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"disqusTitle": "Gene Editing: Coming to a Kitchen Counter Near You",
"title": "Gene Editing: Coming to a Kitchen Counter Near You",
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"content": "\u003cp>When you hear \"gene editing,\" do you think cancer cures? Designer babies? What about new fuel sources or drought-tolerant crops? Gene editing with a technique known as CRISPR/Cas9, hailed as a scientific \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">breakthrough\u003c/a>, could mean all those things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a possibility, of course, that CRISPR/Cas9 may not live up to expectations. That's happened before. Twenty-five years ago, recombinant DNA was supposed to transform society in a way that, well, didn't happen. But any past biotech disappointments are not stopping a slew of Bay Area CRISPR startups from taking the leap into the new world of DNA tinkering and synthetic biology. They are, in fact, everywhere, from biotech labs in Emeryville to kitchen counters in Burlingame.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It's something that people read about, it's something people see that's cutting edge,\" says Josiah Zayner, a former synthetic biologist at NASA. \"Yet it's so accessible, it's something that you can do in your home, on your kitchen table.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has considered himself a \"biohacker\" for a long time. Now it's his full-time job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114669\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 360px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114669\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/crispr-featureimage-e1455913319463.jpg\" alt='Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists.' width=\"360\" height=\"540\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>He's started a company called The Open Discovery Institute, or The ODIN (not coincidentally, the name of the Norse god connected with healing, knowledge and ... death). The point, he says, is to make science more accessible by providing low-cost supplies for people to practice gene editing at home. The first shipments from his \u003ca href=\"https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/diy-crispr-kits-learn-modern-science-by-doing#/\" target=\"_blank\">Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign\u003c/a> are expected this spring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You can learn about cutting-edge science by actually doing it,\" Zayner says. \"When I started experimenting with CRISPR I thought, 'That's pretty crazy!' I would definitely want that opportunity.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Zayner's kitchen I get a crash course in how this new kind of gene editing works. Zayner's kits have three major parts: the Cas9 protein (other forms can use other proteins), the \"guide\" RNA and the donor DNA. The Cas9 protein makes precise cuts in the sections of the DNA to which it's led by the guide RNA. Sensing the cut, the cell's own repair mechanisms will try to repair it, by inserting a new piece of DNA. If all goes well, it will add a section of the donated DNA containing the desired gene or genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So you kind of trick the cell into using your new piece of DNA instead of some other piece of DNA it finds, or the original piece of DNA,\" says Zayner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_115245\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 1280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-115245 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\" alt=\"CRISPR is Here\" width=\"1280\" height=\"850\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg 1280w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-400x266.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-800x531.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-768x510.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-1180x784.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-960x638.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003cem>Click on the image for a larger version\u003c/em>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To see the process in action, we insert a yeast mutation that will change its color from milky white to rusty red. We mix a chemical solution called a buffer (which helps the cell accept the DNA into its wall), the Cas9 protein, the guide RNA and the donor DNA together in a small plastic test tube.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So we're going to try to get this inside the yeast cells,\" Zayner says, holding up the clear fluid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has some yeast growing on an agar-filled culture plate in his fridge. We transfer the yeast with a thin plastic loop. We heat up the cells by putting the test tube in a warm bowl of water, then let them cool again and rest before spreading them on a plate to let them grow. The yeast only needs to grow a day or two to see if the experiment was successful. A few days later, Zayner says it was.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection?'\u003ccite>Josiah Zayner, The ODIN\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>This is fairly simple stuff. Zayner's editing kits are more about fostering an interest in science than creating a new breed of super-humans -- not that he necessarily would have a problem with that.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Gene editing is the next step for humanity,\" Zayner says. \"Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection? When we can decide what works best for humanity?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gene editing technology has made great strides in the three years since CRISPR/Cas9 burst onto the scientific scene. Despite the rapid pace of advances, many scientists are urging caution as the technology becomes easier to use and the experiments become more ambitious.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We haven't really had the conversation about humans and what's ethically appropriate or inappropriate,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/mildred-cho\" target=\"_blank\">Mildred Cho, \u003c/a>a bioethicist at Stanford University. She sees a huge potential for breakthroughs in gene editing, but also the possibility of misuse. \"And we haven't really had the conversation about widespread release of organisms that we won't be able to get back once they're released into the environment.\" Cho, however, says it's not up to scientists to decide such things. \"So far, those discussions have not been very widespread outside of the expert communities.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114670\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 240px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114670\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/RS18524_IMG_8357-sfi.jpg\" alt=\"Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \" width=\"240\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Yet Silicon Valley and the local biotech community are forging ahead. In San Francisco's Mission Bay neighborhood, \u003ca href=\"https://www.twistbioscience.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Twist Bioscience\u003c/a> is making the components of DNA and RNA that companies and academic researchers can use in their synthetic biology experiments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We started Twist to disrupt the DNA-writing market,\" says Emily Leproust, one of the co-founders. \"There is a massive demand. A huge demand.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Leproust says many drugs, antibiotics and vaccines begin from DNA, with engineered microbes used to make them. And in the area of industrial chemicals, many researchers and companies are modifying algae, yeast and E. coli to turn them into bio-factories that make specialty chemicals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Twist doesn't disclose the names of its clients. And in the interest of safety, Twist executives say, they restrict what sequences of DNA they'll sell, and to whom. But there are lots of local labs and companies using DNA in this way, and they're raising boatloads of money.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to CrunchBase.com, \u003ca href=\"http://www.zymergen.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Zymergen\u003c/a> in Emeryville has raised $44 million, \u003ca href=\"http://cariboubio.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Caribou Bioscience\u003c/a> in Berkeley $14 million, \u003ca href=\"http://www.sangamo.com/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Sangamo BioSciences\u003c/a> in Richmond about $74 million, and Twist itself more than $130 million.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why, Leproust says, it's good, today, to be in bio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If you were in the '50s, you wanted to be in space and aeronautics and in the '90s you wanted to be in computers. And nowadays you want to be in biology because that's where the next big economic growth is going to come from.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Time will tell. But local startups are betting and betting big on the new generation of gene editing.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>When you hear \"gene editing,\" do you think cancer cures? Designer babies? What about new fuel sources or drought-tolerant crops? Gene editing with a technique known as CRISPR/Cas9, hailed as a scientific \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/CRISPR%3A-What-You-Need-to-Know-About-the-Medical-Science-%27Breakthrough-of-the-Year%27\" target=\"_blank\">breakthrough\u003c/a>, could mean all those things.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There's a possibility, of course, that CRISPR/Cas9 may not live up to expectations. That's happened before. Twenty-five years ago, recombinant DNA was supposed to transform society in a way that, well, didn't happen. But any past biotech disappointments are not stopping a slew of Bay Area CRISPR startups from taking the leap into the new world of DNA tinkering and synthetic biology. They are, in fact, everywhere, from biotech labs in Emeryville to kitchen counters in Burlingame.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It's something that people read about, it's something people see that's cutting edge,\" says Josiah Zayner, a former synthetic biologist at NASA. \"Yet it's so accessible, it's something that you can do in your home, on your kitchen table.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has considered himself a \"biohacker\" for a long time. Now it's his full-time job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114669\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 360px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114669\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/crispr-featureimage-e1455913319463.jpg\" alt='Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists.' width=\"360\" height=\"540\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Biohacker Josiah Zayner conducts a gene editing experiment in his kitchen. Zayner has started \"The ODIN\" a company dedicated providing low cost lab supplies for DIY scientists. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>He's started a company called The Open Discovery Institute, or The ODIN (not coincidentally, the name of the Norse god connected with healing, knowledge and ... death). The point, he says, is to make science more accessible by providing low-cost supplies for people to practice gene editing at home. The first shipments from his \u003ca href=\"https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/diy-crispr-kits-learn-modern-science-by-doing#/\" target=\"_blank\">Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign\u003c/a> are expected this spring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"You can learn about cutting-edge science by actually doing it,\" Zayner says. \"When I started experimenting with CRISPR I thought, 'That's pretty crazy!' I would definitely want that opportunity.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Zayner's kitchen I get a crash course in how this new kind of gene editing works. Zayner's kits have three major parts: the Cas9 protein (other forms can use other proteins), the \"guide\" RNA and the donor DNA. The Cas9 protein makes precise cuts in the sections of the DNA to which it's led by the guide RNA. Sensing the cut, the cell's own repair mechanisms will try to repair it, by inserting a new piece of DNA. If all goes well, it will add a section of the donated DNA containing the desired gene or genes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So you kind of trick the cell into using your new piece of DNA instead of some other piece of DNA it finds, or the original piece of DNA,\" says Zayner.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_115245\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 1280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-115245 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg\" alt=\"CRISPR is Here\" width=\"1280\" height=\"850\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here.jpg 1280w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-400x266.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-800x531.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-768x510.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-1180x784.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/CRISPR-is-Here-960x638.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u003cem>Click on the image for a larger version\u003c/em>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To see the process in action, we insert a yeast mutation that will change its color from milky white to rusty red. We mix a chemical solution called a buffer (which helps the cell accept the DNA into its wall), the Cas9 protein, the guide RNA and the donor DNA together in a small plastic test tube.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"So we're going to try to get this inside the yeast cells,\" Zayner says, holding up the clear fluid.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zayner has some yeast growing on an agar-filled culture plate in his fridge. We transfer the yeast with a thin plastic loop. We heat up the cells by putting the test tube in a warm bowl of water, then let them cool again and rest before spreading them on a plate to let them grow. The yeast only needs to grow a day or two to see if the experiment was successful. A few days later, Zayner says it was.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection?'