QUEST Northern CaliforniaQUEST Northern California
KQED serves the people of Northern California with a public-supported alternative to commercial media. Home to the most listened-to public radio station in the nation, one of the highest-rated public television services and an award-winning education program, and as a leader and innovator in interactive technology, KQED takes people of all ages on journeys of exploration — exposing them to new people, places and ideas.
ISAAC Promotes Jupiter to Executive Planet
California Utility Commission Defends $100 Million EV Charging Deal
Changing Foghorns
Life Aquatic and Terrestrial: California Newts
California's (and the World's) Oldest Rocks
The Circus of Evolution
The Salmon are Back! (But Why?)
California Electric Car Drivers Get a Charge From the Governor
In Search of the Oldest Stuff: Rocks of Ages
Testing a New Drug for Mountain Sickness
Small Rewards: Tiny Frogs and Chameleons Find and Fill a Niche
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34107\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/california-utility-commission-defends-100-million-ev-charging-deal/evgo-houston-640/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34107\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/evgo-houston-640-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"eVgo electric car charging station in Houston, Texas\" title=\"evgo-houston-640\" width=\"640\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-34107\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Two-hundred eVgo electric car fast-charging stations, like this one in Houston, will be installed in California over the next four years. EVs can add 50 miles or more in less than 30 minutes. (Photo courtesy of eVgo.)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Electric car drivers cheered last week when the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) and NRG Energy \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/ca-electric-car-drivers-get-a-charge-from-the-gov/\">announced plans\u003c/a> to invest $100 million in the state’s electric vehicle charging infrastructure. NRG will invest in EV charging infrastructure in exchange for settling claims for overcharges during the 1999 California energy crisis. For the past several months, CPUC and \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrgenergy.com/\">NRG Energy\u003c/a> worked behind closed door to establish the terms of the settlement. Opinions on the deal’s fairness are divided.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The most benefit to rate payers would have been a direct cash settlement,” said Eileen Tutt, executive director of \u003ca href=\"http://www.caletc.com/\">California Electric Transportation Coalition.\u003c/a> But instead, NRG proposed an in-kind deal, and CPUC agreed. At first glance, the settlement gives NRG, a New Jersey-based energy industry behemoth, a near-monopoly on California’s electric car charging. The majority of the $100 million investment will go to installing at least 200 480-volt EV fast-charge stations—resembling traditional gas stations in appearance and refueling times. The company will own and charge fees for using these locations, which it calls “freedom stations.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Something Today\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34108\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 132px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/california-utility-commission-defends-100-million-ev-charging-deal/nancyryanlg/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34108\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/NancyRyanlg.jpg\" alt=\"Nancy Ryan, deputy executive director for policy at the California Public Utilities Commission.\" title=\"NancyRyanlg\" width=\"132\" height=\"167\" class=\"size-full wp-image-34108\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nancy Ryan, deputy executive director for policy at the California Public Utilities Commission.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We did not have the total cash option,” said Nancy Ryan, deputy executive director for policy at CPUC. “The choice we had was to get the best deal today that was primarily in-kind with a cash component, versus continuing to litigate for years and years, and still maybe coming up with nothing.” The CPUC insisted on two key provisions: serving the state’s policy goals for electric transportation, and getting at least some cash for ratepayers. The final settlement includes $20 million in cash. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NRG is pleased with the outcome. “The settlement guarantees EV investment at a much higher rate and a much higher speed than would otherwise be done,” said David Knox, NRG’s director of communications.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jay Friedland, legislative director for \u003ca href=\"http://www.pluginamerica.org/\">Plug In America\u003c/a>, an electric car advocacy group, also likes the settlement. “At first, we questioned whether or not CPUC negotiated well.” After learning more, Friedland said the CPUC “got a pretty darn good deal, but the devil is in the details.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Restrictions Apply\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those exact terms will not be known for another month or so, but there are clear signs that CPUC put teeth into the deal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first five years after installing a station, NRG can’t require EV drivers to pay a monthly subscription fee, as it does with its \u003ca href=\"http://www.evgonetwork.com\">eVgo Network\u003c/a> in Texas. Instead, the public will have open access on a pay-as-you-go basis. Fees for fast charging are capped at $10 per session during off-peak hours, and $15 during peak hours. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NRG can put stations where it likes, but within constraints: 55 stations in the Bay Area, and 110 stations in and around Los Angeles. The rest will be divided between San Diego County and San Joaquin Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Approximately $40 million must be spent on preparing workplaces, multi-family dwellings and other locations allowing people without garages to gain access to EV charging. These so-called “make readies” lay groundwork—such as conduits, power upgrades, and stubs—for equipment installation to occur later. Property owners, not NRG, will own the locations. NRG has the exclusive right for 18 months to sell equipment and related services to the property owners, after which those locations are open to competition.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CPUC acknowledges that it will receive some criticism for allowing NRG to earn a profit. However, the agency insists the settlement is consistent with CPUC policy. “If NRG puts charging stations where people use them, and drivers are willing to pay to use them, then we’re getting value for ratepayers,” said CPUC's Ryan. “We’re building a network to make it attractive and appealing to buy and drive electric vehicles.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See other posts from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/series/clean-car-diaries/\">this series\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"headline": "California Utility Commission Defends $100 Million EV Charging Deal",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34107\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/california-utility-commission-defends-100-million-ev-charging-deal/evgo-houston-640/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34107\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/evgo-houston-640-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"eVgo electric car charging station in Houston, Texas\" title=\"evgo-houston-640\" width=\"640\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-34107\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Two-hundred eVgo electric car fast-charging stations, like this one in Houston, will be installed in California over the next four years. EVs can add 50 miles or more in less than 30 minutes. (Photo courtesy of eVgo.)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Electric car drivers cheered last week when the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) and NRG Energy \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/ca-electric-car-drivers-get-a-charge-from-the-gov/\">announced plans\u003c/a> to invest $100 million in the state’s electric vehicle charging infrastructure. NRG will invest in EV charging infrastructure in exchange for settling claims for overcharges during the 1999 California energy crisis. For the past several months, CPUC and \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrgenergy.com/\">NRG Energy\u003c/a> worked behind closed door to establish the terms of the settlement. Opinions on the deal’s fairness are divided.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The most benefit to rate payers would have been a direct cash settlement,” said Eileen Tutt, executive director of \u003ca href=\"http://www.caletc.com/\">California Electric Transportation Coalition.\u003c/a> But instead, NRG proposed an in-kind deal, and CPUC agreed. At first glance, the settlement gives NRG, a New Jersey-based energy industry behemoth, a near-monopoly on California’s electric car charging. The majority of the $100 million investment will go to installing at least 200 480-volt EV fast-charge stations—resembling traditional gas stations in appearance and refueling times. The company will own and charge fees for using these locations, which it calls “freedom stations.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Something Today\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_34108\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 132px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/california-utility-commission-defends-100-million-ev-charging-deal/nancyryanlg/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34108\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/NancyRyanlg.jpg\" alt=\"Nancy Ryan, deputy executive director for policy at the California Public Utilities Commission.\" title=\"NancyRyanlg\" width=\"132\" height=\"167\" class=\"size-full wp-image-34108\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nancy Ryan, deputy executive director for policy at the California Public Utilities Commission.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We did not have the total cash option,” said Nancy Ryan, deputy executive director for policy at CPUC. “The choice we had was to get the best deal today that was primarily in-kind with a cash component, versus continuing to litigate for years and years, and still maybe coming up with nothing.” The CPUC insisted on two key provisions: serving the state’s policy goals for electric transportation, and getting at least some cash for ratepayers. The final settlement includes $20 million in cash. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NRG is pleased with the outcome. “The settlement guarantees EV investment at a much higher rate and a much higher speed than would otherwise be done,” said David Knox, NRG’s director of communications.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Jay Friedland, legislative director for \u003ca href=\"http://www.pluginamerica.org/\">Plug In America\u003c/a>, an electric car advocacy group, also likes the settlement. “At first, we questioned whether or not CPUC negotiated well.” After learning more, Friedland said the CPUC “got a pretty darn good deal, but the devil is in the details.” \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Restrictions Apply\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Those exact terms will not be known for another month or so, but there are clear signs that CPUC put teeth into the deal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For the first five years after installing a station, NRG can’t require EV drivers to pay a monthly subscription fee, as it does with its \u003ca href=\"http://www.evgonetwork.com\">eVgo Network\u003c/a> in Texas. Instead, the public will have open access on a pay-as-you-go basis. Fees for fast charging are capped at $10 per session during off-peak hours, and $15 during peak hours. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>NRG can put stations where it likes, but within constraints: 55 stations in the Bay Area, and 110 stations in and around Los Angeles. The rest will be divided between San Diego County and San Joaquin Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Approximately $40 million must be spent on preparing workplaces, multi-family dwellings and other locations allowing people without garages to gain access to EV charging. These so-called “make readies” lay groundwork—such as conduits, power upgrades, and stubs—for equipment installation to occur later. Property owners, not NRG, will own the locations. NRG has the exclusive right for 18 months to sell equipment and related services to the property owners, after which those locations are open to competition.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CPUC acknowledges that it will receive some criticism for allowing NRG to earn a profit. However, the agency insists the settlement is consistent with CPUC policy. “If NRG puts charging stations where people use them, and drivers are willing to pay to use them, then we’re getting value for ratepayers,” said CPUC's Ryan. “We’re building a network to make it attractive and appealing to buy and drive electric vehicles.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See other posts from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/series/clean-car-diaries/\">this series\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Changing Foghorns",
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"content": "\u003cp>For commuters who whisk past it aboard the high-speed ferry from Vallejo to San Francisco, East Brother Island is a quaint dollop of history, plunked near the Richmond shoreline. The 1873 lighthouse is a popular subject for snapshots on the fly. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But my destination on a clear day in March was the smaller structure that few people notice. That’s where lightkeeper Peter Berkhout is taking me to see a genuine rarity: one of perhaps two or three remaining vintage foghorns anywhere in the U.S. that’s still in working order.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Normally for the first blast I advise our guests to cover their ears,” Berkhout tells me, as he pull-starts a small gasoline engine in the signal house. The pony engine in turn, starts up a diesel-powered air compressor that fills enormous cylindrical tanks against the wall. That’s where the air starts its journey up to the roof-mounted horns. “It is startlingly loud,” he warns, “and it's loud enough that you can actually feel the sound wave going through your torso.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Technically this is a “diaphone,” so-named because it generates two separate tones that constitute the iconic “BEEE-ohhh” that most Americans still connect with foghorns. When the air pressure comes up and the sound is released, you jump out of your skin no matter how prepared you think you are, even though the second note presents as more of a grunt. The sound wave bounces off the Richmond bluffs and lingers. “I guess you can learn to sleep through anything but I'm glad I haven't had to learn to sleep through this,” Berkhout tells me.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oIYoXutf_w?hl=en&fs=1\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And they don’t. He and his wife, Dina are the caretakers of the Victorian bed & breakfast on East Brother Island, so they live there full-time. But Berkhout only fires up the 1920s-vintage monster for occasional demonstrations. East Brother still has a foghorn that operates from October to April, but it’s three-second “booop” every 30 seconds is almost soothing by comparison.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For decades, though, virtually all major fog signals were diaphones. When the Bay was ringed with diaphones like East Brother’s, they had to be loud.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Navigating the fog is like driving your car down the highway with your hood up,” says Greg Waugh. And he would know. A fourth-generation San Franciscan, he spent more than 50 years on the Bay, aboard tugs and then piloting merchant ships through the Golden Gate, which he and his fellow pilots calculated gets 1,500 hours of fog in a year’s time. That could help explain why the Golden Gate Bridge has three foghorns. Waugh got to know all of them like family. “Center span of the Golden Gate Bridge is two blasts every 40 seconds,” he recounts, though he’s been retired since 2007. “South tower is one blast every 20 seconds. Lime Pt. on the north tower is one blast every 30 seconds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33981\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0479.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0479-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Peter Berkhout\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33981\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Peter Berkhout prepares to start up the air compressor that powers the diaphone.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Waugh's not quite old enough to remember the first fog signals, like the method used at the original Point Bonita light, in the Marin Headlands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When it started gettin' foggy this guy'd get up there and he'd load up a cannon and fire the cannon--boom... and that was the fog signal.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Present day foghorns are electronic and apart from being less jarring, are considerably low-maintenance. The “new” horn at East Brother is about the size of a fire hydrant, powered by a small solar panel and 12-volt battery. Members of the Coast Guard’s Aids to Navigation Team tell me the biggest maintenance headache with the new horns is people stealing the batteries, thinking they can use them in their boats (they can’t).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Waugh says the present-day foghorn at Point Bonita was dialed back to be audible for only one mile. Otherwise, he says, residents across the Bay in San Francisco would complain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33979\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0458.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0458-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"East Brother Island\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33979\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">East Brother Island boasts a treasure missed by most boaters passing by: its 1920’s-vintage foghorn.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Tim Lynch chuckles at this. “I think the iconic sound that we associate with foghorns, while it might be nostalgic, was upsetting to a lot of residents.” Lynch is a historian at the Cal Maritime Academy in Vallejo. “There are newer and some might say better ways to skin the cat,” he tells me. “The amount of technology that mariners have available to them -- the global positioning satellites, and all sorts of aids to navigation have largely rendered foghorns obsolete.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But try telling that to Duncan MacLean, who skippers a commercial salmon boat out of Pillar Point Harbor in Half Moon Bay. “A lot of those old navigational things, when all else fails, are still there,” he tells me, while tinkering with some fishing tackle aboard his boat, the Barbara Faye. “And that can be critical.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like most modern fishermen, MacLean’s wheelhouse is crammed with a laptop computer and all kinds of electronic navigation aids. But not everybody has those, explains MacLean, who says he still uses his eyes and ears. For one thing, urban development near the harbor has created a kaleidoscope of lights competing with the visual aids that mariners use. Traffic lights onshore can mimic the critical red and green buoys that mark safe channels.