly the moons of outer solar system planets like Jupiter and Saturn, were blurry, grainy images lacking much detail.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, more than 260 planets orbiting other stars have been found (although we don't have actual pictures of them at this point). Still, going from my childhood, when exoplanets were theoretical and the question was still asked whether our Solar System is somehow special, even unique, to have planets at all, to today's solid body count of \"worlds out there\"...is simply breathtaking.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most exoplanet detections are made by the measurement of the slight wobbling motion a star makes due to the gravitational pull of any planets it might possess. You might be imagining astronomers taking video of a star and playing it back at high speed to see it slither like a snake-- but that isn't how it's done. Instead, the measurement is made using the Doppler Shift-- observing changes in the star's speed by measuring the corresponding change in the wavelength of its light. (This is the same way that the Highway Patrol nabs speeders on the freeway, using radio-frequency waves.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071106133058.htm\">what’s the 55 Cancri system like\u003c/a>? Well, by virtue of the fact that current exoplanet detection techniques can only reveal large planets--gas giants like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune-- all five of the 55 Cancri planets are such. One of them, in fact, is four times the size of Jupiter--and another, Neptune-sized world orbits so close that it only takes only 2.8 days to make one circuit around its star. Not much like the Solar System we know and love--but there's plenty of room for variety in the universe, after all.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The next big move in the exoplanet hunt will be for Earth-sized planets orbiting their stars at Earth-like distances-- a feat to be attempted by \u003ca href=\"http://kepler.nasa.gov/\">NASA's Kepler mission\u003c/a> coming up in 2008. As always, stay tuned...\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_benb.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Benjamin Burress\u003c/strong> is a staff astronomer at The \u003ca href=\"http://www.chabotspace.org\">Chabot Space & Science Center\u003c/a> in Oakland, CA.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.8148\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-122.178\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Forest\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/11/blog_venus.jpg\">\u003cem>Venus Landing. Credit:\u003cbr>\nSoviet Planetary Exploration Program\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It's time to get back to some of the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/07/30/out-of-the-office\">reader’s questions\u003c/a>. Over the last couple of months I've focused on the easy ones like \"how big is the universe?\". Now, people are asking the tough ones, like that from Mike:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\"There’s been a recent debate in our local papers regarding Venus' high planetary temperature being related to the dearth of carbon dioxide on the planet. Apparently Venus is much, much hotter than Mercury, even though Venus is twice as far from the sun. Could you explain a bit about our system’s planets and how they differ compositionally? What is it about the Earth's composition of elements that makes it just right for 99% of the life on the planet? I say 99% because it seems 1% of the life is strange enough to exist in all sorts of harsh conditions.\"\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When it comes to the landscape of our own neighborhood, it gets a little more complicated for me. I have a tendency to look right past the solar system in my research of the distant Universe. I'm sure there's an explanation for this in the cliché of missing the forest for the trees. I just do it in reverse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Trees\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/11/blog_deep_hst.jpg\">\u003cem>Hubble Deep Field. Credit:\u003cbr>\nR. Williams, The HDF Team (STScI), NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Truth is, the trees are quite intriguing in their own right. I think people are more impressed with the observations of our solar system because the proximity lends to very detailed images and observations. Compare an image of the surface of Venus to one of the deepest images from Hubble Space Telescope. The image of Venus fits within our sense of scale that we established in our time here on Earth. You can even see familiar rocks and the feet of the Soviet robot. The Hubble Deep Field... needs a bit of explanation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the rest of the year, I am going to pull back from the farthest reaches of the universe and focus on Venus and the other planets. It will give me a chance to learn a little about what the Solar System actually looks like. It will also give me a chance to explore some of the most breath-taking images that NASA has created. I'm just going to have to do a little research to get it right.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.6797\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-121.698\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Forest\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/11/blog_venus.jpg\">\u003cem>Venus Landing. Credit:\u003cbr>\nSoviet Planetary Exploration Program\u003c/em>\u003c/span>It's time to get back to some of the \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2007/07/30/out-of-the-office\">reader’s questions\u003c/a>. Over the last couple of months I've focused on the easy ones like \"how big is the universe?\". Now, people are asking the tough ones, like that from Mike:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>\"There’s been a recent debate in our local papers regarding Venus' high planetary temperature being related to the dearth of carbon dioxide on the planet. Apparently Venus is much, much hotter than Mercury, even though Venus is twice as far from the sun. Could you explain a bit about our system’s planets and how they differ compositionally? What is it about the Earth's composition of elements that makes it just right for 99% of the life on the planet? I say 99% because it seems 1% of the life is strange enough to exist in all sorts of harsh conditions.\"\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When it comes to the landscape of our own neighborhood, it gets a little more complicated for me. I have a tendency to look right past the solar system in my research of the distant Universe. I'm sure there's an explanation for this in the cliché of missing the forest for the trees. I just do it in reverse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Trees\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"right\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2007/11/blog_deep_hst.jpg\">\u003cem>Hubble Deep Field. Credit:\u003cbr>\nR. Williams, The HDF Team (STScI), NASA\u003c/em>\u003c/span>Truth is, the trees are quite intriguing in their own right. I think people are more impressed with the observations of our solar system because the proximity lends to very detailed images and observations. Compare an image of the surface of Venus to one of the deepest images from Hubble Space Telescope. The image of Venus fits within our sense of scale that we established in our time here on Earth. You can even see familiar rocks and the feet of the Soviet robot. The Hubble Deep Field... needs a bit of explanation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the rest of the year, I am going to pull back from the farthest reaches of the universe and focus on Venus and the other planets. It will give me a chance to learn a little about what the Solar System actually looks like. It will also give me a chance to explore some of the most breath-taking images that NASA has created. I'm just going to have to do a little research to get it right.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"left\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/imp/icon_kdawson.jpg\">\u003c/span>\u003cem>\u003cstrong>Kyle S. Dawson\u003c/strong> is engaged in post-doctorate studies of distant supernovae and development of a proposed space-based telescope at \u003ca href=\"http://www.lbl.gov/\" target=\"_blank\">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003cbr>\n\u003cbr clear=\"all\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp class=\"geo\"> latitude: \u003cspan class=\"latitude\">37.6797\u003c/span>, longitude: \u003cspan class=\"longitude\">-121.698\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"soldout": {
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