\u003ccite>Josiah Zayner, The ODIN\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>This is fairly simple stuff. Zayner's editing kits are more about fostering an interest in science than creating a new breed of super-humans -- not that he necessarily would have a problem with that.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Gene editing is the next step for humanity,\" Zayner says. \"Why should we limit ourselves to what evolution has told us we should have based on natural selection? When we can decide what works best for humanity?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gene editing technology has made great strides in the three years since CRISPR/Cas9 burst onto the scientific scene. Despite the rapid pace of advances, many scientists are urging caution as the technology becomes easier to use and the experiments become more ambitious.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We haven't really had the conversation about humans and what's ethically appropriate or inappropriate,\" says \u003ca href=\"https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/mildred-cho\" target=\"_blank\">Mildred Cho, \u003c/a>a bioethicist at Stanford University. She sees a huge potential for breakthroughs in gene editing, but also the possibility of misuse. \"And we haven't really had the conversation about widespread release of organisms that we won't be able to get back once they're released into the environment.\" Cho, however, says it's not up to scientists to decide such things. \"So far, those discussions have not been very widespread outside of the expert communities.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_114670\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 240px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-114670\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/02/RS18524_IMG_8357-sfi.jpg\" alt=\"Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \" width=\"240\" height=\"360\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Emily Leproust, co-founder of Twist Bioscience, holds one of the company's 10,000-well plates in her left hand. \u003ccite>(Danielle Venton/KQED)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Yet Silicon Valley and the local biotech community are forging ahead. In San Francisco's Mission Bay neighborhood, \u003ca href=\"https://www.twistbioscience.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Twist Bioscience\u003c/a> is making the components of DNA and RNA that companies and academic researchers can use in their synthetic biology experiments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We started Twist to disrupt the DNA-writing market,\" says Emily Leproust, one of the co-founders. \"There is a massive demand. A huge demand.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Leproust says many drugs, antibiotics and vaccines begin from DNA, with engineered microbes used to make them. And in the area of industrial chemicals, many researchers and companies are modifying algae, yeast and E. coli to turn them into bio-factories that make specialty chemicals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Twist doesn't disclose the names of its clients. And in the interest of safety, Twist executives say, they restrict what sequences of DNA they'll sell, and to whom. But there are lots of local labs and companies using DNA in this way, and they're raising boatloads of money.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to CrunchBase.com, \u003ca href=\"http://www.zymergen.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Zymergen\u003c/a> in Emeryville has raised $44 million, \u003ca href=\"http://cariboubio.com/\" target=\"_blank\">Caribou Bioscience\u003c/a> in Berkeley $14 million, \u003ca href=\"http://www.sangamo.com/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Sangamo BioSciences\u003c/a> in Richmond about $74 million, and Twist itself more than $130 million.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That's why, Leproust says, it's good, today, to be in bio.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"If you were in the '50s, you wanted to be in space and aeronautics and in the '90s you wanted to be in computers. And nowadays you want to be in biology because that's where the next big economic growth is going to come from.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>A DNA-editing technology known as CRISPR/Cas9 has exploded onto the scientific stage in the last year. Though gene-editing techniques have been around for decades, CRISPR is easier to use and more precise than other methods.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">[contextly_sidebar id=\"KlgRhLw9DLb7fGcDeXEgPcQ7XatdraRv\"]\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Research in the United States is still restricted to editing non-reproductive (or somatic) cells, but many in the scientific community feel it is only a matter of time before the human germline is modified, changing human genes in a way that can be passed down parent to offspring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last spring researchers in China caused a mild panic by reporting they had \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/news/chinese-scientists-genetically-modify-human-embryos-1.17378\" target=\"_blank\">edited human embryos for the first time\u003c/a>. That experiment did not work well, but it leant added urgency to calls for an international discussion on gene-editing ethics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The National Academy of Sciences has started a year-long study to examine the issues related to using CRISPR/Cas9 to treat diseases and, potentially, modify the human germline.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">[twitter-timeline id=697581495985111041 username=FOYJon]\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Today the academy is holding a public meeting 5 a.m. to 12:30 PST (8 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. EST) in Washington D.C. Speakers will include bioethicists, gene- editing researchers and representatives from genetic disease organizations.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://nationalacademies.org/gene-editing/consensus-study/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\u003cstrong>Watch it live here\u003c/strong>.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/genesite/documents/webpage/gene_169966.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Agenda here\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Participate on Twitter using \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/hashtag/GeneEditStudy?src=hash\" target=\"_blank\">#GeneEditStudy\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=39guiH7TZxY\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>A DNA-editing technology known as CRISPR/Cas9 has exploded onto the scientific stage in the last year. Though gene-editing techniques have been around for decades, CRISPR is easier to use and more precise than other methods.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Research in the United States is still restricted to editing non-reproductive (or somatic) cells, but many in the scientific community feel it is only a matter of time before the human germline is modified, changing human genes in a way that can be passed down parent to offspring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Last spring researchers in China caused a mild panic by reporting they had \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/news/chinese-scientists-genetically-modify-human-embryos-1.17378\" target=\"_blank\">edited human embryos for the first time\u003c/a>. That experiment did not work well, but it leant added urgency to calls for an international discussion on gene-editing ethics.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The National Academy of Sciences has started a year-long study to examine the issues related to using CRISPR/Cas9 to treat diseases and, potentially, modify the human germline.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://nationalacademies.org/gene-editing/consensus-study/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\u003cstrong>Watch it live here\u003c/strong>.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>\u003ca href=\"http://nationalacademies.org/cs/groups/genesite/documents/webpage/gene_169966.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Agenda here\u003c/a>\u003c/strong>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Participate on Twitter using \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/hashtag/GeneEditStudy?src=hash\" target=\"_blank\">#GeneEditStudy\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/39guiH7TZxY'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/39guiH7TZxY'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>This isn't an everyday patent dispute.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is a battle for who invented the powerful gene-editing technique that Science magazine named the Breakthrough of the Year for 2015: CRISPR-Cas9.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CRISPR is like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/12/30/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\" target=\"_blank\">a molecular scalpel\u003c/a> that uses the enzyme Cas9 to locate and snip out bits of DNA. One day it could cut out and replace the tiny bit of mutant genetic material that contributes to disease.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'Whoever has a patent on this could charge as much in royalties as they want and can set their price because they now have a monopoly.'\u003ccite>Mildred Cho, Stanford University\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>The process could yield new therapies for certain cancers or genetic disorders.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Potentially, billions of dollars are at stake that could flow either to UC Berkeley or to the \u003ca href=\"https://www.broadinstitute.org/\">Broad Institute\u003c/a> (rhymes with \"road\") in Cambridge, Mass., jointly owned by \u003ca href=\"http://www.harvard.edu/\">Harvard University\u003c/a> and the \u003ca href=\"http://web.mit.edu/\">Massachusetts Institute of Technology\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) agreed this week to resolve the competing claims for the discovery of the revolutionary tool.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Monday, the office declared an interference, recognizing a conflict between \u003ca href=\"http://www.google.com/patents/US8697359\">patent rights granted\u003c/a> to the Broad Institute and rights claimed by a pending \u003ca href=\"http://www.berkeley.edu/\">UC Berkeley\u003c/a> patent application.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whoever gets the patent will be an important player in university research and the future of medicine, because that institution will set the terms for how the technology is used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the case also raises serious questions about the ethics surrounding sole ownership of a life-saving device or technique.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\n\u003ch2>PATENT FILING TIMELINE\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003cem>“First-to-invent” system in place\u003c/em>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>September 16, 2011:\u003c/strong> Leahy-Smith America Invents Act signed into law\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>May 25, 2012:\u003c/strong> UC Berkeley submits a provisional patent claim\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>December 12, 2012:\u003c/strong> Broad Institute submits a provisional patent claim\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>March 15, 2013:\u003c/strong> UC Berkeley files a completed patent application\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>March 16, 2013:\u003c/strong> The Act goes into effect\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cem>“First-to-file” system in place\u003c/em>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>October 13, 2013:\u003c/strong> Broad Institute files an expedited patent application\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Tricky Timeline\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists at UC Berkeley and the Broad Institute were working on CRISPR simultaneously. Biologists Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier led Berkeley's research. Synthetic biologist Feng Zhang led research at Broad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each institution filed patent claims—UC Berkeley filed first—and while they were filing, the U.S. changed the terms of how it awards patents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before 2013, the U.S. operated under a \"first to invent\" rule: whomever developed the invention first was awarded the patent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leahy-Smith_America_Invents_Act\">Leahy-Smith America Invents Act\u003c/a> took effect in March 2013, a “first-to-file” system became law.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zhang's team filed after the \"first-to-file\" rule was enacted and paid extra to have its application expedited. The average wait time for patent approval is three years but an expedited patent application takes around a year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So while UC Berkeley's application was under review the USPTO approved Zhang's application, even though it was submitted later.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, having granted an interference, the USPTO will determine which team was the first to invent the gene-editing technique.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each side will have to prove, via notes and lab records, that it was the first inventor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Doudna's team wins, all 13 of the Broad's CRISPR patents will be canceled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Billions Riding on One Decision\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many companies are \u003ca href=\"http://www.fiercebiotech.com/story/patent-battle-brews-celgene-leads-64m-raise-crispr-therapeutics/2015-04-28\">already making money off CRISPR\u003c/a>. Startups that use the tool, like \u003ca href=\"http://crisprtx.com/\">CRISPR Therapeutics\u003c/a>, have raised millions in venture capital funding.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_121794\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 331px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-121794\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/01/CRISPR-DNA_no-caption.jpg\" alt=\"The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, in gold, at selected sites, as seen in this model from electron microscope images. \" width=\"331\" height=\"367\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/01/CRISPR-DNA_no-caption.jpg 405w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/01/CRISPR-DNA_no-caption-400x444.