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33980\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0467.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0467-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Modern East Brother foghorn\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33980\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The present-day solar-powered East Brother foghorn is less impressive in both sight and sound than its compressed-air predecessor…but also less jolting.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“You've got all of these lights going off everywhere and sometimes it can be a little bit tricky.” He argues that it's made the audible signals even more important. “They're critical pieces of information,” he says. “There will never not be a need.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, young mariners don't have to risk lives and property to learn their way around. At Cal Maritime, a computer-driven walk-in simulator puts students in the virtual wheelhouse of “vessels” ranging from a 60-foot jet boat to a supertanker.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet, with all this technology Academy instructors still train students to use a sextant, a centuries-old instrument for navigation, because you never know when modern technology will fail you.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33982\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0495.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0495-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"The Walter Fanning fog signal\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33982\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Walter Fanning fog signal on East Brother Island. Its roomful of apparatus dates back to the 1920s.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>And speaking of that, remember that cannon that served as the first Pt. Bonita fog signal? Somebody had to fire it, of course--every 30 minutes, 24-7, as long as the fog was in. They hired a certain \"Sergeant Mahoney\" for the job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Well the fog was always in, says Drew Van Winkle, a volunteer at the Point Bonita light (remember those 1,500 hours). “And poor old Sergeant Mahoney couldn’t get a rest. Mahoney put in a request for relief but there was no budget for that. Request denied. Van Winkle says, “The day must've been relatively nice and they gave him a little leave.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And leave he did. “They never saw Sergeant Mahoney again,” says Van Winkle. “That was the end of that.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But it was just the beginning of a whole new soundscape for the Bay. One that’s still changing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>The estimated annual hours of fog in the Golden Gate has been corrected from an earlier post.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Lightkeeper Peter Berkhout takes QUEST radio reporter Craig Miller to see a genuine rarity: one of perhaps two or three remaining vintage foghorns anywhere in the U.S. that’s still in working order.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>For commuters who whisk past it aboard the high-speed ferry from Vallejo to San Francisco, East Brother Island is a quaint dollop of history, plunked near the Richmond shoreline. The 1873 lighthouse is a popular subject for snapshots on the fly. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But my destination on a clear day in March was the smaller structure that few people notice. That’s where lightkeeper Peter Berkhout is taking me to see a genuine rarity: one of perhaps two or three remaining vintage foghorns anywhere in the U.S. that’s still in working order.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Normally for the first blast I advise our guests to cover their ears,” Berkhout tells me, as he pull-starts a small gasoline engine in the signal house. The pony engine in turn, starts up a diesel-powered air compressor that fills enormous cylindrical tanks against the wall. That’s where the air starts its journey up to the roof-mounted horns. “It is startlingly loud,” he warns, “and it's loud enough that you can actually feel the sound wave going through your torso.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Technically this is a “diaphone,” so-named because it generates two separate tones that constitute the iconic “BEEE-ohhh” that most Americans still connect with foghorns. When the air pressure comes up and the sound is released, you jump out of your skin no matter how prepared you think you are, even though the second note presents as more of a grunt. The sound wave bounces off the Richmond bluffs and lingers. “I guess you can learn to sleep through anything but I'm glad I haven't had to learn to sleep through this,” Berkhout tells me.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oIYoXutf_w?hl=en&fs=1\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And they don’t. He and his wife, Dina are the caretakers of the Victorian bed & breakfast on East Brother Island, so they live there full-time. But Berkhout only fires up the 1920s-vintage monster for occasional demonstrations. East Brother still has a foghorn that operates from October to April, but it’s three-second “booop” every 30 seconds is almost soothing by comparison.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For decades, though, virtually all major fog signals were diaphones. When the Bay was ringed with diaphones like East Brother’s, they had to be loud.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Navigating the fog is like driving your car down the highway with your hood up,” says Greg Waugh. And he would know. A fourth-generation San Franciscan, he spent more than 50 years on the Bay, aboard tugs and then piloting merchant ships through the Golden Gate, which he and his fellow pilots calculated gets 1,500 hours of fog in a year’s time. That could help explain why the Golden Gate Bridge has three foghorns. Waugh got to know all of them like family. “Center span of the Golden Gate Bridge is two blasts every 40 seconds,” he recounts, though he’s been retired since 2007. “South tower is one blast every 20 seconds. Lime Pt. on the north tower is one blast every 30 seconds.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33981\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0479.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0479-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Peter Berkhout\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33981\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Peter Berkhout prepares to start up the air compressor that powers the diaphone.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Waugh's not quite old enough to remember the first fog signals, like the method used at the original Point Bonita light, in the Marin Headlands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When it started gettin' foggy this guy'd get up there and he'd load up a cannon and fire the cannon--boom... and that was the fog signal.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Present day foghorns are electronic and apart from being less jarring, are considerably low-maintenance. The “new” horn at East Brother is about the size of a fire hydrant, powered by a small solar panel and 12-volt battery. Members of the Coast Guard’s Aids to Navigation Team tell me the biggest maintenance headache with the new horns is people stealing the batteries, thinking they can use them in their boats (they can’t).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Waugh says the present-day foghorn at Point Bonita was dialed back to be audible for only one mile. Otherwise, he says, residents across the Bay in San Francisco would complain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33979\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0458.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0458-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"East Brother Island\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33979\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">East Brother Island boasts a treasure missed by most boaters passing by: its 1920’s-vintage foghorn.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Tim Lynch chuckles at this. “I think the iconic sound that we associate with foghorns, while it might be nostalgic, was upsetting to a lot of residents.” Lynch is a historian at the Cal Maritime Academy in Vallejo. “There are newer and some might say better ways to skin the cat,” he tells me. “The amount of technology that mariners have available to them -- the global positioning satellites, and all sorts of aids to navigation have largely rendered foghorns obsolete.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But try telling that to Duncan MacLean, who skippers a commercial salmon boat out of Pillar Point Harbor in Half Moon Bay. “A lot of those old navigational things, when all else fails, are still there,” he tells me, while tinkering with some fishing tackle aboard his boat, the Barbara Faye. “And that can be critical.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Like most modern fishermen, MacLean’s wheelhouse is crammed with a laptop computer and all kinds of electronic navigation aids. But not everybody has those, explains MacLean, who says he still uses his eyes and ears. For one thing, urban development near the harbor has created a kaleidoscope of lights competing with the visual aids that mariners use. Traffic lights onshore can mimic the critical red and green buoys that mark safe channels.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33980\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0467.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0467-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"Modern East Brother foghorn\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33980\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The present-day solar-powered East Brother foghorn is less impressive in both sight and sound than its compressed-air predecessor…but also less jolting.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“You've got all of these lights going off everywhere and sometimes it can be a little bit tricky.” He argues that it's made the audible signals even more important. “They're critical pieces of information,” he says. “There will never not be a need.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Today, young mariners don't have to risk lives and property to learn their way around. At Cal Maritime, a computer-driven walk-in simulator puts students in the virtual wheelhouse of “vessels” ranging from a 60-foot jet boat to a supertanker.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And yet, with all this technology Academy instructors still train students to use a sextant, a centuries-old instrument for navigation, because you never know when modern technology will fail you.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33982\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0495.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_0495-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"The Walter Fanning fog signal\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33982\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Walter Fanning fog signal on East Brother Island. Its roomful of apparatus dates back to the 1920s.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>And speaking of that, remember that cannon that served as the first Pt. Bonita fog signal? Somebody had to fire it, of course--every 30 minutes, 24-7, as long as the fog was in. They hired a certain \"Sergeant Mahoney\" for the job.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Well the fog was always in, says Drew Van Winkle, a volunteer at the Point Bonita light (remember those 1,500 hours). “And poor old Sergeant Mahoney couldn’t get a rest. Mahoney put in a request for relief but there was no budget for that. Request denied. Van Winkle says, “The day must've been relatively nice and they gave him a little leave.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And leave he did. “They never saw Sergeant Mahoney again,” says Van Winkle. “That was the end of that.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But it was just the beginning of a whole new soundscape for the Bay. One that’s still changing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>The estimated annual hours of fog in the Golden Gate has been corrected from an earlier post.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Life Aquatic and Terrestrial: California Newts",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/california_newt/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33854\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-33854\" title=\"California_Newt\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/California_Newt.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"484\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/California_Newt.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/California_Newt-400x303.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>California newts are migrating from land to water. Photo by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/\">Yostkr\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last couple of weeks I've visited the seasonal ponds in the East Bay at \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/sibley\">Sibley Volcanic Preserve\u003c/a> and small creeks at \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/briones\">Briones Regional Park\u003c/a> and found California newts engaging in their spring rituals of courtship and mating. The long, dry winter and late, sporadic rains have likely made this less than a banner year for amphibians. Newts spend the Bay Area’s dry months of summer and fall “estivating,” holed up in underground burrows, gopher holes, or under logs and rocks, waiting for the rain. Wet weather calls them to action. Leaving their upland burrows, newts migrate, one slow, tiny step at a time, braving roads and other dangers. They gather in their natal ponds and streams to mate and lay their eggs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33857\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/newt-ball-sibley/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33857\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33857 \" title=\"Newt Cluster Sibley\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Newt-Ball-Sibley-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Multiple males and females mating in a cluster at Sibley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Their courtship rituals are ancient and complex. Drawn to the water, both males and females enter and begin the search for that special someone, or two, or many. Males undergo a physical transformation with their tails changing shape to allow for faster swimming and their front feet develop thickened, rough pads for grasping slippery females. When a male finds a willing female he grabs her from above. They glide around underwater together for hours or even days, surfacing to breathe and swimming through cattail and grassy forests. He rubs her forehead with his chin, waiting for her lift her head. If she’s not interested, she keeps her head down. Some newts play the numbers game and come together in clusters with multiple males and females.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33858\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/newt-courtship-sibley/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33858\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33858 \" title=\"Newt Courtship Sibley\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Newt-Courtship-Sibley-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Male newt courting a female at Sibley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Mating success occurs when the male guides the female to the bottom of the pond where he deposits his sperm packet. It looks like a small, fantastic sculpture with the vital genetic material poised like an apostrophe at the top. She takes it into her body and holds it for some time before fertilizing eggs as she lays them. She may mate with multiple males. The female finds underwater plant stems to lay her clusters of eggs upon, encasing them in a gelatinous mass. She may lay as many as 300 eggs in a mating season. The embryos develop underwater until they're ready to hatch. Once mating is completed, most adults head back to their upland feeding and hibernation areas, leaving the young to fend for themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33859\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/newt-egg-case-sibley/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33859\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33859\" title=\"Newt Egg Mass at Sibley\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Newt-Egg-Case-Sibley-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newt egg mass on plant stem at Sibley pond\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The perpetuation of the California newt species hangs in the balance with many hazards. A dry winter can create a host of problems. Egg masses can become exposed as the pond evaporates and the young may not make it. After hatching, young newts breathe water through their gills before they transform into air-breathing adults. If their ponds dry up too soon, they’re out of luck. Predators abound in the ponds, too. Garter snakes have a long history with newts and have developed immunity to their toxic skin. Some years the ponds are full of both garter snakes and newts. Introduced animals like crayfish and mosquito fish, and a new \u003ca title=\"hybrid salamander eating native species from Discover Magazine blog\" href=\"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2009/06/30/invasive-salamander-carries-on-endangered-genes-while-killing-off-natives/\" target=\"_blank\">\"super hybrid\" species of salamander\u003c/a> eat young newts. The adult's trek from their burrows to ponds and streams can be fatal with cars, bikes, and cattle claiming the lives of some of these tiny travelers. Even toxic skin can’t save them from being small, easy to overlook, and dependent on seasonal water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Additional Links:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca title=\"Briones Regional Park\" href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/briones\" target=\"_blank\">Briones Regional Park website\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca title=\"Sibley Regional Park\" href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/sibley\" target=\"_blank\">Sibley Regional Park website\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca title=\"Newt photos and illustrations from the Oregon State University website\" href=\"http://people.oregonstate.edu/~arnoldst/NEWT%20WORLD.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Newt photos and illustrations\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>KQED QUEST Science Hike at Briones \u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/california_newt/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33854\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-33854\" title=\"California_Newt\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/California_Newt.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"640\" height=\"484\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/California_Newt.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/California_Newt-400x303.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>California newts are migrating from land to water. Photo by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/\">Yostkr\u003c/a>.