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 331px) 100vw, 331px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, in gold, at selected sites, as seen in this model from electron microscope images. \u003ccite>(David Taylor and Jennifer Doudna)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Editas Medicine in Cambridge, which uses CRISPR to develop novel drugs, filed to go public late last year and set its initial public offering at $100 million.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"This patent is potentially worth billions of dollars,\" says Stanford University bioethicist \u003ca href=\"https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/mildred-cho\">Mildred Cho\u003c/a>. \"Whoever has a patent on this could charge as much in royalties as they want and can set their price because they now have a monopoly.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some experts caution that the patent for CRISPR-Cas9 is just one of many possible CRISPR patents. Cas9 is an enzyme used in the gene-editing technique, and there are \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v9/n6/abs/nrmicro2577.html\" target=\"_blank\">many enzymes\u003c/a> that could be used. How lucrative any one patent is depends on how broadly or narrowly it's written.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the patent is awarded, a lot rides on how the patent is enforced. Cho says the patent holder may encourage other groups to use the technology for a small fee or it could assert its monopoly ownership and charge exorbitant fees for its use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Universities across the country are watching this case, says New York Law School Associate Professor \u003ca href=\"http://www.nyls.edu/faculty/faculty-profiles/faculty_profiles/jacob-s-sherkow/\">Jake Sherkow\u003c/a>, both for what it will tell them about their own abilities to pursue similar research, or file for lucrative patent claims.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Other universities may be more aggressive about pursuing patents because of this case,\" Sherkow says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But even bigger than this is the ethical question, according to Cho.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Should Life-Saving Health Tools Be Patented?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[contextly_sidebar id=\"W3NFPgf5ldgwcoylE8W7c9dtbvsSZL94\"]\"If this biotech is going to cure previously incurable diseases through altering DNA, do we allow patent holders to collect royalties and if so how much?\" Cho asks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Should they even be allowed to have those patents at all?\" she continues. \"Should we have the same considerations for patents used for health purposes as other types of patents that apply to phones and cars?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The victor won't be announced in 2016. Sherkow says the trial will take years. It could go all the way to the Supreme Court, but he says that's not likely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The chances of it going to the Supreme Court are only slightly better than the Powerball we had [this week],” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Three members of the Patent Appeals and Interferences Board will start discussing the case on March 9.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>This isn't an everyday patent dispute.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This is a battle for who invented the powerful gene-editing technique that Science magazine named the Breakthrough of the Year for 2015: CRISPR-Cas9.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CRISPR is like \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/12/30/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\" target=\"_blank\">a molecular scalpel\u003c/a> that uses the enzyme Cas9 to locate and snip out bits of DNA. One day it could cut out and replace the tiny bit of mutant genetic material that contributes to disease.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">'Whoever has a patent on this could charge as much in royalties as they want and can set their price because they now have a monopoly.'\u003ccite>Mildred Cho, Stanford University\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>The process could yield new therapies for certain cancers or genetic disorders.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Potentially, billions of dollars are at stake that could flow either to UC Berkeley or to the \u003ca href=\"https://www.broadinstitute.org/\">Broad Institute\u003c/a> (rhymes with \"road\") in Cambridge, Mass., jointly owned by \u003ca href=\"http://www.harvard.edu/\">Harvard University\u003c/a> and the \u003ca href=\"http://web.mit.edu/\">Massachusetts Institute of Technology\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) agreed this week to resolve the competing claims for the discovery of the revolutionary tool.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Monday, the office declared an interference, recognizing a conflict between \u003ca href=\"http://www.google.com/patents/US8697359\">patent rights granted\u003c/a> to the Broad Institute and rights claimed by a pending \u003ca href=\"http://www.berkeley.edu/\">UC Berkeley\u003c/a> patent application.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whoever gets the patent will be an important player in university research and the future of medicine, because that institution will set the terms for how the technology is used.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But the case also raises serious questions about the ethics surrounding sole ownership of a life-saving device or technique.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">\n\u003ch2>PATENT FILING TIMELINE\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003cem>“First-to-invent” system in place\u003c/em>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>September 16, 2011:\u003c/strong> Leahy-Smith America Invents Act signed into law\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>May 25, 2012:\u003c/strong> UC Berkeley submits a provisional patent claim\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>December 12, 2012:\u003c/strong> Broad Institute submits a provisional patent claim\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>March 15, 2013:\u003c/strong> UC Berkeley files a completed patent application\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>March 16, 2013:\u003c/strong> The Act goes into effect\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cem>“First-to-file” system in place\u003c/em>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>October 13, 2013:\u003c/strong> Broad Institute files an expedited patent application\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Tricky Timeline\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists at UC Berkeley and the Broad Institute were working on CRISPR simultaneously. Biologists Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier led Berkeley's research. Synthetic biologist Feng Zhang led research at Broad.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each institution filed patent claims—UC Berkeley filed first—and while they were filing, the U.S. changed the terms of how it awards patents.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Before 2013, the U.S. operated under a \"first to invent\" rule: whomever developed the invention first was awarded the patent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leahy-Smith_America_Invents_Act\">Leahy-Smith America Invents Act\u003c/a> took effect in March 2013, a “first-to-file” system became law.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Zhang's team filed after the \"first-to-file\" rule was enacted and paid extra to have its application expedited. The average wait time for patent approval is three years but an expedited patent application takes around a year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So while UC Berkeley's application was under review the USPTO approved Zhang's application, even though it was submitted later.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now, having granted an interference, the USPTO will determine which team was the first to invent the gene-editing technique.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each side will have to prove, via notes and lab records, that it was the first inventor.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Doudna's team wins, all 13 of the Broad's CRISPR patents will be canceled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Billions Riding on One Decision\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many companies are \u003ca href=\"http://www.fiercebiotech.com/story/patent-battle-brews-celgene-leads-64m-raise-crispr-therapeutics/2015-04-28\">already making money off CRISPR\u003c/a>. Startups that use the tool, like \u003ca href=\"http://crisprtx.com/\">CRISPR Therapeutics\u003c/a>, have raised millions in venture capital funding.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_121794\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 331px\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-121794\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2016/01/CRISPR-DNA_no-caption.jpg\" alt=\"The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, in gold, at selected sites, as seen in this model from electron microscope images. \" width=\"331\" height=\"367\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/01/CRISPR-DNA_no-caption.jpg 405w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2016/01/CRISPR-DNA_no-caption-400x444.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 331px) 100vw, 331px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, in gold, at selected sites, as seen in this model from electron microscope images. \u003ccite>(David Taylor and Jennifer Doudna)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Editas Medicine in Cambridge, which uses CRISPR to develop novel drugs, filed to go public late last year and set its initial public offering at $100 million.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"This patent is potentially worth billions of dollars,\" says Stanford University bioethicist \u003ca href=\"https://med.stanford.edu/profiles/mildred-cho\">Mildred Cho\u003c/a>. \"Whoever has a patent on this could charge as much in royalties as they want and can set their price because they now have a monopoly.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some experts caution that the patent for CRISPR-Cas9 is just one of many possible CRISPR patents. Cas9 is an enzyme used in the gene-editing technique, and there are \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v9/n6/abs/nrmicro2577.html\" target=\"_blank\">many enzymes\u003c/a> that could be used. How lucrative any one patent is depends on how broadly or narrowly it's written.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After the patent is awarded, a lot rides on how the patent is enforced. Cho says the patent holder may encourage other groups to use the technology for a small fee or it could assert its monopoly ownership and charge exorbitant fees for its use.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Universities across the country are watching this case, says New York Law School Associate Professor \u003ca href=\"http://www.nyls.edu/faculty/faculty-profiles/faculty_profiles/jacob-s-sherkow/\">Jake Sherkow\u003c/a>, both for what it will tell them about their own abilities to pursue similar research, or file for lucrative patent claims.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Other universities may be more aggressive about pursuing patents because of this case,\" Sherkow says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But even bigger than this is the ethical question, according to Cho.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Should Life-Saving Health Tools Be Patented?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\"If this biotech is going to cure previously incurable diseases through altering DNA, do we allow patent holders to collect royalties and if so how much?\" Cho asks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Should they even be allowed to have those patents at all?\" she continues. \"Should we have the same considerations for patents used for health purposes as other types of patents that apply to phones and cars?\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The victor won't be announced in 2016. Sherkow says the trial will take years. It could go all the way to the Supreme Court, but he says that's not likely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The chances of it going to the Supreme Court are only slightly better than the Powerball we had [this week],” he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Three members of the Patent Appeals and Interferences Board will start discussing the case on March 9.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Top 2015 TED Talks in Biomed Point to Advances Worthy of Science Fiction",
"title": "Top 2015 TED Talks in Biomed Point to Advances Worthy of Science Fiction",
"headTitle": "Future of You | KQED Future of You | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>As we all know, TED likes to talk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The organization that is devoted to spreading ideas associated with a \u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks\" target=\"_blank\">multitude of subject areas\u003c/a> -- not to mention inspiring your friends to clutter your Facebook feed with entreaties to \"Watch this!\" -- has curated a sort of \"Best of\" List for 2015, called \u003ca href=\"http://yearinideas.ted.com/2015/\" target=\"_blank\">The Year in Ideas\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">Editing DNA, reversing aging, and a form of mind control were among this year's presentations.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Among the segments are five that deal with cutting edge research and advancements in medicine and biology. All of them are fascinating, and the presentation on a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/12/30/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\" target=\"_blank\">new technology\u003c/a> allowing for the reprogramming of DNA, which Science magazine named its \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/scientific-community/2015/12/and-science-s-breakthrough-year\" target=\"_blank\">Breakthrough of the Year\u003c/a>, includes its co-inventor issuing this warning:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>\u003cspan id=\"t-624485\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">Imagine that we could try to engineer humans\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-627553\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">that have enhanced properties, such as stronger bones,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-632012\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">or less susceptibility to cardiovascular disease\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-636107\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">or even to have properties\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-637642\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">that we would consider maybe to be desirable,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-640065\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">like a different eye color or to be taller, things like that.\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-645942\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">\"Designer humans,\" if you will.\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-648780\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">Right now, the genetic information\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-651194\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">to understand what types of genes would give rise to these traits\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-655711\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">is mostly not known.\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-657468\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">But it's important to know\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-658738\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">that the CRISPR technology gives us a tool to make such changes,\u003c/span>\u003cspan id=\"t-663047\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">once that knowledge becomes available.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan id=\"t-666651\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">This raises a number of ethical questions that we have to carefully consider,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-670786\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">and this is why I and my colleagues have called for a global pause\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-675025\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">in any clinical application of the CRISPR technology in human embryos,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-679795\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">to give us time\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-680970\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">to really consider all of the various implications of doing so. (\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/jennifer_doudna_we_can_now_edit_our_dna_but_let_s_do_it_wisely/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/12/30/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\" target=\"_blank\">Future of You story\u003c/a>)\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2354]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When some of us were kids -- or even a few years ago -- that was the stuff of science fiction. As would have been the presentation called \"How to control someone else's arm with your brain.\" That's not a clickbait headline -- in the video, you'll see a man involuntarily flex his arm when the woman he is connected to through an interface does the same. Neuroscientist Greg Gage explains this is done by copying and transmitting the woman's brain signal. All we can say is the implications for relations between the sexes are too great to ponder. As Gage tells his male volunteeer, \"S\u003cspan id=\"t-225726\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">he will take away your free will \u003c/span>\u003cspan id=\"t-228933\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">and you will no longer have any control over this hand.\" \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2244]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other TED talks in biomedicine that made the list for 2015:\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>\u003c/h2>\n\u003ch2>How young blood might help reverse aging. Yes, really\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>TED description\u003c/em>: Tony Wyss-Coray studies the impact of aging on the human body and brain. In this eye-opening talk, he shares new research from his Stanford lab and other teams which shows that a solution for some of the less great aspects of old age might actually lie within us all. \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/tony_wyss_coray_how_young_blood_might_help_reverse_aging_yes_really/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/a/forum/R201405070930\" target=\"_blank\">KQED Forum\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2315]\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003ch2>Can we create new senses for humans?\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>TED description: \u003c/em>As humans, we can perceive less than a ten-trillionth of all light waves. “Our experience of reality,” says neuroscientist David Eagleman, “is constrained by our biology.” He wants to change that. His research into our brain processes has led him to create new interfaces — such as a sensory vest — to take in previously unseen information about the world around us. \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/david_eagleman_can_we_create_new_senses_for_humans/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2215]\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003ch2>This app knows how you feel -- from the look on your face.\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>TED description:\u003c/em> Our emotions influence every aspect of our lives — how we learn, how we communicate, how we make decisions. Yet they’re absent from our digital lives; the devices and apps we interact with have no way of knowing how we feel. Scientist Rana el Kaliouby aims to change that. She demos a powerful new technology that reads your facial expressions and matches them to corresponding emotions. This “emotion engine” has big implications, she says, and could change not just how we interact with machines — but with each other. \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/rana_el_kaliouby_this_app_knows_how_you_feel_from_the_look_on_your_face/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2279]\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>As we all know, TED likes to talk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The organization that is devoted to spreading ideas associated with a \u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks\" target=\"_blank\">multitude of subject areas\u003c/a> -- not to mention inspiring your friends to clutter your Facebook feed with entreaties to \"Watch this!\" -- has curated a sort of \"Best of\" List for 2015, called \u003ca href=\"http://yearinideas.ted.com/2015/\" target=\"_blank\">The Year in Ideas\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"alignright\">Editing DNA, reversing aging, and a form of mind control were among this year's presentations.\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>Among the segments are five that deal with cutting edge research and advancements in medicine and biology. All of them are fascinating, and the presentation on a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/12/30/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\" target=\"_blank\">new technology\u003c/a> allowing for the reprogramming of DNA, which Science magazine named its \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/scientific-community/2015/12/and-science-s-breakthrough-year\" target=\"_blank\">Breakthrough of the Year\u003c/a>, includes its co-inventor issuing this warning:\u003c/p>\n\u003cblockquote>\u003cp>\u003cspan id=\"t-624485\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">Imagine that we could try to engineer humans\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-627553\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">that have enhanced properties, such as stronger bones,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-632012\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">or less susceptibility to cardiovascular disease\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-636107\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">or even to have properties\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-637642\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">that we would consider maybe to be desirable,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-640065\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">like a different eye color or to be taller, things like that.\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-645942\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">\"Designer humans,\" if you will.\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-648780\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">Right now, the genetic information\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-651194\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">to understand what types of genes would give rise to these traits\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-655711\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">is mostly not known.\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-657468\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">But it's important to know\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-658738\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">that the CRISPR technology gives us a tool to make such changes,\u003c/span>\u003cspan id=\"t-663047\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">once that knowledge becomes available.\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan id=\"t-666651\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">This raises a number of ethical questions that we have to carefully consider,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-670786\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">and this is why I and my colleagues have called for a global pause\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-675025\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">in any clinical application of the CRISPR technology in human embryos,\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-679795\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">to give us time\u003c/span> \u003cspan id=\"t-680970\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">to really consider all of the various implications of doing so. (\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/jennifer_doudna_we_can_now_edit_our_dna_but_let_s_do_it_wisely/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/12/30/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\" target=\"_blank\">Future of You story\u003c/a>)\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003c/blockquote>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2354]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When some of us were kids -- or even a few years ago -- that was the stuff of science fiction. As would have been the presentation called \"How to control someone else's arm with your brain.\" That's not a clickbait headline -- in the video, you'll see a man involuntarily flex his arm when the woman he is connected to through an interface does the same. Neuroscientist Greg Gage explains this is done by copying and transmitting the woman's brain signal. All we can say is the implications for relations between the sexes are too great to ponder. As Gage tells his male volunteeer, \"S\u003cspan id=\"t-225726\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">he will take away your free will \u003c/span>\u003cspan id=\"t-228933\" class=\"talk-transcript__fragment\">and you will no longer have any control over this hand.\" \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2244]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The other TED talks in biomedicine that made the list for 2015:\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>\u003c/h2>\n\u003ch2>How young blood might help reverse aging. Yes, really\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>TED description\u003c/em>: Tony Wyss-Coray studies the impact of aging on the human body and brain. In this eye-opening talk, he shares new research from his Stanford lab and other teams which shows that a solution for some of the less great aspects of old age might actually lie within us all. \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/tony_wyss_coray_how_young_blood_might_help_reverse_aging_yes_really/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.kqed.org/a/forum/R201405070930\" target=\"_blank\">KQED Forum\u003c/a>\u003c/em>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2315]\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003ch2>Can we create new senses for humans?\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>TED description: \u003c/em>As humans, we can perceive less than a ten-trillionth of all light waves. “Our experience of reality,” says neuroscientist David Eagleman, “is constrained by our biology.” He wants to change that. His research into our brain processes has led him to create new interfaces — such as a sensory vest — to take in previously unseen information about the world around us. \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/david_eagleman_can_we_create_new_senses_for_humans/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2215]\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003ch2>This app knows how you feel -- from the look on your face.\u003c/h2>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>TED description:\u003c/em> Our emotions influence every aspect of our lives — how we learn, how we communicate, how we make decisions. Yet they’re absent from our digital lives; the devices and apps we interact with have no way of knowing how we feel. Scientist Rana el Kaliouby aims to change that. She demos a powerful new technology that reads your facial expressions and matches them to corresponding emotions. This “emotion engine” has big implications, she says, and could change not just how we interact with machines — but with each other. \u003cem>\u003ca href=\"https://www.ted.com/talks/rana_el_kaliouby_this_app_knows_how_you_feel_from_the_look_on_your_face/transcript?language=en\" target=\"_blank\">Transcript\u003c/a>\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ted id=2279]\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "CRISPR: What You Need to Know About the Medical Science 'Breakthrough of the Year'",
"title": "CRISPR: What You Need to Know About the Medical Science 'Breakthrough of the Year'",