\u003cbr>\n\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last couple of weeks I've visited the seasonal ponds in the East Bay at \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/sibley\">Sibley Volcanic Preserve\u003c/a> and small creeks at \u003ca href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/briones\">Briones Regional Park\u003c/a> and found California newts engaging in their spring rituals of courtship and mating. The long, dry winter and late, sporadic rains have likely made this less than a banner year for amphibians. Newts spend the Bay Area’s dry months of summer and fall “estivating,” holed up in underground burrows, gopher holes, or under logs and rocks, waiting for the rain. Wet weather calls them to action. Leaving their upland burrows, newts migrate, one slow, tiny step at a time, braving roads and other dangers. They gather in their natal ponds and streams to mate and lay their eggs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33857\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/newt-ball-sibley/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33857\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33857 \" title=\"Newt Cluster Sibley\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Newt-Ball-Sibley-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Multiple males and females mating in a cluster at Sibley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Their courtship rituals are ancient and complex. Drawn to the water, both males and females enter and begin the search for that special someone, or two, or many. Males undergo a physical transformation with their tails changing shape to allow for faster swimming and their front feet develop thickened, rough pads for grasping slippery females. When a male finds a willing female he grabs her from above. They glide around underwater together for hours or even days, surfacing to breathe and swimming through cattail and grassy forests. He rubs her forehead with his chin, waiting for her lift her head. If she’s not interested, she keeps her head down. Some newts play the numbers game and come together in clusters with multiple males and females.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33858\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/newt-courtship-sibley/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33858\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33858 \" title=\"Newt Courtship Sibley\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Newt-Courtship-Sibley-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Male newt courting a female at Sibley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Mating success occurs when the male guides the female to the bottom of the pond where he deposits his sperm packet. It looks like a small, fantastic sculpture with the vital genetic material poised like an apostrophe at the top. She takes it into her body and holds it for some time before fertilizing eggs as she lays them. She may mate with multiple males. The female finds underwater plant stems to lay her clusters of eggs upon, encasing them in a gelatinous mass. She may lay as many as 300 eggs in a mating season. The embryos develop underwater until they're ready to hatch. Once mating is completed, most adults head back to their upland feeding and hibernation areas, leaving the young to fend for themselves.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33859\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 337px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/30/life-aquatic-and-terrestrial-california-newts/newt-egg-case-sibley/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33859\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33859\" title=\"Newt Egg Mass at Sibley\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Newt-Egg-Case-Sibley-337x253.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"337\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Newt egg mass on plant stem at Sibley pond\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The perpetuation of the California newt species hangs in the balance with many hazards. A dry winter can create a host of problems. Egg masses can become exposed as the pond evaporates and the young may not make it. After hatching, young newts breathe water through their gills before they transform into air-breathing adults. If their ponds dry up too soon, they’re out of luck. Predators abound in the ponds, too. Garter snakes have a long history with newts and have developed immunity to their toxic skin. Some years the ponds are full of both garter snakes and newts. Introduced animals like crayfish and mosquito fish, and a new \u003ca title=\"hybrid salamander eating native species from Discover Magazine blog\" href=\"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/80beats/2009/06/30/invasive-salamander-carries-on-endangered-genes-while-killing-off-natives/\" target=\"_blank\">\"super hybrid\" species of salamander\u003c/a> eat young newts. The adult's trek from their burrows to ponds and streams can be fatal with cars, bikes, and cattle claiming the lives of some of these tiny travelers. Even toxic skin can’t save them from being small, easy to overlook, and dependent on seasonal water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Additional Links:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca title=\"Briones Regional Park\" href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/briones\" target=\"_blank\">Briones Regional Park website\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca title=\"Sibley Regional Park\" href=\"http://www.ebparks.org/parks/sibley\" target=\"_blank\">Sibley Regional Park website\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca title=\"Newt photos and illustrations from the Oregon State University website\" href=\"http://people.oregonstate.edu/~arnoldst/NEWT%20WORLD.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Newt photos and illustrations\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>KQED QUEST Science Hike at Briones \u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "California's (and the World's) Oldest Rocks",
"title": "California's (and the World's) Oldest Rocks",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33953\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33953\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"preCgneiss\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33953\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The nearest place to see California's oldest rock is around Mount Pinos, near Frazier Park west of the Grapevine on I-5. But you can touch a piece of the oldest rock on the whole planet much closer to the Bay Area. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I'm glad to see that Ben Burress, my colleague at KQED QUEST, was open to the thrill of deep time as \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/\">he laid hands on some of California's oldest rock\u003c/a> in Death Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When I went to geology school, back in the ice ages, I brought with me the same normal, healthy fascination with extreme age—geological age. At that time there was still a great deal of mystery about the earliest times. To me, the most mysterious thing you could call a rock was \"Precambrian,\" that is, rock dating from the time before the earliest hard fossils appeared, marking the base of the Cambrian Period. Precambrian time amounts to four billion years, nine-tenths of all Earth history. Unlike familiar, fossil-studded post-Precambrian time (I know that's a weird term: geologists call it the Phanerozoic Eon), the Precambrian was an endless succession of enigmatic, mashed-up rocks. Their story wasn't really a story but a pile of hints and fragments—mountain ranges rising and eroding, continents merging and separating, just one damn thing after (or before?) another in the dimness of deep time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have a better picture of the Precambrian now, but really, it's still pretty blurry. If you look at the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geotime_dating/a/Geologic-Time-Scale-All-Periods.htm\">geologic time scale\u003c/a>, you'll see that the Precambrian time divisions are set at arbitrary even numbers of years, not significant geologic events. In California, our oldest rocks all originated around 1700 million years ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era, and they all sit in the corner of the state outlined on this geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33952\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 459px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33952\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/PreCgeomap-459x360.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"PreCgeomap\" width=\"459\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-33952\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian rocks are shown as scattered patches of dark brown on this high-level geologic map of California. Click it to see it at 1000 pixels.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The outline marks a segment of the North American continent's ancient foundation—the craton—called Mojavia for the Mojave Desert. It's a pretty young part of the craton, and it's all we've got.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The oldest basement rocks of Mojavia are all highly altered—squeezed and stretched rocks classified as gneiss or schist. And they're still on the move today as plate-tectonic interactions are both stretching western North America apart and, in California, yanking it northward along the San Andreas fault system. Just as Sierran granite (shown in red) has been pulled all the way up to the Bay Area, so has a big chunk of Mojavia making up the San Gabriel Mountains. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The westernmost outlier of those Paleoproterozoic rocks crops out in the San Emigdio Range, which forms the rim of the Central Valley southwest of Bakersfield. The quickest way to see them is to turn west off of Interstate 5 toward Frazier Park, then drive up either Frazier Mountain or Mount Pinos (Cerro Noroeste is also possible if you're ambitious). The gneiss shown at the top of this post is on Mount Pinos. It was turned into gneiss around 1450 million years ago, but the rock originated as something else, probably a sandy mudstone, around 1700 million years ago (source, USGS OF-02-406).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Elsewhere in California, you can repeat Ben Burress's experience in Death Valley by walking up the canyon at Badwater, but a more interesting canyon hike with the same Paleoproterozoic rocks starts about 2 miles north of Badwater. And blogger Garry Hayes \u003ca href=\"http://geotripper.blogspot.com/2012/01/other-california-oldest-rocks-well.html\">describes more Paleoproterozoic rocks in the San Gabriels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The really old rocks in America are found in Wyoming and the states around Minnesota. They date from the Paleoarchean Era and are more than 3 billion years old. One example can be easily seen in Washington, D.C., in a prominent spot between the White House and the Washington Monument: the twin \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_dc/ig/washdcgeology/wdchauptfount.htm\">Haupt Fountains\u003c/a>, each one made from a 55-ton slab of Montevideo Gneiss from Minnesota. At the time they were made, this was considered the oldest rock in the country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/hauptftn/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33950\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"hauptftn\" width=\"600\" height=\"429\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33950\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn-400x286.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reddish, scrambled-looking Morton Gneiss is a popular stone for buildings and gravestones, and at 3524 million years of age it's considered to be the oldest bedrock in the United States. You could travel to Minnesota to see it (\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=ccd13c2e-afb5-4922-b058-622efcb413f1\">there's even an EarthCache for it\u003c/a> west of Minneapolis), but don't bother—you probably have samples right in your own town. David B. Williams, author of \u003ci>Stories in Stone\u003c/i>, calls it \u003ca href=\"http://stories-in-stone.blogspot.com/2009/06/most-beautiful-building-stone-in.html\">the country's most beautiful building stone\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/mortongneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33951\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mortongneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33951\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But you can go older still. There's a Canadian rock from a spot in Labrador called Nuvvuagituq said to be 4.28 billion years old, \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2012/03/25/whats-up-with-nuvvuagittuq.htm\">but the date is still not settled\u003c/a>. Today the Acasta Gneiss, also from northern Canada, is the world's oldest firmly dated rock at 4.03 billion years. You can see that one at Rocklin, just up the road. Go to the campus of Sierra College, on the south side, and locate the excellent Earth History Rock Walk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/rockwalk/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33948\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"rockwalk\" width=\"600\" height=\"472\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33948\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk-400x315.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There, among the assorted amazing and instructive boulders, is a nice chunk of Acasta Gneiss.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/acastagneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33949\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"acastagneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33949\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss-400x280.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But whenever I want to experience the deepest possible deep time, I reach for a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">meteorite\u003c/a> from my collection and lick it. Nearly every common meteorite is older than Earth itself.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "California has some pretty ancient rocks, but to experience \u003ci>really\u003c/i> old rocks you don't need to look far.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33953\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33953\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"preCgneiss\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33953\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/preCgneiss-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The nearest place to see California's oldest rock is around Mount Pinos, near Frazier Park west of the Grapevine on I-5. But you can touch a piece of the oldest rock on the whole planet much closer to the Bay Area. Photos by Andrew Alden\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I'm glad to see that Ben Burress, my colleague at KQED QUEST, was open to the thrill of deep time as \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/\">he laid hands on some of California's oldest rock\u003c/a> in Death Valley.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When I went to geology school, back in the ice ages, I brought with me the same normal, healthy fascination with extreme age—geological age. At that time there was still a great deal of mystery about the earliest times. To me, the most mysterious thing you could call a rock was \"Precambrian,\" that is, rock dating from the time before the earliest hard fossils appeared, marking the base of the Cambrian Period. Precambrian time amounts to four billion years, nine-tenths of all Earth history. Unlike familiar, fossil-studded post-Precambrian time (I know that's a weird term: geologists call it the Phanerozoic Eon), the Precambrian was an endless succession of enigmatic, mashed-up rocks. Their story wasn't really a story but a pile of hints and fragments—mountain ranges rising and eroding, continents merging and separating, just one damn thing after (or before?) another in the dimness of deep time. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We have a better picture of the Precambrian now, but really, it's still pretty blurry. If you look at the \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geotime_dating/a/Geologic-Time-Scale-All-Periods.htm\">geologic time scale\u003c/a>, you'll see that the Precambrian time divisions are set at arbitrary even numbers of years, not significant geologic events. In California, our oldest rocks all originated around 1700 million years ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era, and they all sit in the corner of the state outlined on this geologic map.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33952\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 459px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/precgeomap/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33952\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/PreCgeomap-459x360.png\" alt=\"\" title=\"PreCgeomap\" width=\"459\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-large wp-image-33952\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian rocks are shown as scattered patches of dark brown on this high-level geologic map of California. Click it to see it at 1000 pixels.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The outline marks a segment of the North American continent's ancient foundation—the craton—called Mojavia for the Mojave Desert. It's a pretty young part of the craton, and it's all we've got.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The oldest basement rocks of Mojavia are all highly altered—squeezed and stretched rocks classified as gneiss or schist. And they're still on the move today as plate-tectonic interactions are both stretching western North America apart and, in California, yanking it northward along the San Andreas fault system. Just as Sierran granite (shown in red) has been pulled all the way up to the Bay Area, so has a big chunk of Mojavia making up the San Gabriel Mountains. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The westernmost outlier of those Paleoproterozoic rocks crops out in the San Emigdio Range, which forms the rim of the Central Valley southwest of Bakersfield. The quickest way to see them is to turn west off of Interstate 5 toward Frazier Park, then drive up either Frazier Mountain or Mount Pinos (Cerro Noroeste is also possible if you're ambitious). The gneiss shown at the top of this post is on Mount Pinos. It was turned into gneiss around 1450 million years ago, but the rock originated as something else, probably a sandy mudstone, around 1700 million years ago (source, USGS OF-02-406).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Elsewhere in California, you can repeat Ben Burress's experience in Death Valley by walking up the canyon at Badwater, but a more interesting canyon hike with the same Paleoproterozoic rocks starts about 2 miles north of Badwater. And blogger Garry Hayes \u003ca href=\"http://geotripper.blogspot.com/2012/01/other-california-oldest-rocks-well.html\">describes more Paleoproterozoic rocks in the San Gabriels\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The really old rocks in America are found in Wyoming and the states around Minnesota. They date from the Paleoarchean Era and are more than 3 billion years old. One example can be easily seen in Washington, D.C., in a prominent spot between the White House and the Washington Monument: the twin \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/od/geology_dc/ig/washdcgeology/wdchauptfount.htm\">Haupt Fountains\u003c/a>, each one made from a 55-ton slab of Montevideo Gneiss from Minnesota. At the time they were made, this was considered the oldest rock in the country.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/hauptftn/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33950\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"hauptftn\" width=\"600\" height=\"429\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33950\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/hauptftn-400x286.