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"content": "\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/science/2015/03/20150313ScienceCRISPR.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Editor's Note: One of our most fascinating stories of 2015 was this one, about a dramatic breakthrough that could help children suffering from the tragic illness known as \"Bubble-Boy Disease.\" This breakthrough in gene editing, using a tool called CRISPR, is \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/12/28/460705645/gene-editing-tool-hailed-as-a-breakthrough-and-it-really-is-one\" target=\"_blank\">revolutionizing medical research\u003c/a>. Science magazine has \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/scientific-community/2015/12/and-science-s-breakthrough-year\" target=\"_blank\">named CRISPR\u003c/a> the 2015 Breakthrough of the Year. We present this story again here, in case you missed it in March.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They named him Phoenix because he was born five weeks early while his parents were on vacation, and spent his first few weeks in an incubator. Kristen and Patrick Wilkinson thought they knew exactly which ashes their son might soon rise from.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when they got him home to San Francisco things just got worse, Kristen says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix wasn’t gaining weight. He had a persistent skin rash. Eventually he was admitted to \u003ca href=\"https://www.ucsfbenioffchildrens.org/\">UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital\u003c/a> with a diagnosis of “failure to thrive.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix had been born in Kentucky, a state where, unlike in California, infants are not routinely screened for a disease called SCID -- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency. So at first, California doctors puzzled over what might be wrong with him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_384\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 669px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-384\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-669x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"669\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-669x600.jpg 669w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-400x359.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-768x689.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-320x287.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 669px) 100vw, 669px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Phoenix was lucky: His doctors found a good match for a bone marrow transplant. But he still had to undergo chemotherapy. Researchers say CRISPR could lead to better treatments. (Mark Andrew Boyer/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But Dr. Jennifer Puck, a SCID specialist at UCSF who pioneered the screening test, says Phoenix’s rash was the hallmark of an almost completely deficient immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(The Jeffrey Modell Foundation maintains a map of states that have implemented infant SCID screening (\u003ca href=\"http://downloads.info4pi.org/pdfs/JMF_International_Map_3-9-2015.pdf\">PDF\u003c/a>), as well as a \u003ca href=\"http://www.info4pi.org/town-hall/newborn-screening\">list of states\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The baby’s rogue [immune] cells were attacking his own skin,” says Puck.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Left unchecked, she says, SCID is fatal. “Babies who don’t have this immunity start out getting one infection after another and can’t get over any of them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>From Bubbles to Transplants\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A generation ago, SCID was commonly known as “bubble boy disease,” named after the kids (including one portrayed by John Travolta in a 1976 \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boy_in_the_Plastic_Bubble\">made-for-TV movie\u003c/a>) who spent their lives in plastic bubbles to shield them from germs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nowadays SCID babies receive bone marrow transplants. Healthy donors contribute bone marrow capable of producing infection-fighting white blood cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Transplanted into the blood stream of a SCID baby, the donated cells take up residence in the infant’s bone marrow and begin building a functional immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But transplants are tough on babies and their families.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It can be difficult to find a good donor match. And even once one is found, most SCID babies must undergo chemotherapy to prepare their bodies for the transplanted cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_386\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 442px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-386\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-600x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"442\" height=\"442\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-600x600.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-400x400.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-768x768.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-320x320.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-75x75.jpg 75w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 442px) 100vw, 442px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Phoenix is back at home now and doing \"great,\" says his mom, Kristen Wilkinson. (Photo courtesy Kristen Wilkinson)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Kristen Wilkinson says the chemo was the hardest part.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix had painful sores on the inside of his mouth. He stopped breastfeeding, had to be fed intravenously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He was throwing up, really nauseous,” she says. “Anytime he was awake he was screaming. He never was awake and not screaming.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Hope for Future Treatment\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today Phoenix is six months old, home with his parents and doing well. But Dr. Puck and others want better treatment for babies like him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The best idea, says Puck, would be to fix the SCID mutation in Phoenix’s own cells: Take them out, reprogram them so that they can make a functional immune system, and then put them back into his body.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix would be his own donor. There would be no search for a donor match, no fear of rejection, no chemo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Actually just correcting the spelling mistake of the gene in the person, and not putting in any new genetic material is very attractive,” Puck says. \"That should be safer.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gene therapy, as this is called, is not a new strategy. But it’s proved to be a challenging one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way to explain why is to picture a string of Christmas tree lights containing one broken bulb.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Promising Treatment Backfires\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That string is the DNA, wound up inside the nucleus of a cell. The broken bulb is the mutation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Say you want to replace the broken bulb, but the string is too small to see. How do you know you’re taking out the right bulb and putting a new one in the correct place?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the 1990s, doctors in Europe tried this kind of fix on a group of babies with SCID, with mixed results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In placing the correct copy of the gene into a chromosome, we couldn’t direct where it was going to land,” says Puck. “And sometimes it landed in a dangerous spot.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The “dangerous spot” in this case, was next to a growth factor gene that was inadvertently turned on by the insertion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Growth factor genes incorrectly turned on are called oncogenes,” explains Puck. “Cancer genes.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Five children got Leukemia, induced by a treatment that had been intended to save their lives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Four of them recovered. One baby died. Puck says it was a devastating time for the entire field.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The whole world mourned the loss of that baby,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Enter CRISPR\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, Puck is excited about a new tool for making precise changes in a baby’s genome. It’s called CRISPR, an acronym for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As UC Berkeley biologist Jennifer Doudna puts it, think of CRISPR as “a molecular scalpel.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_389\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 427px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-389\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR.jpg\" alt=\"The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, shown in gold, at selected sites. The enzyme can be programmed to snip out mutated DNA and replace it with healthy DNA. This model was created from electron microscope images. (David Taylor and Jennifer Doudna/UC Berkeley)\" width=\"427\" height=\"477\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR.jpg 427w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR-400x447.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR-320x357.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 427px) 100vw, 427px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, shown in gold, at selected sites. The enzyme can be programmed to snip out mutated DNA and replace it with healthy DNA. This model was created from electron microscope images. (David Taylor and Jennifer Doudna/UC Berkeley)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Doudna isn’t a medical doctor, or even a medical researcher. She studies bacteria -- more specifically, an enzyme, called Cas9, produced by bacteria.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Previous scientists had noticed that these bacteria possess an unusually effective way of fighting off viruses. The bacteria were able to recognize viral DNA and use Cas9 to precisely disable the virus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2012, Doudna and collaborators, including \u003ca href=\"http://www.helmholtz-hzi.de/en/research/research_topics/bacterial_and_viral_pathogens/regulation_in_infection_biology/e_charpentier/\">Emmanuelle Charpentier\u003c/a>, took this a step further \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/337/6096/816.abstract?sid=3750cfc2-3490-4c65-ab99-fb2a2b6099bc\">in a paper\u003c/a> in the journal Science that thrilled cell biologists around the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper showed that biologists could program Cas9 -- arm it, in other words -- with a customized DNA payload.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They could direct the enzyme at virtually any cell, programmed to make whatever genetic change they wanted.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, says Doudna, “scientists can go into the DNA and make a precise change that corrects the mutations that give rise to disease.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A “State of Wonder”\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fixing the DNA in a cell: that idea had been around for a while. But CRISPR works dramatically better than the old ways. It’s more accurate, faster. A process that could take years of trial and error now took an inexpensive few weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Many scientists are just -- they're sort of in a state of wonder about this,” Doudna says.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">“CRISPR works in almost every organism it's been tried in.”\u003ccite>George Church, Harvard geneticist\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>On the day we met, Doudna was showing visitors around a brand-new research center at UC Berkeley, the \u003ca href=\"http://innovativegenomics.org/\">Innovative Genomics Initiative\u003c/a>, which is devoted to CRISPR research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are now several such centers around the world and hundreds of researchers working with CRISPR on the cells of mice, cows, monkeys, plants and humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“CRISPR works in almost every organism it’s been tried in,” says Harvard geneticist George Church. “Dozens.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Church is quick to point out that there are currently no CRISPR-based treatments in clinical trials. The technology is too new.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He believes this could change in a few years, though for which disease, it’s hard to say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Church reels off a few of what he thinks might be early contenders: “Sickle cell anemia, clotting diseases, muscular dystrophies, blindness.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>“Oodles and Oodles of Money”\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If CRISPR is a big deal for people who have these diseases, it’ll also be a big financial deal for the scientists who helped develop it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And by big, Jacob Sherkow, an associate professor at New York Law School and author of a recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v33/n3/full/nbt.3160.html\">paper\u003c/a> on CRISPR in Nature Biotechnology, “big” means “oodles and oodles of money. Potentially in the $200 billion to $300 billion range.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-medium wp-image-392\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-322x600.jpg\" alt=\"Crispr-Publications\" width=\"322\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-322x600.jpg 322w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-400x745.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-320x596.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications.jpg 550w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 322px) 100vw, 322px\">\u003c/a>This windfall, he says, could go to whoever holds key patents on CRISPR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/532796/who-owns-the-biggest-biotech-discovery-of-the-century/\">widely\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://www.genomeweb.com/rnai/crispr-cas9-technology-sets-take-uncertainty-swirls-around-ip-landscape\">reported\u003c/a>, even though the University of California filed Doudna and Charpentier's application first, a key CRISPR patent went to another researcher -- Feng Zhang at MIT’s Broad Institute, which filed afterwards, but paid an additional fee to have its application expedited.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the subject of CRISPR patents, Doudna says only that she is “very confident in the UC position.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Zhang’s patent prevails, Doudna and her collaborators could find themselves in the position of having to license a technology they are widely credited with discovering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re very confident that we’re going to be able to do incredible science,\" she says, \"and we’ll let the dispute play out as it will.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sherkow says there are a number of ways this dispute could play out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The US Patent Office could deny UC’s application and let Zhang's patent stand. Or it could reverse its earlier decision, revoking the Broad patent and awarding it to Doudna and her collaborators instead.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Doudna and Zhang both point to a third possibility: that among what will likely be dozens of CRISPR patents it could be difficult, at this point, to know which one will be most lucrative or important.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These early CRISPR patents, says Zhang “are just the first ones. There will be many more.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s also a fourth possibility: that CRISPR could disappoint everyone, a “tempest in the teapot,” as George Church puts it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"But I hope that’s not the case,” he says, laughing.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>Editor's Note: One of our most fascinating stories of 2015 was this one, about a dramatic breakthrough that could help children suffering from the tragic illness known as \"Bubble-Boy Disease.\" This breakthrough in gene editing, using a tool called CRISPR, is \u003ca href=\"http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/12/28/460705645/gene-editing-tool-hailed-as-a-breakthrough-and-it-really-is-one\" target=\"_blank\">revolutionizing medical research\u003c/a>. Science magazine has \u003ca href=\"http://news.sciencemag.org/scientific-community/2015/12/and-science-s-breakthrough-year\" target=\"_blank\">named CRISPR\u003c/a> the 2015 Breakthrough of the Year. We present this story again here, in case you missed it in March.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They named him Phoenix because he was born five weeks early while his parents were on vacation, and spent his first few weeks in an incubator. Kristen and Patrick Wilkinson thought they knew exactly which ashes their son might soon rise from.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But when they got him home to San Francisco things just got worse, Kristen says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix wasn’t gaining weight. He had a persistent skin rash. Eventually he was admitted to \u003ca href=\"https://www.ucsfbenioffchildrens.org/\">UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital\u003c/a> with a diagnosis of “failure to thrive.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix had been born in Kentucky, a state where, unlike in California, infants are not routinely screened for a disease called SCID -- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency. So at first, California doctors puzzled over what might be wrong with him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_384\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 669px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-384\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-669x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"669\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-669x600.jpg 669w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-400x359.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-768x689.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8-320x287.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/ucsf-8.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 669px) 100vw, 669px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Phoenix was lucky: His doctors found a good match for a bone marrow transplant. But he still had to undergo chemotherapy. Researchers say CRISPR could lead to better treatments. (Mark Andrew Boyer/KQED)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But Dr. Jennifer Puck, a SCID specialist at UCSF who pioneered the screening test, says Phoenix’s rash was the hallmark of an almost completely deficient immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>(The Jeffrey Modell Foundation maintains a map of states that have implemented infant SCID screening (\u003ca href=\"http://downloads.info4pi.org/pdfs/JMF_International_Map_3-9-2015.pdf\">PDF\u003c/a>), as well as a \u003ca href=\"http://www.info4pi.org/town-hall/newborn-screening\">list of states\u003c/a>.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The baby’s rogue [immune] cells were attacking his own skin,” says Puck.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Left unchecked, she says, SCID is fatal. “Babies who don’t have this immunity start out getting one infection after another and can’t get over any of them.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>From Bubbles to Transplants\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A generation ago, SCID was commonly known as “bubble boy disease,” named after the kids (including one portrayed by John Travolta in a 1976 \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boy_in_the_Plastic_Bubble\">made-for-TV movie\u003c/a>) who spent their lives in plastic bubbles to shield them from germs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nowadays SCID babies receive bone marrow transplants. Healthy donors contribute bone marrow capable of producing infection-fighting white blood cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Transplanted into the blood stream of a SCID baby, the donated cells take up residence in the infant’s bone marrow and begin building a functional immune system.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But transplants are tough on babies and their families.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It can be difficult to find a good donor match. And even once one is found, most SCID babies must undergo chemotherapy to prepare their bodies for the transplanted cells.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_386\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 442px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-386\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-600x600.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"442\" height=\"442\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-600x600.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-400x400.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-768x768.jpg 768w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-320x320.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-32x32.jpg 32w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-64x64.jpg 64w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-96x96.jpg 96w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-128x128.jpg 128w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby-75x75.jpg 75w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Phoenix-baby.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 442px) 100vw, 442px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Phoenix is back at home now and doing \"great,\" says his mom, Kristen Wilkinson. (Photo courtesy Kristen Wilkinson)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Kristen Wilkinson says the chemo was the hardest part.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix had painful sores on the inside of his mouth. He stopped breastfeeding, had to be fed intravenously.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“He was throwing up, really nauseous,” she says. “Anytime he was awake he was screaming. He never was awake and not screaming.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Hope for Future Treatment\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today Phoenix is six months old, home with his parents and doing well. But Dr. Puck and others want better treatment for babies like him.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The best idea, says Puck, would be to fix the SCID mutation in Phoenix’s own cells: Take them out, reprogram them so that they can make a functional immune system, and then put them back into his body.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phoenix would be his own donor. There would be no search for a donor match, no fear of rejection, no chemo.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Actually just correcting the spelling mistake of the gene in the person, and not putting in any new genetic material is very attractive,” Puck says. \"That should be safer.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Gene therapy, as this is called, is not a new strategy. But it’s proved to be a challenging one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way to explain why is to picture a string of Christmas tree lights containing one broken bulb.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A Promising Treatment Backfires\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>That string is the DNA, wound up inside the nucleus of a cell. The broken bulb is the mutation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Say you want to replace the broken bulb, but the string is too small to see. How do you know you’re taking out the right bulb and putting a new one in the correct place?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In the 1990s, doctors in Europe tried this kind of fix on a group of babies with SCID, with mixed results.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In placing the correct copy of the gene into a chromosome, we couldn’t direct where it was going to land,” says Puck. “And sometimes it landed in a dangerous spot.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The “dangerous spot” in this case, was next to a growth factor gene that was inadvertently turned on by the insertion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Growth factor genes incorrectly turned on are called oncogenes,” explains Puck. “Cancer genes.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Five children got Leukemia, induced by a treatment that had been intended to save their lives.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Four of them recovered. One baby died. Puck says it was a devastating time for the entire field.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The whole world mourned the loss of that baby,” she says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Enter CRISPR\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, Puck is excited about a new tool for making precise changes in a baby’s genome. It’s called CRISPR, an acronym for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As UC Berkeley biologist Jennifer Doudna puts it, think of CRISPR as “a molecular scalpel.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_389\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 427px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-389\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR.jpg\" alt=\"The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, shown in gold, at selected sites. The enzyme can be programmed to snip out mutated DNA and replace it with healthy DNA. This model was created from electron microscope images. (David Taylor and Jennifer Doudna/UC Berkeley)\" width=\"427\" height=\"477\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR.jpg 427w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR-400x447.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Cas9_CRISPR-320x357.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 427px) 100vw, 427px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The enzyme Cas9, shown in blue and gray, can cut DNA, shown in gold, at selected sites. The enzyme can be programmed to snip out mutated DNA and replace it with healthy DNA. This model was created from electron microscope images. (David Taylor and Jennifer Doudna/UC Berkeley)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Doudna isn’t a medical doctor, or even a medical researcher. She studies bacteria -- more specifically, an enzyme, called Cas9, produced by bacteria.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Previous scientists had noticed that these bacteria possess an unusually effective way of fighting off viruses. The bacteria were able to recognize viral DNA and use Cas9 to precisely disable the virus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2012, Doudna and collaborators, including \u003ca href=\"http://www.helmholtz-hzi.de/en/research/research_topics/bacterial_and_viral_pathogens/regulation_in_infection_biology/e_charpentier/\">Emmanuelle Charpentier\u003c/a>, took this a step further \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/337/6096/816.abstract?sid=3750cfc2-3490-4c65-ab99-fb2a2b6099bc\">in a paper\u003c/a> in the journal Science that thrilled cell biologists around the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The paper showed that biologists could program Cas9 -- arm it, in other words -- with a customized DNA payload.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They could direct the enzyme at virtually any cell, programmed to make whatever genetic change they wanted.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In other words, says Doudna, “scientists can go into the DNA and make a precise change that corrects the mutations that give rise to disease.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A “State of Wonder”\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fixing the DNA in a cell: that idea had been around for a while. But CRISPR works dramatically better than the old ways. It’s more accurate, faster. A process that could take years of trial and error now took an inexpensive few weeks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Many scientists are just -- they're sort of in a state of wonder about this,” Doudna says.\u003c/p>\n\u003caside class=\"pullquote alignright\">“CRISPR works in almost every organism it's been tried in.”