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The reddish, scrambled-looking Morton Gneiss is a popular stone for buildings and gravestones, and at 3524 million years of age it's considered to be the oldest bedrock in the United States. You could travel to Minnesota to see it (\u003ca href=\"http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=ccd13c2e-afb5-4922-b058-622efcb413f1\">there's even an EarthCache for it\u003c/a> west of Minneapolis), but don't bother—you probably have samples right in your own town. David B. Williams, author of \u003ci>Stories in Stone\u003c/i>, calls it \u003ca href=\"http://stories-in-stone.blogspot.com/2009/06/most-beautiful-building-stone-in.html\">the country's most beautiful building stone\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/mortongneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33951\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mortongneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33951\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mortongneiss-400x267.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But you can go older still. There's a Canadian rock from a spot in Labrador called Nuvvuagituq said to be 4.28 billion years old, \u003ca href=\"http://geology.about.com/b/2012/03/25/whats-up-with-nuvvuagittuq.htm\">but the date is still not settled\u003c/a>. Today the Acasta Gneiss, also from northern Canada, is the world's oldest firmly dated rock at 4.03 billion years. You can see that one at Rocklin, just up the road. Go to the campus of Sierra College, on the south side, and locate the excellent Earth History Rock Walk.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/rockwalk/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33948\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"rockwalk\" width=\"600\" height=\"472\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33948\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/rockwalk-400x315.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There, among the assorted amazing and instructive boulders, is a nice chunk of Acasta Gneiss.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/29/californias-and-the-worlds-oldest-rocks/acastagneiss/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33949\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"acastagneiss\" width=\"600\" height=\"420\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33949\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/acastagneiss-400x280.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But whenever I want to experience the deepest possible deep time, I reach for a \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/01/19/treasure-from-the-sky/\">meteorite\u003c/a> from my collection and lick it. Nearly every common meteorite is older than Earth itself.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33877\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/27/the-circus-of-evolution/cirque-du-soleil-totem/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33877\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cirque-du-Soleil-Totem.jpg\" alt=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem\" title=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33877\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cirque-du-Soleil-Totem.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cirque-du-Soleil-Totem-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cirque du Soleil - Totem - Red-Eyed and Reticulate Poison Dart Frogs\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I was super-excited to see \u003ca href=\"http://www.cirquedusoleil.com/en/shows/totem/default.aspx\" title=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem\">Totem\u003c/a> because A) a friend who saw it in San Francisco \u003cem>raved\u003c/em> about it, and B) it's about evolution! How cool is that? Cirque du Soleil says of their latest touring show, \"TOTEM traces the fascinating journey of the human species from its original amphibian state to its ultimate desire to fly.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wait. Amphibians?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sure, humans (and dogs and horses and birds) evolved from amphibians. But our amphibian ancestors in turn evolved from fish, so you might just as well talk about our \"original fish state.\" And the fish evolved from some kind of worm, which in turn evolved from something like an amoeba . . . \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You know what? Let's just start with the origin of life on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. Pedantic scientist that I am, if I were to design a circus show about human evolution, I'd open with \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis\" title=\"Abiogenesis\">primordial soup\u003c/a>. Perhaps a human ladder would construct itself from nucleic acids and proteins. Then there would be an aerial \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis#Cyanobacteria_and_the_evolution_of_photosynthesis\" title=\"Evolution of Photosynthesis\">photosynthesis\u003c/a> act (2.4 billion years ago) in which \"light rays\" swing down from above and pass their energy to \"cells.\" The show's first climax would be an acrobatic act that grew ever more intricate as more and more performers joined in--the evolution of \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/news/yeast-suggests-speedy-start-for-multicellular-life-1.9810\" title=\"Origin of Multicellularity - Nature News\">multicellularity\u003c/a> (600 million years ago).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The creators of Totem decided to skip all this and start \u003cem>in media res\u003c/em>, with amphibians--who evolved a scant 300 million years ago. However, I'm not exactly complaining, because the amphibian gymnastics are thrilling and their costumes spectacular. I went to the show with a friend who breeds frogs, and she instantly recognized the artists as \u003ca href=\"http://allaboutfrogs.org/info/species/redeye.html\" title=\"Red Eye Tree Frogs\">red-eyed tree frogs\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.poisondartfrog.co.uk/reticulatus.php\" title=\"Reticulated Poison Dart Frogs\">reticulated poison dart frogs\u003c/a>. Score one for anatomical accuracy--but for the sake of \u003cem>evolutionary\u003c/em> accuracy, I must point out that these are modern frog species, just as \"evolved\" as modern humans. They were not around 300 million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By starting with amphibians, though, and returning to the water theme throughout the show, Totem pays appropriate homage to our aquatic origins. Just a few seconds of beautifully orchestrated sound and background video place the audience beside a rushing river in one scene, a quiet pond in the next. And the ocean, ancient mother of all life, is not forgotten.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The show is hardly an evolutionary textbook, but who could ask it to be? Totem is a tribute to the transcendence of human imagination and hard work--Cirque du Soleil at its best. It'll be in San Jose until April 15. Go see the magic that science can inspire.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/27/the-circus-of-evolution/crystal_man/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33883\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crystal_man.jpg\" alt=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem - Crystal Man\" title=\"crystal_man\" width=\"490\" height=\"350\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33883\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crystal_man.jpg 490w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crystal_man-400x286.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 490px) 100vw, 490px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "I was super-excited to see Totem because A) a friend who saw it in San Francisco raved about it, and B) it's about evolution! How cool is that? Cirque du Soleil says of their latest touring show, \"TOTEM traces the fascinating journey of the human species from its original amphibian state to its ultimate desire to fly.\"",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33877\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/27/the-circus-of-evolution/cirque-du-soleil-totem/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33877\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cirque-du-Soleil-Totem.jpg\" alt=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem\" title=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33877\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cirque-du-Soleil-Totem.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Cirque-du-Soleil-Totem-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cirque du Soleil - Totem - Red-Eyed and Reticulate Poison Dart Frogs\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I was super-excited to see \u003ca href=\"http://www.cirquedusoleil.com/en/shows/totem/default.aspx\" title=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem\">Totem\u003c/a> because A) a friend who saw it in San Francisco \u003cem>raved\u003c/em> about it, and B) it's about evolution! How cool is that? Cirque du Soleil says of their latest touring show, \"TOTEM traces the fascinating journey of the human species from its original amphibian state to its ultimate desire to fly.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wait. Amphibians?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Sure, humans (and dogs and horses and birds) evolved from amphibians. But our amphibian ancestors in turn evolved from fish, so you might just as well talk about our \"original fish state.\" And the fish evolved from some kind of worm, which in turn evolved from something like an amoeba . . . \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>You know what? Let's just start with the origin of life on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. Pedantic scientist that I am, if I were to design a circus show about human evolution, I'd open with \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis\" title=\"Abiogenesis\">primordial soup\u003c/a>. Perhaps a human ladder would construct itself from nucleic acids and proteins. Then there would be an aerial \u003ca href=\"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis#Cyanobacteria_and_the_evolution_of_photosynthesis\" title=\"Evolution of Photosynthesis\">photosynthesis\u003c/a> act (2.4 billion years ago) in which \"light rays\" swing down from above and pass their energy to \"cells.\" The show's first climax would be an acrobatic act that grew ever more intricate as more and more performers joined in--the evolution of \u003ca href=\"http://www.nature.com/news/yeast-suggests-speedy-start-for-multicellular-life-1.9810\" title=\"Origin of Multicellularity - Nature News\">multicellularity\u003c/a> (600 million years ago).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The creators of Totem decided to skip all this and start \u003cem>in media res\u003c/em>, with amphibians--who evolved a scant 300 million years ago. However, I'm not exactly complaining, because the amphibian gymnastics are thrilling and their costumes spectacular. I went to the show with a friend who breeds frogs, and she instantly recognized the artists as \u003ca href=\"http://allaboutfrogs.org/info/species/redeye.html\" title=\"Red Eye Tree Frogs\">red-eyed tree frogs\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://www.poisondartfrog.co.uk/reticulatus.php\" title=\"Reticulated Poison Dart Frogs\">reticulated poison dart frogs\u003c/a>. Score one for anatomical accuracy--but for the sake of \u003cem>evolutionary\u003c/em> accuracy, I must point out that these are modern frog species, just as \"evolved\" as modern humans. They were not around 300 million years ago.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>By starting with amphibians, though, and returning to the water theme throughout the show, Totem pays appropriate homage to our aquatic origins. Just a few seconds of beautifully orchestrated sound and background video place the audience beside a rushing river in one scene, a quiet pond in the next. And the ocean, ancient mother of all life, is not forgotten.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The show is hardly an evolutionary textbook, but who could ask it to be? Totem is a tribute to the transcendence of human imagination and hard work--Cirque du Soleil at its best. It'll be in San Jose until April 15. Go see the magic that science can inspire.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/27/the-circus-of-evolution/crystal_man/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33883\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crystal_man.jpg\" alt=\"Cirque du Soleil - Totem - Crystal Man\" title=\"crystal_man\" width=\"490\" height=\"350\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33883\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crystal_man.jpg 490w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/crystal_man-400x286.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 490px) 100vw, 490px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Salmon are Back! (But Why?) ",
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"content": "\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/03/2012-03-26-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33824\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Salmon_FandW_scaled.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33824\" title=\"Salmon_FandW_scaled\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Salmon_FandW_scaled-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Chinook salmon on the Lower Tuolumne River in California's Central Valley. Photo courtesy of the US Fish and Wildlife Service\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At Fisherman's Wharf, in San Francisco, what brings in the crowds are crabs. There's the Crab House. Crab Station. Crab Shack.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Larry \"Duck\" Collins is president of the San Francisco Crab Boat Owners Association, based at the wharf. But even though he makes his living, or part of it, fishing crab, that's not because he likes doing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Salmon fishing’s fun,\" says Collins. \"Crabbing’s not.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Crabbing, he says, is like factory work. Pull up the traps, empty them out, drop them back down. Salmon? Now that's real fishing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We use single, barbless hooks, catch them one at a time,\" he says. \"It’s pretty exciting when you get a 40-pound salmon on the end of a piece of 90-pound mono and you haul it in, gaff off the head. It’s a lot of fun.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year, Collins is poised to do more salmon fishing than he’s done in years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Biologists say more than 800,000 Sacramento chinook are off the coast right now. It’s the biggest number they've seen since 2005.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a result, the Pacific Fishery Management Council, which \u003ca href=\"http://www.pcouncil.org/salmon/background/\">sets guidelines\u003c/a> for commercial and sport fisheries, announced earlier this month that it’s considering \u003ca href=\"http://www.pcouncil.org/salmon/current-season-management/#adopted\">three options\u003c/a> for a 2012 salmon season, all of which would give anglers a chance to catch more fish than they have in years. The final decision will be announced in early April.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A much-needed reprieve \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last few years have been brutal for commercial fishermen. Salmon is a $1.2 billion business in California, but habitat loss, water diversions, and pollution have taken their toll. Salmon populations dropped so low that no fishing was allowed in 2008 and 2009. For the last couple of years, salmon fishermen were allowed back onto the ocean for limited seasons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Salmon, says Collins, are why people get into this business in the first place. When the industry collapsed, his friends started leaving, taking what he refers to as “land jobs.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"When I started fishing there were 5,000 salmon boats” he says. \"Last year, I'd say, 400 or 500 boats fished. So we're at ten percent of where we used to be as an industry here.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Great news, but will it last?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Given the big 2012 projections, it would seem that nature is on the mend, right? Well, not if you ask Jacob Katz, who studies salmon biology at UC Davis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Sometimes if you put all your fish in one basket,\" he says, \"they all hatch.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Katz means this almost literally. He says one big reason there are so many returning salmon is that we humans have been producing tens of millions of the baby fish in breeding facilities called hatcheries. These aren’t GMO fish or farmed fish. They swim out to sea, grow in the ocean, return to spawn and are sold as wild salmon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California's salmon hatcheries date back more than a hundred years and actually began as an attempt to transplant chinook to East Coast streams to save declining fisheries there (it didn't work). Later, dams on rivers up and down the Central Valley made it impossible for chinook to get to their spawning grounds, and the hatcheries were put to work maintaining native salmon runs. Adult salmon were artificially spawned, then young salmon were raised in tanks and released into rivers below the dams so they could migrate safely to the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It was improving on the inefficiencies of nature,\" says Katz. \"Look, we can do this in a bucket!\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But over time, researchers started noticing something else: In some parts of the state, hatchery fish had nearly replaced the native fish. A \u003ca href=\"http://news.ucsc.edu/2012/02/hatchery-salmon.html\">study\u003c/a> released earlier this year found that only ten percent of the fall-run chinook salmon spawning in California's Mokelumne River had spawned naturally.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The native salmon problem hasn’t been solved,\" says Katz. \"It’s just been papered over.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The fact that you can sometimes make a lot of fish in a bucket has masked the fact that we've almost completely driven our wild fish to extinction,\" he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why the Boom and Bust?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question you should be asking now is this: If hatcheries have been around for a century, why are we seeing this sudden influx of fish?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The short answer is: No one knows. It could have to do with good ocean conditions, or the fact that there was more rain in 2011, and a decrease in water diversions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But some biologists, including Katz, say the influx has everything to do with the hatchery system. Because they're produced from a smaller stock, hatchery fish lack genetic diversity. They can’t adapt quickly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, when ocean conditions are good – with cooler temperatures and good upwelling, like last year -- the fish thrive. But the pendulum can easily swing the other way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which brings us back to Larry Collins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I ask Collins whether, if the salmon disappear again, he too could be forced to take a land job. He looks at me like I've just sprouted fins. He's been fishing for 29 years. There’s no going back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When we leave the dock and go out there it’s a straight deal,” he says. “You fill your boat up, you get paid. There’s no boss. It’s a freedom thing that you get used to pretty quick when you start doing it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Salmon season is expected to start in April and wrap up around October or November.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>http://www.kqed.org/.stream/anon/radio/quest/2012/03/2012-03-26-quest.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33824\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Salmon_FandW_scaled.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33824\" title=\"Salmon_FandW_scaled\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Salmon_FandW_scaled-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Chinook salmon on the Lower Tuolumne River in California's Central Valley. Photo courtesy of the US Fish and Wildlife Service\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At Fisherman's Wharf, in San Francisco, what brings in the crowds are crabs. There's the Crab House. Crab Station. Crab Shack.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Larry \"Duck\" Collins is president of the San Francisco Crab Boat Owners Association, based at the wharf. But even though he makes his living, or part of it, fishing crab, that's not because he likes doing it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Salmon fishing’s fun,\" says Collins. \"Crabbing’s not.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Crabbing, he says, is like factory work. Pull up the traps, empty them out, drop them back down. Salmon? Now that's real fishing.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"We use single, barbless hooks, catch them one at a time,\" he says. \"It’s pretty exciting when you get a 40-pound salmon on the end of a piece of 90-pound mono and you haul it in, gaff off the head. It’s a lot of fun.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This year, Collins is poised to do more salmon fishing than he’s done in years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Biologists say more than 800,000 Sacramento chinook are off the coast right now. It’s the biggest number they've seen since 2005.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As a result, the Pacific Fishery Management Council, which \u003ca href=\"http://www.pcouncil.org/salmon/background/\">sets guidelines\u003c/a> for commercial and sport fisheries, announced earlier this month that it’s considering \u003ca href=\"http://www.pcouncil.org/salmon/current-season-management/#adopted\">three options\u003c/a> for a 2012 salmon season, all of which would give anglers a chance to catch more fish than they have in years. The final decision will be announced in early April.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>A much-needed reprieve \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The last few years have been brutal for commercial fishermen. Salmon is a $1.2 billion business in California, but habitat loss, water diversions, and pollution have taken their toll. Salmon populations dropped so low that no fishing was allowed in 2008 and 2009. For the last couple of years, salmon fishermen were allowed back onto the ocean for limited seasons.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Salmon, says Collins, are why people get into this business in the first place. When the industry collapsed, his friends started leaving, taking what he refers to as “land jobs.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"When I started fishing there were 5,000 salmon boats” he says. \"Last year, I'd say, 400 or 500 boats fished. So we're at ten percent of where we used to be as an industry here.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Great news, but will it last?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Given the big 2012 projections, it would seem that nature is on the mend, right? Well, not if you ask Jacob Katz, who studies salmon biology at UC Davis.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"Sometimes if you put all your fish in one basket,\" he says, \"they all hatch.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Katz means this almost literally. He says one big reason there are so many returning salmon is that we humans have been producing tens of millions of the baby fish in breeding facilities called hatcheries. These aren’t GMO fish or farmed fish. They swim out to sea, grow in the ocean, return to spawn and are sold as wild salmon.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>California's salmon hatcheries date back more than a hundred years and actually began as an attempt to transplant chinook to East Coast streams to save declining fisheries there (it didn't work). Later, dams on rivers up and down the Central Valley made it impossible for chinook to get to their spawning grounds, and the hatcheries were put to work maintaining native salmon runs. Adult salmon were artificially spawned, then young salmon were raised in tanks and released into rivers below the dams so they could migrate safely to the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"It was improving on the inefficiencies of nature,\" says Katz. \"Look, we can do this in a bucket!\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But over time, researchers started noticing something else: In some parts of the state, hatchery fish had nearly replaced the native fish. A \u003ca href=\"http://news.ucsc.edu/2012/02/hatchery-salmon.html\">study\u003c/a> released earlier this year found that only ten percent of the fall-run chinook salmon spawning in California's Mokelumne River had spawned naturally.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The native salmon problem hasn’t been solved,\" says Katz. \"It’s just been papered over.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\"The fact that you can sometimes make a lot of fish in a bucket has masked the fact that we've almost completely driven our wild fish to extinction,\" he says.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Why the Boom and Bust?\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question you should be asking now is this: If hatcheries have been around for a century, why are we seeing this sudden influx of fish?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The short answer is: No one knows. It could have to do with good ocean conditions, or the fact that there was more rain in 2011, and a decrease in water diversions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But some biologists, including Katz, say the influx has everything to do with the hatchery system. Because they're produced from a smaller stock, hatchery fish lack genetic diversity. They can’t adapt quickly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, when ocean conditions are good – with cooler temperatures and good upwelling, like last year -- the fish thrive. But the pendulum can easily swing the other way.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Which brings us back to Larry Collins.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I ask Collins whether, if the salmon disappear again, he too could be forced to take a land job. He looks at me like I've just sprouted fins. He's been fishing for 29 years. There’s no going back.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When we leave the dock and go out there it’s a straight deal,” he says. “You fill your boat up, you get paid. There’s no boss. It’s a freedom thing that you get used to pretty quick when you start doing it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Salmon season is expected to start in April and wrap up around October or November.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_4536-e1332535411424.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_4536-e1332535587789-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_4536\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"alignnone size-large wp-image-33756\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Californians may soon see more electric car charging stations around the state thanks to a settlement from ten-year-old claims over California’s energy crisis. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Governor Jerry Brown has announced that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrgenergy.com/\">NRG Energy\u003c/a> will pay the state $120 million dollars in a settlement over the costs of long-term power contracts from 2001. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33761\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Product-Photos-7.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Product-Photos-7-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Blink level two charger from Ecotality\" title=\"Blink level two charger from Ecotality\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33761\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Blink level two charger from Ecotality\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Governor says the state plans to use most of the money to build a network of electric car charging stations. $100 million dollars will go to funding at least 200 public fast-charging stations and another 10,000 plug-in units at 1,000 locations across the state. The remaining $20 million dollars will go to rate-payer relief. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The roll out of an EV charging network has been slow. Several charging companies that have received federal financial support are behind schedule. The governor’s new executive order would set a target of 2015 to have all major cities, in the state, outfitted with chargers. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Governor has ordered the state to be ready to support more than 1 million electric vehicles by 2020.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See other posts from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/series/clean-car-diaries/\">this series\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_4536-e1332535411424.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/IMG_4536-e1332535587789-640x360.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"IMG_4536\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"alignnone size-large wp-image-33756\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Californians may soon see more electric car charging stations around the state thanks to a settlement from ten-year-old claims over California’s energy crisis. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Governor Jerry Brown has announced that \u003ca href=\"http://www.nrgenergy.com/\">NRG Energy\u003c/a> will pay the state $120 million dollars in a settlement over the costs of long-term power contracts from 2001. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33761\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Product-Photos-7.jpg\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Product-Photos-7-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"Blink level two charger from Ecotality\" title=\"Blink level two charger from Ecotality\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33761\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Blink level two charger from Ecotality\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Governor says the state plans to use most of the money to build a network of electric car charging stations. $100 million dollars will go to funding at least 200 public fast-charging stations and another 10,000 plug-in units at 1,000 locations across the state. The remaining $20 million dollars will go to rate-payer relief. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The roll out of an EV charging network has been slow. Several charging companies that have received federal financial support are behind schedule. The governor’s new executive order would set a target of 2015 to have all major cities, in the state, outfitted with chargers. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Governor has ordered the state to be ready to support more than 1 million electric vehicles by 2020.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See other posts from \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/series/clean-car-diaries/\">this series\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "In Search of the Oldest Stuff: Rocks of Ages",
"title": "In Search of the Oldest Stuff: Rocks of Ages",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33722\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/mosaiccanyon/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33722\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg\" alt=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" title=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33722\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What's the oldest stuff you’ve ever seen, or better still, touched? Have you ever felt awe from contact with something of great antiquity? How old can stuff be? These are questions that have ravaged my mind since childhood. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've always loved things of antiquity—antique objects, artifacts, fossils, and rocks. \"Like.\" But what's that got to do with astronomy and space? Well, that's where all the oldest stuff originally comes from...but I'll get to that in a moment. First, an anecdote about old stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In search of the oldest stuff, there I was at Badwater, in Death Valley, the lowest point in the continental US (the place where you crane your neck and strain your eyes to make out the words \"Sea Level\" on the sign \u003ca href=\"http://images.californiathroughmylens.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/badwater-below-sea-level.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">waaaay up the cliff\u003c/a>). Not far off, to the south, an alluvial fan slouched off into the salt pan, issuing from an unseen but obviously existent canyon in the mountains that make up the east wall of the valley. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I had learned at the visitor center that those mountains (the Black Mountains) are made of some \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/deva/ftbad1.html\" target=\"_blank\">very old rock\u003c/a>: Precambrian rock that was originally laid down about 1.7 billion years ago!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, up the alluvial fan I scramble, turn left, and up the deep, narrow canyon that the alluvium betrayed…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to the base of a dry waterfall…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to a wall of raw, exposed rock, the very bones of the Black Mountains…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…and reach out a hand, pressing palm and fingers firmly to the stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ahh….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>1.7 billion years old; that rock I touched had been rock (albeit slowly transforming) for over a third of Earth's existence, and over a tenth the age of the universe itself. I don't know about you, but I find that awesome! And I had my hand right on it! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we talk about the age of a rock, it is measured from the time the rock solidified (\"aggregated\"), either with the cooling of molten lava or magma, or the solidification of sediment. Finding really old rocks on Earth is complicated by weather and geologic processes, which continually transform, bury, and \"disaggregate\" them. Even so, very old rock can be found in certain places, like Greenland, Canada, Australia, and Africa. We're talking about ages between 2.5 and 3.8 billion years, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080925144624.htm\" target=\"_blank\">maybe more\u003c/a>. I'd like to get my hand on some of that!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get away from Earth and its rock-disaggregating processes and you can find some much older stuff. On the Moon, pretty much all of the material you find lying about is \u003ca href=\"http://www.moonzoo.org/Lunar_Geology\" target=\"_blank\">at least twice as old\u003c/a> as that stuff I put my hand on at the base of the Black Mountains. On the Moon, significant surface activity (volcanism, bombardment by asteroids) ended some 3 billion years ago, and since then the crust has remained more or less unchanged, other than alterations caused by the occasional meteorite impact. The youngest rocks on the Moon are about the same age as most of the Earth's oldest stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We even have a piece of that old stuff at Chabot: a chunk of 3.3 billion year old basalt brought back by Apollo 15 astronauts--and the only things that separate my hand from its speckly gray surface are two panes of glass and some nitrogen gas. Alas!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get out to an asteroid or a comet and you may very well be setting foot on stuff that's over 4.5 billion years old, unchanged since the formation of our solar system! Within our solar system, that's about as old as stuff gets, but venture beyond it, perhaps to a planetary system that is older than ours, and you'll undoubtedly find older stuff! (This blog post is beginning to ring of George Carlin material.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what's the oldest stuff? I can't give you a rock of age beyond a certain point in time, because it took the early universe some time to develop the elements needed to build rocks-as-we-know-them, through nucleosynthesis in the cores of stars. Before that time, the only \"stuff\" around (at least that we would recognize as stuff; we won't go into dark stuff right now) was hydrogen and helium, which cannot by themselves a rock make. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But that primordial hydrogen and helium, the original building blocks of all material substances, has been around almost from the beginning of time, 13.7 billion years ago, soon after the Big Bang burst forth on the scene (whatever scene that may have been). Hydrogen, found in every water molecule in every glass of water you drink, in vast abundance within the oceans and waterways of the Earth, and through and through your own body, head to toe, is stuff we live and breathe, and is as old as the universe itself! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don't know about you, but I find that spine-tingling.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33722\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/23/in-search-of-the-oldest-stuff/mosaiccanyon/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33722\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg\" alt=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" title=\"Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33722\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mosaiccanyon-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Precambrian Noonday deposit in Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>What's the oldest stuff you’ve ever seen, or better still, touched? Have you ever felt awe from contact with something of great antiquity? How old can stuff be? These are questions that have ravaged my mind since childhood. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I've always loved things of antiquity—antique objects, artifacts, fossils, and rocks. \"Like.\" But what's that got to do with astronomy and space? Well, that's where all the oldest stuff originally comes from...but I'll get to that in a moment. First, an anecdote about old stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In search of the oldest stuff, there I was at Badwater, in Death Valley, the lowest point in the continental US (the place where you crane your neck and strain your eyes to make out the words \"Sea Level\" on the sign \u003ca href=\"http://images.californiathroughmylens.