\u003ccite>George Church, Harvard geneticist\u003c/cite>\u003c/aside>\n\u003cp>On the day we met, Doudna was showing visitors around a brand-new research center at UC Berkeley, the \u003ca href=\"http://innovativegenomics.org/\">Innovative Genomics Initiative\u003c/a>, which is devoted to CRISPR research.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There are now several such centers around the world and hundreds of researchers working with CRISPR on the cells of mice, cows, monkeys, plants and humans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“CRISPR works in almost every organism it’s been tried in,” says Harvard geneticist George Church. “Dozens.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Church is quick to point out that there are currently no CRISPR-based treatments in clinical trials. The technology is too new.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>He believes this could change in a few years, though for which disease, it’s hard to say.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Church reels off a few of what he thinks might be early contenders: “Sickle cell anemia, clotting diseases, muscular dystrophies, blindness.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>“Oodles and Oodles of Money”\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If CRISPR is a big deal for people who have these diseases, it’ll also be a big financial deal for the scientists who helped develop it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And by big, Jacob Sherkow, an associate professor at New York Law School and author of a recent \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v33/n3/full/nbt.3160.html\">paper\u003c/a> on CRISPR in Nature Biotechnology, “big” means “oodles and oodles of money. Potentially in the $200 billion to $300 billion range.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-medium wp-image-392\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-322x600.jpg\" alt=\"Crispr-Publications\" width=\"322\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-322x600.jpg 322w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-400x745.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications-320x596.jpg 320w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/03/Crispr-Publications.jpg 550w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 322px) 100vw, 322px\">\u003c/a>This windfall, he says, could go to whoever holds key patents on CRISPR.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/532796/who-owns-the-biggest-biotech-discovery-of-the-century/\">widely\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://www.genomeweb.com/rnai/crispr-cas9-technology-sets-take-uncertainty-swirls-around-ip-landscape\">reported\u003c/a>, even though the University of California filed Doudna and Charpentier's application first, a key CRISPR patent went to another researcher -- Feng Zhang at MIT’s Broad Institute, which filed afterwards, but paid an additional fee to have its application expedited.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the subject of CRISPR patents, Doudna says only that she is “very confident in the UC position.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If Zhang’s patent prevails, Doudna and her collaborators could find themselves in the position of having to license a technology they are widely credited with discovering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’re very confident that we’re going to be able to do incredible science,\" she says, \"and we’ll let the dispute play out as it will.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sherkow says there are a number of ways this dispute could play out.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The US Patent Office could deny UC’s application and let Zhang's patent stand. Or it could reverse its earlier decision, revoking the Broad patent and awarding it to Doudna and her collaborators instead.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Doudna and Zhang both point to a third possibility: that among what will likely be dozens of CRISPR patents it could be difficult, at this point, to know which one will be most lucrative or important.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These early CRISPR patents, says Zhang “are just the first ones. There will be many more.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There’s also a fourth possibility: that CRISPR could disappoint everyone, a “tempest in the teapot,” as George Church puts it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"But I hope that’s not the case,” he says, laughing.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>Our geneticist, Dr. Barry Starr, weighs in on the current debate surrounding the latest gene-editing technique.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ever since we've been able to alter DNA, there have been discussions about what this means for the human race. In some far off future, when we can make wholesale changes to human DNA, what will these changes do to each of us? And to society at large?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out that the far off future isn’t so far off any more. With a new tool called \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/03/16/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\">CRISPR\u003c/a>, we are on the cusp of being able to easily change the DNA of a human embryo so the changes can be passed on to the next generation. We are so close in fact, that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/20/science/biologists-call-for-halt-to-gene-editing-technique-in-humans.html?_r=1\">a group of scientists has advocated\u003c/a> that we stop and take a deep breath before we add any altered DNA to our gene pool.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[contextly_sidebar id=\"fDeS00Xmf7YhCIeT7x2jMeDL6uMua8Gz\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Part of the reason for this pause is because the technique has not been widely tested yet. It has only been around for a few years and so we definitely need to spend some time studying it. For example, what other changes happen elsewhere in the DNA when we make the selected change? How can we make sure any changes we make are in all of the cells not just some of them? These are just two of the potential questions for which we don’t yet have good answers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite issues like these, there is a real temptation to just barrel ahead and start using CRISPR to cure genetic diseases because it is such a powerful and easy technique. We need to resist that temptation until these technical issues have been resolved.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But even with a resolution, other problems will arise. Like the ethical concern over whether we should be tampering with human DNA at all. I leave the bioethicists to debate that one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1238\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-1238\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque.jpg\" alt=\"Some genetic engineering decisions are obviously bad ones. (Wikimedia Commons) \" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque-320x240.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some genetic engineering decisions are obviously bad ones. (\u003ca href=\"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/EugenicsMarker.jpg\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Assuming the safety problem has been resolved and we decide, as a society, that changing human DNA is sometimes acceptable, the next issue will be what DNA to change. This is a more difficult discussion than you may think.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To me, a few changes are pretty obvious. If we can safely do it, we should change the DNA of an embryo that would die a terrible death after birth. For example, fixing a DNA difference in the HEXA gene that leads to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024672/\">Tay Sachs\u003c/a>--a genetic disorder that is fatal--seems like an obvious choice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And of course at the other end of the spectrum there are changes that make most people squeamish. Examples of these might be changing an embryo’s DNA so he grows up to have blue eyes or red hair or some other physical trait. This smacks of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics\">eugenics\u003c/a> and rightly makes people uncomfortable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there are a whole lot of DNA edits in between these that are much less obvious. And some, like \u003ca href=\"http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/huntington-disease\">Huntington’s disease\u003c/a>, seem like Tay Sachs but if done incorrectly could have unexpected consequences.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Beware of Unknown Unknowns\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Huntington’s disease (HD) is a really awful genetic disease (click \u003ca href=\"https://youtu.be/JzAPh2v-SCQ\">here\u003c/a> to see what it looks like in the later stages). It initially causes subtle personality changes, usually when a person is in his or her 30’s or 40’s. After that there is an inevitable decline in muscle control and a descent into various psychiatric disorders and dementia. Usually someone with HD is dead within 20 years of their first symptoms although it can happen much more rapidly in some cases.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have a very good understanding of how HD works genetically. Certain changes in the HTT gene lead to the disease. But these changes are different than you might think.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here is an image of the three categories of HTT genes you can have:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1229\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene.jpg\" alt=\"HTTgene\" width=\"500\" height=\"162\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene-400x130.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene-320x104.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In this image, the blue rectangle is the HTT gene. The green, yellow and red boxes represent something in the gene called \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_expansion\">CAG repeats\u003c/a>. Basically, the DNA letters CAG are repeated the number of times listed in the box. So the green box has 10-35 repeats, the yellow has 36-39 and the red has 40 or more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you can see, only people with more than 35 of these repeats are at risk for HD. People with 36-39 repeats may or may not get the disease and most everyone with 40 or more ends up with HD.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So an obvious use of CRISPR would be to edit the HTT gene of embryos like this:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/httCRISPR.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1231\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/httCRISPR.jpg\" alt=\"httCRISPR\" width=\"300\" height=\"133\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now this embryo won't develop HD. And because we reduced the number down to 10, his kids and grandkids probably won't be at risk for HD either because they are safe from something called anticipation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In anticipation, the number of repeats can increase from one generation to the next. So someone with 34 repeats might have a child with 40 or more which means that child will probably develop the disease. Lowering the repeats to 10 makes it much less likely any future kids will get HD. But it might also decrease the chances of the child being a genius.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recent research reviewed \u003ca href=\"http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21645713-could-key-evolution-human-brain-be-found-dreadful\">here \u003c/a>suggests that the more repeats you have, the more likely you are to do well on tests that are supposed to gauge intelligence. In protecting future generations from the risk of HD, we may be toying with their intelligence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reverse of this situation is even worse. Imagine we first discovered that extra repeats make it more likely someone will be clever. Now parents are adding repeats to their kids’ HTT genes with the end result that most of that generation comes down with HD!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This isn’t the only case like this either. As discussed \u003ca href=\"http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/GeneWatch/GeneWatchPage.aspx?pageId=226\">here\u003c/a>, studies showed that a certain version of the SERT gene leads to an increased risk of depression. With CRISPR you might be tempted to correct this gene. Which may be a mistake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Later studies showed that this version of SERT is only an issue if the child is raised in poor conditions. Under the right conditions, this gene version actually increases the chances a person will be creative. Editing this gene might have consequences no one expected.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the second set of studies had never been done, we wouldn’t know about the positive effects of this DNA difference. We would simply have fewer creative people in humanity’s future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are just a couple of the genes we know about. There are many others where we may not yet know the effects of genetic engineering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>To Edit or Not to Edit\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1249\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/SCAfoy.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-1249\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/SCAfoy.jpg\" alt=\"If we decide that changing human DNA is acceptable, then sickle cell anemia is an obvious candidate. (NHGRI)\" width=\"300\" height=\"179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">If we decide that changing human DNA is acceptable, then sickle cell anemia is an obvious candidate. (\u003ca href=\"https://www.genome.gov/dmd/img.cfm?node=Photos/Graphics&id=85241\">NHGRI\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>None of this necessarily means we should never change human DNA. Some genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/heterozygote-advantage\">served a useful role in the past\u003c/a> but are now just terrible, terrible diseases. It is hard to think of the downside of eliminating these DNA differences from the gene pool.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bottom line is that if we decide it is OK to repair genetic problems in a way that can be passed down to the next generation, we need to be very careful and selective about which problems we fix. And in how many people we fix them in.