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/badwater-below-sea-level.jpg\" target=\"_blank\">waaaay up the cliff\u003c/a>). Not far off, to the south, an alluvial fan slouched off into the salt pan, issuing from an unseen but obviously existent canyon in the mountains that make up the east wall of the valley. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I had learned at the visitor center that those mountains (the Black Mountains) are made of some \u003ca href=\"http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/deva/ftbad1.html\" target=\"_blank\">very old rock\u003c/a>: Precambrian rock that was originally laid down about 1.7 billion years ago!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, up the alluvial fan I scramble, turn left, and up the deep, narrow canyon that the alluvium betrayed…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to the base of a dry waterfall…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…to a wall of raw, exposed rock, the very bones of the Black Mountains…\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>…and reach out a hand, pressing palm and fingers firmly to the stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ahh….\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>1.7 billion years old; that rock I touched had been rock (albeit slowly transforming) for over a third of Earth's existence, and over a tenth the age of the universe itself. I don't know about you, but I find that awesome! And I had my hand right on it! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When we talk about the age of a rock, it is measured from the time the rock solidified (\"aggregated\"), either with the cooling of molten lava or magma, or the solidification of sediment. Finding really old rocks on Earth is complicated by weather and geologic processes, which continually transform, bury, and \"disaggregate\" them. Even so, very old rock can be found in certain places, like Greenland, Canada, Australia, and Africa. We're talking about ages between 2.5 and 3.8 billion years, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080925144624.htm\" target=\"_blank\">maybe more\u003c/a>. I'd like to get my hand on some of that!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get away from Earth and its rock-disaggregating processes and you can find some much older stuff. On the Moon, pretty much all of the material you find lying about is \u003ca href=\"http://www.moonzoo.org/Lunar_Geology\" target=\"_blank\">at least twice as old\u003c/a> as that stuff I put my hand on at the base of the Black Mountains. On the Moon, significant surface activity (volcanism, bombardment by asteroids) ended some 3 billion years ago, and since then the crust has remained more or less unchanged, other than alterations caused by the occasional meteorite impact. The youngest rocks on the Moon are about the same age as most of the Earth's oldest stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We even have a piece of that old stuff at Chabot: a chunk of 3.3 billion year old basalt brought back by Apollo 15 astronauts--and the only things that separate my hand from its speckly gray surface are two panes of glass and some nitrogen gas. Alas!\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Get out to an asteroid or a comet and you may very well be setting foot on stuff that's over 4.5 billion years old, unchanged since the formation of our solar system! Within our solar system, that's about as old as stuff gets, but venture beyond it, perhaps to a planetary system that is older than ours, and you'll undoubtedly find older stuff! (This blog post is beginning to ring of George Carlin material.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But what's the oldest stuff? I can't give you a rock of age beyond a certain point in time, because it took the early universe some time to develop the elements needed to build rocks-as-we-know-them, through nucleosynthesis in the cores of stars. Before that time, the only \"stuff\" around (at least that we would recognize as stuff; we won't go into dark stuff right now) was hydrogen and helium, which cannot by themselves a rock make. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But that primordial hydrogen and helium, the original building blocks of all material substances, has been around almost from the beginning of time, 13.7 billion years ago, soon after the Big Bang burst forth on the scene (whatever scene that may have been). Hydrogen, found in every water molecule in every glass of water you drink, in vast abundance within the oceans and waterways of the Earth, and through and through your own body, head to toe, is stuff we live and breathe, and is as old as the universe itself! \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I don't know about you, but I find that spine-tingling.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Testing a New Drug for Mountain Sickness",
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"content": "\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33625\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/mtnscknss-top/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33625\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-top.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mtnscknss-top\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33625\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-top.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-top-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">View of the Sierra Nevada over Owens Valley from high in the White Mountains. The glories of the high country can be ruined by the body's reaction to the altitude. Photos by Andrew Alden except where noted.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the medical news this week was a study showing that \u003ca href=\"http://californiawatch.org/dailyreport/ibuprofen-may-prevent-altitude-sickness-15378\">altitude sickness can be prevented\u003c/a> with ordinary ibuprofen. This is interesting for geologists and anyone else who goes to high places. It was particularly so for me, because I served in that research study.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Altitude sickness—a syndrome formally called acute mountain sickness—affects about a quarter of people who ascend from sea level to elevations above 2500 meters, or 8250 feet. The main symptoms are headache, fatigue, nausea, loss of appetite and trouble sleeping. For most victims it goes away in a day or two, but some cases are severe enough to be disabling, and if untreated the brain may sometimes start swelling inside the skull to the point of death.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The best treatment for acute mountain sickness is to move to a lower elevation until the symptoms stop. But that isn't always possible—bad weather may pin you down, for instance. Some people, like search-and-rescue teams or soldiers, simply must carry on. Others, like ski parties or expeditions, are very reluctant to get off schedule. There are prescription drugs for preventing acute mountain sickness, but they have side effects that can be as severe as the condition they're treating. Plus, they need to be taken a day ahead of time—not good for, say, a fire-fighting crew. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So a team of doctors, most of them at Stanford, designed a double-blinded study to test over-the-counter ibuprofen as a preventative. They sent groups of ordinary folks on a two-day summer exercise in the White Mountains, where Stanford maintains high-altitude research facilities. They sent out a call for volunteers. Sounded good to me. I arranged two more nights on the road and made a nice field trip through eastern California out of it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study employed 86 people on four separate weekends in the summer of 2010. My group assembled August 20 in Bishop, at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.wmrs.edu/facilities/OVL/default.htm\">Owens Valley Laboratory\u003c/a>, part of the University of California's White Mountain Research Station, and spent the night there at 1240 m (4100 ft). We got up early the next morning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/bishopmorning/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33621\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bishopmorning.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"bishopmorning\" width=\"600\" height=\"390\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33621\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bishopmorning.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bishopmorning-400x260.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\nAfter breakfast we took our first doses (ibuprofen or placebo, no one knew which), underwent examinations and filled out questionnaires. Among other things, we had our eyeballs ultrasounded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33626\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/mtnscknss-ultrasound/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33626\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-ultrasound.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mtnscknss-ultrasound\" width=\"500\" height=\"416\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33626\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-ultrasound.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-ultrasound-400x333.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo courtesy Nic Kanaan, MD\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Then we drove into the White Mountains and stopped for lunch at the bristlecone pine forest, where I'd never been before. The big snag on the left might be thousands of years old.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/bristlecones/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33622\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bristlecones.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"bristlecones\" width=\"600\" height=\"453\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33622\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bristlecones.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bristlecones-400x302.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here, at least, it was clear how the range got its name: large areas of dolomite marble. One idea for why bristlecones reach incredible ages here is simply that only dolomite can resist erosion for that long. I thought it was beautiful stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/dolomite/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33623\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/dolomite.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"dolomite\" width=\"500\" height=\"414\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33623\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/dolomite.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/dolomite-400x331.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From here, too, the view east over Nevada was immense; range after parallel range marching off to the horizon. Geologists know this as the Basin and Range province, a zone where the crust has stretched westward to one-and-a-half times its original width. The White Mountains, with their southern sister the Inyo Mountains, are the westernmost and highest of these ranges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnvweast/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33630\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvweast.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnvweast\" width=\"600\" height=\"410\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33630\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvweast.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvweast-400x273.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next we parked at a gate at 3545 m (11,630 ft), took another dose, then hiked almost three miles with our backpacks of clothes and bedding to UC's \u003ca href=\"http://www.wmrs.edu/facilities/bar/default.htm\">Barcroft Station\u003c/a> at 3800 m (12,470 ft).\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33624\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/mtnscknss-hiking/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33624\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-hiking.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mtnscknss-hiking\" width=\"600\" height=\"386\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33624\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-hiking.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-hiking-400x257.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo courtesy Nic Kanaan, MD\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I had never hiked at such an altitude before. Walking on level ground was OK, but whenever the path turned uphill my heart and lungs went into overtime and my legs turned to lead. When I couldn't push any more, though, I could pause for just a minute or two and feel fine again. That was uncanny. When the going was good, being there felt at times like floating in the sky.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnfloating/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33627\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnfloating.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnfloating\" width=\"600\" height=\"385\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33627\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnfloating.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnfloating-400x257.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We left our packs at Barcroft Station and then made one last steep climb to Mount Barcroft's summit, 3975 m (13040 ft). It felt so good to stop, and the view was fantastic. This is looking due west. . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33620\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnvwwest/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33620\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvwwest.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnvwwest\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33620\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvwwest.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvwwest-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This wide area of the Owens Valley is a volcanic tableland made up of thick ashflow deposits of the Bishop Tuff; Chidalgo Canyon slashes across it and Lake Crowley in the Long Valley caldera is visible to its rear, in front of the high Sierra.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>. . . and this is White Mountain Peak, to the north.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33628\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnpeak/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33628\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnpeak.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnpeak\" width=\"600\" height=\"385\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33628\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnpeak.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnpeak-400x257.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">White Mountain Peak is the highest point in the Basin and Range province and the third-highest point in California at 4344 m (14252 ft).\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That evening one of the researchers delivered a thorough lecture on acute mountain sickness and other medical issues of high altitudes. It was a peek into the world of adventurers who braved altitudes twice as high as ours, pushing the limits of human capability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of us experienced some of the symptoms of acute mountain sickness, no matter which pills we had taken. We played pool and socialized until bedtime. That's when I noticed how hard it was to sleep; part of it was physiological and part of it was an inability to tolerate snoring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But I took advantage of the sleepless night by arising before dawn. That was how I managed to witness a rare green flash as the sun first peeked over the Nevada ranges. After that was all downhill: breakfast, a final dose, and a last round of examinations. Then we were free to go. Some of us had plans to tackle White Mountain Peak; mine were to visit the volcanic wonders of Long Valley, at a much more manageable elevation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And that was it for me until the \u003ca href=\"http://www.annemergmed.com/webfiles/images/journals/ymem/FA-gslipman.pdf\">first paper from the study\u003c/a> came out this week in \u003ci>Annals of Emergency Medicine\u003c/i>. Ibuprofen, it turned out, works roughly as well as other medicines but is much cheaper to get and easier to take. It won't stop all the symptoms, but it makes a notable difference and may save you from a very bad time. Remember it the next time you hit the high country.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33625\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/mtnscknss-top/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33625\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-top.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mtnscknss-top\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33625\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-top.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-top-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">View of the Sierra Nevada over Owens Valley from high in the White Mountains. The glories of the high country can be ruined by the body's reaction to the altitude. Photos by Andrew Alden except where noted.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In the medical news this week was a study showing that \u003ca href=\"http://californiawatch.org/dailyreport/ibuprofen-may-prevent-altitude-sickness-15378\">altitude sickness can be prevented\u003c/a> with ordinary ibuprofen. This is interesting for geologists and anyone else who goes to high places. It was particularly so for me, because I served in that research study.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Altitude sickness—a syndrome formally called acute mountain sickness—affects about a quarter of people who ascend from sea level to elevations above 2500 meters, or 8250 feet. The main symptoms are headache, fatigue, nausea, loss of appetite and trouble sleeping. For most victims it goes away in a day or two, but some cases are severe enough to be disabling, and if untreated the brain may sometimes start swelling inside the skull to the point of death.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The best treatment for acute mountain sickness is to move to a lower elevation until the symptoms stop. But that isn't always possible—bad weather may pin you down, for instance. Some people, like search-and-rescue teams or soldiers, simply must carry on. Others, like ski parties or expeditions, are very reluctant to get off schedule. There are prescription drugs for preventing acute mountain sickness, but they have side effects that can be as severe as the condition they're treating. Plus, they need to be taken a day ahead of time—not good for, say, a fire-fighting crew. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So a team of doctors, most of them at Stanford, designed a double-blinded study to test over-the-counter ibuprofen as a preventative. They sent groups of ordinary folks on a two-day summer exercise in the White Mountains, where Stanford maintains high-altitude research facilities. They sent out a call for volunteers. Sounded good to me. I arranged two more nights on the road and made a nice field trip through eastern California out of it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The study employed 86 people on four separate weekends in the summer of 2010. My group assembled August 20 in Bishop, at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.wmrs.edu/facilities/OVL/default.htm\">Owens Valley Laboratory\u003c/a>, part of the University of California's White Mountain Research Station, and spent the night there at 1240 m (4100 ft). We got up early the next morning.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/bishopmorning/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33621\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bishopmorning.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"bishopmorning\" width=\"600\" height=\"390\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33621\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bishopmorning.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bishopmorning-400x260.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cbr>\nAfter breakfast we took our first doses (ibuprofen or placebo, no one knew which), underwent examinations and filled out questionnaires. Among other things, we had our eyeballs ultrasounded.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33626\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 500px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/mtnscknss-ultrasound/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33626\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-ultrasound.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mtnscknss-ultrasound\" width=\"500\" height=\"416\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33626\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-ultrasound.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-ultrasound-400x333.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo courtesy Nic Kanaan, MD\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Then we drove into the White Mountains and stopped for lunch at the bristlecone pine forest, where I'd never been before. The big snag on the left might be thousands of years old.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/bristlecones/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33622\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bristlecones.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"bristlecones\" width=\"600\" height=\"453\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33622\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bristlecones.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/bristlecones-400x302.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Here, at least, it was clear how the range got its name: large areas of dolomite marble. One idea for why bristlecones reach incredible ages here is simply that only dolomite can resist erosion for that long. I thought it was beautiful stuff.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/dolomite/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33623\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/dolomite.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"dolomite\" width=\"500\" height=\"414\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33623\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/dolomite.jpg 500w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/dolomite-400x331.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From here, too, the view east over Nevada was immense; range after parallel range marching off to the horizon. Geologists know this as the Basin and Range province, a zone where the crust has stretched westward to one-and-a-half times its original width. The White Mountains, with their southern sister the Inyo Mountains, are the westernmost and highest of these ranges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnvweast/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33630\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvweast.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnvweast\" width=\"600\" height=\"410\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33630\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvweast.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvweast-400x273.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Next we parked at a gate at 3545 m (11,630 ft), took another dose, then hiked almost three miles with our backpacks of clothes and bedding to UC's \u003ca href=\"http://www.wmrs.edu/facilities/bar/default.htm\">Barcroft Station\u003c/a> at 3800 m (12,470 ft).\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33624\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/mtnscknss-hiking/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33624\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-hiking.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"mtnscknss-hiking\" width=\"600\" height=\"386\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33624\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-hiking.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/mtnscknss-hiking-400x257.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo courtesy Nic Kanaan, MD\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>I had never hiked at such an altitude before. Walking on level ground was OK, but whenever the path turned uphill my heart and lungs went into overtime and my legs turned to lead. When I couldn't push any more, though, I could pause for just a minute or two and feel fine again. That was uncanny. When the going was good, being there felt at times like floating in the sky.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnfloating/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33627\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnfloating.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnfloating\" width=\"600\" height=\"385\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-33627\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnfloating.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnfloating-400x257.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We left our packs at Barcroft Station and then made one last steep climb to Mount Barcroft's summit, 3975 m (13040 ft). It felt so good to stop, and the view was fantastic. This is looking due west. . .\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33620\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnvwwest/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33620\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvwwest.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnvwwest\" width=\"600\" height=\"450\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33620\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvwwest.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnvwwest-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">This wide area of the Owens Valley is a volcanic tableland made up of thick ashflow deposits of the Bishop Tuff; Chidalgo Canyon slashes across it and Lake Crowley in the Long Valley caldera is visible to its rear, in front of the high Sierra.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>. . . and this is White Mountain Peak, to the north.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33628\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 600px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/22/testing-a-new-drug-for-mountain-sickness/whitemtnpeak/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33628\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnpeak.jpg\" alt=\"\" title=\"whitemtnpeak\" width=\"600\" height=\"385\" class=\"size-full wp-image-33628\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnpeak.jpg 600w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/whitemtnpeak-400x257.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">White Mountain Peak is the highest point in the Basin and Range province and the third-highest point in California at 4344 m (14252 ft).\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That evening one of the researchers delivered a thorough lecture on acute mountain sickness and other medical issues of high altitudes. It was a peek into the world of adventurers who braved altitudes twice as high as ours, pushing the limits of human capability.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most of us experienced some of the symptoms of acute mountain sickness, no matter which pills we had taken. We played pool and socialized until bedtime. That's when I noticed how hard it was to sleep; part of it was physiological and part of it was an inability to tolerate snoring.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But I took advantage of the sleepless night by arising before dawn. That was how I managed to witness a rare green flash as the sun first peeked over the Nevada ranges. After that was all downhill: breakfast, a final dose, and a last round of examinations. Then we were free to go. Some of us had plans to tackle White Mountain Peak; mine were to visit the volcanic wonders of Long Valley, at a much more manageable elevation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And that was it for me until the \u003ca href=\"http://www.annemergmed.com/webfiles/images/journals/ymem/FA-gslipman.pdf\">first paper from the study\u003c/a> came out this week in \u003ci>Annals of Emergency Medicine\u003c/i>. Ibuprofen, it turned out, works roughly as well as other medicines but is much cheaper to get and easier to take. It won't stop all the symptoms, but it makes a notable difference and may save you from a very bad time. Remember it the next time you hit the high country.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Small Rewards: Tiny Frogs and Chameleons Find and Fill a Niche ",
"title": "Small Rewards: Tiny Frogs and Chameleons Find and Fill a Niche ",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/lizard-for-carousel-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33560\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-33560\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/lizard-for-carousel1-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recent discoveries of a Lilliputian lizard and elfin amphibian, fascinating in their own right, highlight one of the most enduring questions in biology: what controls the evolution of body size? Why do some taxa grow smaller and smaller, while others grow larger and larger, as if they’d tumbled down the rabbit hole with Alice and devoured all the curious potions and cakes she found there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question endures in large part because body size affects nearly every aspect of an organism’s existence, from physiology (temperature regulation and metabolism) to ecology (life history and foraging strategies) and evolution (reproductive success over time).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more than a century, biologists thought evolutionary taxa, or lineages, grew larger and larger over time, a phenomenon known as \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GzpiPe\">Cope’s Rule\u003c/a>, illustrated most often by horse evolution. Modern equids, scientists believe, evolved from the diminutive \u003ca href=\"http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/vertpaleo/fhc/hyraco1.htm\">\u003cem>Hyracotherium\u003c/em> \u003c/a>(commonly known as eohippus, or “dawn horse”), which appeared in the fossil record some 55 million years ago. Many textbooks mistakenly liken \u003cem>Hydracotherium\u003c/em> to a fox terrier (think Asta of \u003cem>The Thin Man\u003c/em> movies), but the ancestral horse was more Lassie than Asta, as Stephen Jay Gould famously explained in his essay \"The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33551\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 343px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/hyracotheriumvasacciensislikehorse/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33551\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33551\" title=\"Hyracotherium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/HyracotheriumVasacciensisLikeHorse-343x253.jpg\" alt=\"Hyracotherium, ancestral horse\" width=\"343\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A replica skeleton of Hydracotherium vasacciensis, the putative ancestral horse, at the Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. (Photo: Jeff Kubina)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In 1997, though, David Jablonski showed that (as usual) biology rarely follows hard and fast rules. In a 10-year review of fossils covering 16 million years and 1,000 species from 191 lineages of bivalves (clams and scallops) and gastropods (snails and slugs), Jablonski found that just as many taxa \u003ca href=\"http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/970123/jablonski.shtml\">decreased in body size\u003c/a> over time as increased. And even the horse example has come under fire. A \u003ca href=\"http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~wayner/Principles%20of%20Ecology%20course/island%20morphological%20adaptation.pdf\">2004 study\u003c/a> analyzed horse fossils in light of recently resolved relationships among evolutionary groups and showed that while the lineage that gave rise to the modern horse grew larger, others shrank.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, examples of lineages evolving toward larger body size abound, with \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GBYvMe\">evidence \u003c/a> linking greater size to higher fitness (better survival and mating success for individuals). If you’re big (say, a lion or other large carnivore), it’s easier to catch prey, avoid predation (though elephants, like mammoths before them, may perish at the hands of human hunters), survive tough conditions, attract mates (silverback gorillas claim exclusive breeding rights to females), and claim more resources than your competitors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Given the advantages of size, one might think the tiny frog and chameleon are simply freaks, outliers among a field of giants. But the fossil record offers plenty of examples of large animals shrinking over millennia (known as “phyletic dwarfism”), often after winding up on islands or other restricted ranges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until about 10,000 years ago, dwarf elephants inhabited Crete and other Mediterranean islands, which favored smaller, nimbler forms that could survive on less food and manage the rocky terrain. Even dwarf mammoths (the oxymoron notwithstanding), dinosaurs, and hominids (\u003cem>Homo floresiensis\u003c/em>) once inhabited isolated islands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’re small, you might reproduce quickly, offer too little reward for a predator’s effort, and maybe even prove too hard to see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33552\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/paratype_of_paedophryne_amauensis_lsumz_95004/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33552\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33552\" title=\"Paedophryne amauensis\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Paratype_of_Paedophryne_amauensis_LSUMZ_95004-253x253.png\" alt=\"Dwarf frog \" width=\"253\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paedophryne amauensis, a minute frog found in Papua New Guinea, may be the smallest vertebrate on Earth. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029797)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That seems to be the case for a pint-sized amphibian found, through no small effort, in the forests of Papua New Guinea, which its discoverers claimed as the “world’s smallest vertebrate.” Because the largest vertebrate, the blue whale, and (previously) smallest, a fish, are aquatic species, some biologists thought a water-based lifestyle may facilitate the evolution of extreme size. But, as the scientists argue in the \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/zgsaBs\">paper\u003c/a> describing the frog, this doesn’t explain how extreme miniaturization evolved at least 11 times in terrestrial frogs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The 7-8 millimeter frog, named \u003cem>Paedophryne amauensis,\u003c/em> is active mostly at dawn and dusk, sounding more like a cricket than a frog when it calls out to potential mates from the leafy detritus of the forest floor. (The authors dubbed the species “amauensis” after the region near Amau Village where it was found.) Leaf litter in tropical forests stays moist throughout the year, keeping the minute amphibian safe from desiccation and likely explaining the evolution of its life history: offspring bypass the tadpole stage, emerging fully formed, though even tinier, avoiding fish, insects, and other aquatic predators. Of course, teeny adults would be at higher risk from predators if they lived in the water, too, which might explain why the species carved out a niche in upland areas with a lower diversity of such threats.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33573\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 281px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33573\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33573\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head2-281x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"281\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Brookesia micra, one of four dwarf leaf chameleon species found in Madagascar. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031314)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>And just last month, another group of researchers \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GFDRgN\">reported\u003c/a> their discovery of four new species of dwarf chameleons, one so small it can balance on the tip of a match head. The mini chameleon, \u003cem>Brookesia micra,\u003c/em> measures a smidgen over an inch from snout to tail, and seems restricted to Nosy Hara, a small (naturally) island off the coast of Madagascar. An extensive survey of Nosy Hara and adjacent islands in 2007 failed to spot the little lizard, which scampers around limestone rocks and dry forest leaf litter during the day and roosts on low-lying branches a few inches above the ground at night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike their amphibian counterparts, the minuscule reptiles inhabit relatively dry tropical areas. Because small body size carries a higher risk of desiccation from the proportionally higher body surface area, it’s surprising the lizards live in a dry environment, the scientists explain in their report. It’s possible they’ve adapted to certain features of the landscape that retain moisture, like leaf-filled fissures in limestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tiny frog and chameleons may or may not win the title for smallest of their kind, but the distinction is beside the point. The discovery of these new species offers a rare ray of hope amid ongoing reports of devastating declines in amphibian and reptile populations around the world, mostly due to habitat destruction. These dwarf species have likely benefited from minimal space and resource requirements, and being too tiny to spot. And for me, it’s no small comfort to know that we can still find wonders, both beautiful and strange, on this side of the looking glass.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Recent discoveries of a Lilliputian lizard and elfin amphibian, fascinating in their own right, highlight one of the most enduring questions in biology: what controls the evolution of body size? They also provide a rare bright spot amid the relentless reports of endangered and disappearing amphibian and reptile species around the world.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/lizard-for-carousel-2/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33560\">\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-33560\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/lizard-for-carousel1-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Recent discoveries of a Lilliputian lizard and elfin amphibian, fascinating in their own right, highlight one of the most enduring questions in biology: what controls the evolution of body size? Why do some taxa grow smaller and smaller, while others grow larger and larger, as if they’d tumbled down the rabbit hole with Alice and devoured all the curious potions and cakes she found there?