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Just because scientists now have the ability to cure genetic diseases, with a new gene-editing technique, doesn't mean we always should, writes our geneticist, Dr. Barry Starr. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>Our geneticist, Dr. Barry Starr, weighs in on the current debate surrounding the latest gene-editing technique.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ever since we've been able to alter DNA, there have been discussions about what this means for the human race. In some far off future, when we can make wholesale changes to human DNA, what will these changes do to each of us? And to society at large?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It turns out that the far off future isn’t so far off any more. With a new tool called \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/2015/03/16/a-crispr-solution-to-bubble-boy-disease/\">CRISPR\u003c/a>, we are on the cusp of being able to easily change the DNA of a human embryo so the changes can be passed on to the next generation. We are so close in fact, that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/20/science/biologists-call-for-halt-to-gene-editing-technique-in-humans.html?_r=1\">a group of scientists has advocated\u003c/a> that we stop and take a deep breath before we add any altered DNA to our gene pool.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Part of the reason for this pause is because the technique has not been widely tested yet. It has only been around for a few years and so we definitely need to spend some time studying it. For example, what other changes happen elsewhere in the DNA when we make the selected change? How can we make sure any changes we make are in all of the cells not just some of them? These are just two of the potential questions for which we don’t yet have good answers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Despite issues like these, there is a real temptation to just barrel ahead and start using CRISPR to cure genetic diseases because it is such a powerful and easy technique. We need to resist that temptation until these technical issues have been resolved.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But even with a resolution, other problems will arise. Like the ethical concern over whether we should be tampering with human DNA at all. I leave the bioethicists to debate that one.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1238\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 400px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-1238\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque.jpg\" alt=\"Some genetic engineering decisions are obviously bad ones. (Wikimedia Commons) \" width=\"400\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/EugenicsPlaque-320x240.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Some genetic engineering decisions are obviously bad ones. (\u003ca href=\"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/EugenicsMarker.jpg\">Wikimedia Commons\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Assuming the safety problem has been resolved and we decide, as a society, that changing human DNA is sometimes acceptable, the next issue will be what DNA to change. This is a more difficult discussion than you may think.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>To me, a few changes are pretty obvious. If we can safely do it, we should change the DNA of an embryo that would die a terrible death after birth. For example, fixing a DNA difference in the HEXA gene that leads to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024672/\">Tay Sachs\u003c/a>--a genetic disorder that is fatal--seems like an obvious choice.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And of course at the other end of the spectrum there are changes that make most people squeamish. Examples of these might be changing an embryo’s DNA so he grows up to have blue eyes or red hair or some other physical trait. This smacks of \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics\">eugenics\u003c/a> and rightly makes people uncomfortable.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But there are a whole lot of DNA edits in between these that are much less obvious. And some, like \u003ca href=\"http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/huntington-disease\">Huntington’s disease\u003c/a>, seem like Tay Sachs but if done incorrectly could have unexpected consequences.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Beware of Unknown Unknowns\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Huntington’s disease (HD) is a really awful genetic disease (click \u003ca href=\"https://youtu.be/JzAPh2v-SCQ\">here\u003c/a> to see what it looks like in the later stages). It initially causes subtle personality changes, usually when a person is in his or her 30’s or 40’s. After that there is an inevitable decline in muscle control and a descent into various psychiatric disorders and dementia. Usually someone with HD is dead within 20 years of their first symptoms although it can happen much more rapidly in some cases.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have a very good understanding of how HD works genetically. Certain changes in the HTT gene lead to the disease. But these changes are different than you might think.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here is an image of the three categories of HTT genes you can have:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1229\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene.jpg\" alt=\"HTTgene\" width=\"500\" height=\"162\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene-400x130.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/HTTgene-320x104.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In this image, the blue rectangle is the HTT gene. The green, yellow and red boxes represent something in the gene called \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinucleotide_repeat_expansion\">CAG repeats\u003c/a>. Basically, the DNA letters CAG are repeated the number of times listed in the box. So the green box has 10-35 repeats, the yellow has 36-39 and the red has 40 or more.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As you can see, only people with more than 35 of these repeats are at risk for HD. People with 36-39 repeats may or may not get the disease and most everyone with 40 or more ends up with HD.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So an obvious use of CRISPR would be to edit the HTT gene of embryos like this:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/httCRISPR.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-1231\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/httCRISPR.jpg\" alt=\"httCRISPR\" width=\"300\" height=\"133\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Now this embryo won't develop HD. And because we reduced the number down to 10, his kids and grandkids probably won't be at risk for HD either because they are safe from something called anticipation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In anticipation, the number of repeats can increase from one generation to the next. So someone with 34 repeats might have a child with 40 or more which means that child will probably develop the disease. Lowering the repeats to 10 makes it much less likely any future kids will get HD. But it might also decrease the chances of the child being a genius.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recent research reviewed \u003ca href=\"http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21645713-could-key-evolution-human-brain-be-found-dreadful\">here \u003c/a>suggests that the more repeats you have, the more likely you are to do well on tests that are supposed to gauge intelligence. In protecting future generations from the risk of HD, we may be toying with their intelligence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reverse of this situation is even worse. Imagine we first discovered that extra repeats make it more likely someone will be clever. Now parents are adding repeats to their kids’ HTT genes with the end result that most of that generation comes down with HD!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This isn’t the only case like this either. As discussed \u003ca href=\"http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/GeneWatch/GeneWatchPage.aspx?pageId=226\">here\u003c/a>, studies showed that a certain version of the SERT gene leads to an increased risk of depression. With CRISPR you might be tempted to correct this gene. Which may be a mistake.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Later studies showed that this version of SERT is only an issue if the child is raised in poor conditions. Under the right conditions, this gene version actually increases the chances a person will be creative. Editing this gene might have consequences no one expected.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If the second set of studies had never been done, we wouldn’t know about the positive effects of this DNA difference. We would simply have fewer creative people in humanity’s future.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>These are just a couple of the genes we know about. There are many others where we may not yet know the effects of genetic engineering.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>To Edit or Not to Edit\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_1249\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/SCAfoy.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-1249\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/futureofyou/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2015/04/SCAfoy.jpg\" alt=\"If we decide that changing human DNA is acceptable, then sickle cell anemia is an obvious candidate. (NHGRI)\" width=\"300\" height=\"179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">If we decide that changing human DNA is acceptable, then sickle cell anemia is an obvious candidate. (\u003ca href=\"https://www.genome.gov/dmd/img.cfm?node=Photos/Graphics&id=85241\">NHGRI\u003c/a>)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>None of this necessarily means we should never change human DNA. Some genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis \u003ca href=\"http://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/heterozygote-advantage\">served a useful role in the past\u003c/a> but are now just terrible, terrible diseases. It is hard to think of the downside of eliminating these DNA differences from the gene pool.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The bottom line is that if we decide it is OK to repair genetic problems in a way that can be passed down to the next generation, we need to be very careful and selective about which problems we fix. And in how many people we fix them in.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
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"info": "Our flagship program, helmed by Kai Ryssdal, examines what the day in money delivered, through stories, conversations, newsworthy numbers and more. Updated Monday through Friday at about 3:30 p.m. PT.",
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Our weekly podcast explores how the media 'sausage' is made, casts an incisive eye on fluctuations in the marketplace of ideas, and examines threats to the freedom of information and expression in America and abroad. For one hour a week, the show tries to lift the veil from the process of \"making media,\" especially news media, because it's through that lens that we see the world and the world sees us",
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"tagline": "Politics from a personal perspective",
"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
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"possible": {
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"title": "Possible",
"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"pri-the-world": {
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"info": "Each weekday, host Marco Werman and his team of producers bring you the world's most interesting stories in an hour of radio that reminds us just how small our planet really is.",
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"imageSrc": "https://cdn.kqed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/The-World-Podcast-Tile-360x360-1.jpg",
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},
"radiolab": {
"id": "radiolab",
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"info": "A two-time Peabody Award-winner, Radiolab is an investigation told through sounds and stories, and centered around one big idea. In the Radiolab world, information sounds like music and science and culture collide. Hosted by Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich, the show is designed for listeners who demand skepticism, but appreciate wonder. WNYC Studios is the producer of other leading podcasts including Freakonomics Radio, Death, Sex & Money, On the Media and many more.",
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"reveal": {
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"info": "Created by The Center for Investigative Reporting and PRX, Reveal is public radios first one-hour weekly radio show and podcast dedicated to investigative reporting. Credible, fact based and without a partisan agenda, Reveal combines the power and artistry of driveway moment storytelling with data-rich reporting on critically important issues. The result is stories that inform and inspire, arming our listeners with information to right injustices, hold the powerful accountable and improve lives.Reveal is hosted by Al Letson and showcases the award-winning work of CIR and newsrooms large and small across the nation. In a radio and podcast market crowded with choices, Reveal focuses on important and often surprising stories that illuminate the world for our listeners.",
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"officialWebsiteLink": "https://www.revealnews.org/episodes/",
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},
"rightnowish": {
"id": "rightnowish",
"title": "Rightnowish",
"tagline": "Art is where you find it",
"info": "Rightnowish digs into life in the Bay Area right now… ish. Journalist Pendarvis Harshaw takes us to galleries painted on the sides of liquor stores in West Oakland. We'll dance in warehouses in the Bayview, make smoothies with kids in South Berkeley, and listen to classical music in a 1984 Cutlass Supreme in Richmond. Every week, Pen talks to movers and shakers about how the Bay Area shapes what they create, and how they shape the place we call home.",
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"order": 16
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},
"science-friday": {
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