\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The question endures in large part because body size affects nearly every aspect of an organism’s existence, from physiology (temperature regulation and metabolism) to ecology (life history and foraging strategies) and evolution (reproductive success over time).\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more than a century, biologists thought evolutionary taxa, or lineages, grew larger and larger over time, a phenomenon known as \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GzpiPe\">Cope’s Rule\u003c/a>, illustrated most often by horse evolution. Modern equids, scientists believe, evolved from the diminutive \u003ca href=\"http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/vertpaleo/fhc/hyraco1.htm\">\u003cem>Hyracotherium\u003c/em> \u003c/a>(commonly known as eohippus, or “dawn horse”), which appeared in the fossil record some 55 million years ago. Many textbooks mistakenly liken \u003cem>Hydracotherium\u003c/em> to a fox terrier (think Asta of \u003cem>The Thin Man\u003c/em> movies), but the ancestral horse was more Lassie than Asta, as Stephen Jay Gould famously explained in his essay \"The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone.\"\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33551\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 343px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/hyracotheriumvasacciensislikehorse/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33551\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33551\" title=\"Hyracotherium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/HyracotheriumVasacciensisLikeHorse-343x253.jpg\" alt=\"Hyracotherium, ancestral horse\" width=\"343\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A replica skeleton of Hydracotherium vasacciensis, the putative ancestral horse, at the Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. (Photo: Jeff Kubina)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>In 1997, though, David Jablonski showed that (as usual) biology rarely follows hard and fast rules. In a 10-year review of fossils covering 16 million years and 1,000 species from 191 lineages of bivalves (clams and scallops) and gastropods (snails and slugs), Jablonski found that just as many taxa \u003ca href=\"http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/970123/jablonski.shtml\">decreased in body size\u003c/a> over time as increased. And even the horse example has come under fire. A \u003ca href=\"http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~wayner/Principles%20of%20Ecology%20course/island%20morphological%20adaptation.pdf\">2004 study\u003c/a> analyzed horse fossils in light of recently resolved relationships among evolutionary groups and showed that while the lineage that gave rise to the modern horse grew larger, others shrank.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Still, examples of lineages evolving toward larger body size abound, with \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GBYvMe\">evidence \u003c/a> linking greater size to higher fitness (better survival and mating success for individuals). If you’re big (say, a lion or other large carnivore), it’s easier to catch prey, avoid predation (though elephants, like mammoths before them, may perish at the hands of human hunters), survive tough conditions, attract mates (silverback gorillas claim exclusive breeding rights to females), and claim more resources than your competitors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Given the advantages of size, one might think the tiny frog and chameleon are simply freaks, outliers among a field of giants. But the fossil record offers plenty of examples of large animals shrinking over millennia (known as “phyletic dwarfism”), often after winding up on islands or other restricted ranges.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until about 10,000 years ago, dwarf elephants inhabited Crete and other Mediterranean islands, which favored smaller, nimbler forms that could survive on less food and manage the rocky terrain. Even dwarf mammoths (the oxymoron notwithstanding), dinosaurs, and hominids (\u003cem>Homo floresiensis\u003c/em>) once inhabited isolated islands.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you’re small, you might reproduce quickly, offer too little reward for a predator’s effort, and maybe even prove too hard to see.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33552\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/paratype_of_paedophryne_amauensis_lsumz_95004/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33552\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-33552\" title=\"Paedophryne amauensis\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Paratype_of_Paedophryne_amauensis_LSUMZ_95004-253x253.png\" alt=\"Dwarf frog \" width=\"253\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paedophryne amauensis, a minute frog found in Papua New Guinea, may be the smallest vertebrate on Earth. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029797)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>That seems to be the case for a pint-sized amphibian found, through no small effort, in the forests of Papua New Guinea, which its discoverers claimed as the “world’s smallest vertebrate.” Because the largest vertebrate, the blue whale, and (previously) smallest, a fish, are aquatic species, some biologists thought a water-based lifestyle may facilitate the evolution of extreme size. But, as the scientists argue in the \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/zgsaBs\">paper\u003c/a> describing the frog, this doesn’t explain how extreme miniaturization evolved at least 11 times in terrestrial frogs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The 7-8 millimeter frog, named \u003cem>Paedophryne amauensis,\u003c/em> is active mostly at dawn and dusk, sounding more like a cricket than a frog when it calls out to potential mates from the leafy detritus of the forest floor. (The authors dubbed the species “amauensis” after the region near Amau Village where it was found.) Leaf litter in tropical forests stays moist throughout the year, keeping the minute amphibian safe from desiccation and likely explaining the evolution of its life history: offspring bypass the tadpole stage, emerging fully formed, though even tinier, avoiding fish, insects, and other aquatic predators. Of course, teeny adults would be at higher risk from predators if they lived in the water, too, which might explain why the species carved out a niche in upland areas with a lower diversity of such threats.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33573\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 281px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/small-rewards-tiny-frogs-and-chameleons-find-and-fill-a-niche/brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head-3/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33573\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33573\" title=\"Brookesia micra\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Brookesia_micra_on_a_match_head2-281x169.jpg\" alt=\"Brookesia micra\" width=\"281\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Brookesia micra, one of four dwarf leaf chameleon species found in Madagascar. (Photo: PLoS ONE. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031314)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>And just last month, another group of researchers \u003ca href=\"http://bit.ly/GFDRgN\">reported\u003c/a> their discovery of four new species of dwarf chameleons, one so small it can balance on the tip of a match head. The mini chameleon, \u003cem>Brookesia micra,\u003c/em> measures a smidgen over an inch from snout to tail, and seems restricted to Nosy Hara, a small (naturally) island off the coast of Madagascar. An extensive survey of Nosy Hara and adjacent islands in 2007 failed to spot the little lizard, which scampers around limestone rocks and dry forest leaf litter during the day and roosts on low-lying branches a few inches above the ground at night.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Unlike their amphibian counterparts, the minuscule reptiles inhabit relatively dry tropical areas. Because small body size carries a higher risk of desiccation from the proportionally higher body surface area, it’s surprising the lizards live in a dry environment, the scientists explain in their report. It’s possible they’ve adapted to certain features of the landscape that retain moisture, like leaf-filled fissures in limestone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The tiny frog and chameleons may or may not win the title for smallest of their kind, but the distinction is beside the point. The discovery of these new species offers a rare ray of hope amid ongoing reports of devastating declines in amphibian and reptile populations around the world, mostly due to habitat destruction. These dwarf species have likely benefited from minimal space and resource requirements, and being too tiny to spot. And for me, it’s no small comfort to know that we can still find wonders, both beautiful and strange, on this side of the looking glass.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Brewing the Perfect Cup of Coffee",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/brewing-the-perfect-cup-of-coffee/coffee-beans/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33303\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/coffee-beans-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"coffee and beans\" title=\"coffee beans\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33303\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There were many shaky hands at a \u003ca href=\"http://usbaristachampionship.org/?p=southwest\"> regional coffee competition\u003c/a> in Santa Cruz one weekend in early March, though it was hard to tell if the tremors were due to nerves or just the free-flowing coffee at the tasting bar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Baristas from Colorado to Hawaii competed to earn a trip to the national championship in April. Brewer’s Cup participants, mostly from California, brewed a mystery coffee, tweaking their favorite brewing method to bring out the best flavors of that coffee. Winners from the first round used their own beans to brew in the finals. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the brewing finalists’ \u003ca href=\"http://sprudge.com/sw-brewers-cup-methods-and-madness.html\">recipes show\u003c/a>, making the perfect cup of coffee is not as simple as adding hot water to ground coffee beans. The grind size, water temperature and brewing method can change the flavor. Coffee connoisseurs delight in controlling every detail. And even the corporate coffee giant Starbucks is experimenting with brewing. They’ve just opened a \u003ca href=\"http://www.psfk.com/2012/03/starbucks-worlds-first-coffee-laboratory-opens-in-amsterdam.html\">brewing “laboratory”\u003c/a> in Amsterdam. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We describe an ideal cup of coffee in terms of its strength, aroma, flavor, acidity, and finish. Coffee enthusiasts quantify those descriptions as the concentration of coffee compounds in the final brew and the amount of flavor extracted from the beans. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33345\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 270px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/brewing-the-perfect-cup-of-coffee/peter-beans-better/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33345\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/peter-beans-better-270x360.jpg\" alt=\"Brewing coffee in SouthWest Regional Barista Championship\" title=\"peter beans better\" width=\"270\" height=\"360\" class=\"alignright size-large wp-image-33345\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Peter Molignano, of Fortnight Coffee Company in Los Angeles, competes in the Brewer's Cup of the South West Regional Barista Championship, Santa Cruz, CA, March 9, 2012. Image credit: Melissae Fellet\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There are 2000 different flavor and aroma compounds in roasted coffee beans. Only a fraction of those flavors dissolve in hot water, and even fewer are palatable. A cup of coffee brewed to full extraction is bitter and undrinkable. So brewers aim to pull the sweet and complex flavors from the grinds before the beans leach their bitter compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reaching that extraction sweet spot depends on several factors, including the ratio of water to beans by weight. (Notice that all the winning recipes from the competition specify water and bean weight.) The size of coffee grounds and the brew time matter too. If your coffee is weak, grinding the beans finer increases the surface area of the grounds exposed to the hot water and thus increases the amount of flavors extracted. But watch the clock once the hot water hits the grounds. Brew any pot too long and those bitter flavors seep out from the beans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Water temperature is another way to control the flavor of coffee. Water warmed to 195-205 degrees Fahrenheit is best, says Lalo Perez-Varona, an independent coffee researcher from San Francisco. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coffee associations around the world recommend \u003ca href=\"http://vstapps.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/Rao-Everything-cover-mockup4.pdf\"> numerical standards\u003c/a> that label the perfect cup of coffee in terms of the percentage of extracted flavors, but ultimately individual taste preferences determine excellence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For a tasty cup of joe, pick beans with flavors that you like, use your favorite brewing method, and troubleshoot using this chart, changing one factor at a time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33266\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/brewing-the-perfect-cup-of-coffee/slide1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34343\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Slide1.jpg\" alt=\"Factors influencing coffee flavor\" title=\"Slide1\" width=\"548\" height=\"411\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-34343\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Slide1.jpg 548w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Slide1-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 548px) 100vw, 548px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image credit: Melissae Fellet\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Brewing method influences the flavor of the coffee too. Completely immersing the coffee in hot water, as in a French press, tend to brew coffee with more sweetness and body, says Perez-Varona. Paper filters trap some of the oils and solids, clarifying the flavors in the coffee. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Brewing with a siphon, also called a vacuum pot, gives you excellent temperature control due to the consistent heat source underneath the pot. This process is beautiful to watch:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWduH2DJ7Ms]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I think a person's preferred brewing method is a chance to infuse their coffee with some personality and flair. Peter Molignano, of Fortnight Coffee Company in Los Angeles, brought his handmade wooden siphon holders to the competition in Santa Cruz. He warmed the upper part of the siphon with halogen lightbulbs mounted in a matching wooden box. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From precision analysis to the ritual of brewing, a cup of coffee is a union of science and art. Because my morning routine doesn’t leave time for experimenting with water temperature, brew time, grind size, and water and bean amounts, I’ll leave the science – and the art -- to the experts at my \u003ca href=\"http://www.vervecoffeeroasters.com/\">favorite local coffee shop\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> UPDATE 4/2/12: The underextraction-overextraction chart has been updated. The original picture had the last entries for the water to coffee mixtures switched.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem> UPDATE 3/22/12: The optimal water temperature for brewing coffee was originally reported as 192-203 degrees Fahrenheit. It has been changed to 195-205F.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/brewing-the-perfect-cup-of-coffee/coffee-beans/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33303\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/coffee-beans-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"coffee and beans\" title=\"coffee beans\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\" class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-33303\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>There were many shaky hands at a \u003ca href=\"http://usbaristachampionship.org/?p=southwest\"> regional coffee competition\u003c/a> in Santa Cruz one weekend in early March, though it was hard to tell if the tremors were due to nerves or just the free-flowing coffee at the tasting bar.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Baristas from Colorado to Hawaii competed to earn a trip to the national championship in April. Brewer’s Cup participants, mostly from California, brewed a mystery coffee, tweaking their favorite brewing method to bring out the best flavors of that coffee. Winners from the first round used their own beans to brew in the finals. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As the brewing finalists’ \u003ca href=\"http://sprudge.com/sw-brewers-cup-methods-and-madness.html\">recipes show\u003c/a>, making the perfect cup of coffee is not as simple as adding hot water to ground coffee beans. The grind size, water temperature and brewing method can change the flavor. Coffee connoisseurs delight in controlling every detail. And even the corporate coffee giant Starbucks is experimenting with brewing. They’ve just opened a \u003ca href=\"http://www.psfk.com/2012/03/starbucks-worlds-first-coffee-laboratory-opens-in-amsterdam.html\">brewing “laboratory”\u003c/a> in Amsterdam. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We describe an ideal cup of coffee in terms of its strength, aroma, flavor, acidity, and finish. Coffee enthusiasts quantify those descriptions as the concentration of coffee compounds in the final brew and the amount of flavor extracted from the beans. \u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33345\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 270px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/brewing-the-perfect-cup-of-coffee/peter-beans-better/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-33345\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/peter-beans-better-270x360.jpg\" alt=\"Brewing coffee in SouthWest Regional Barista Championship\" title=\"peter beans better\" width=\"270\" height=\"360\" class=\"alignright size-large wp-image-33345\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Peter Molignano, of Fortnight Coffee Company in Los Angeles, competes in the Brewer's Cup of the South West Regional Barista Championship, Santa Cruz, CA, March 9, 2012. Image credit: Melissae Fellet\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>There are 2000 different flavor and aroma compounds in roasted coffee beans. Only a fraction of those flavors dissolve in hot water, and even fewer are palatable. A cup of coffee brewed to full extraction is bitter and undrinkable. So brewers aim to pull the sweet and complex flavors from the grinds before the beans leach their bitter compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Reaching that extraction sweet spot depends on several factors, including the ratio of water to beans by weight. (Notice that all the winning recipes from the competition specify water and bean weight.) The size of coffee grounds and the brew time matter too. If your coffee is weak, grinding the beans finer increases the surface area of the grounds exposed to the hot water and thus increases the amount of flavors extracted. But watch the clock once the hot water hits the grounds. Brew any pot too long and those bitter flavors seep out from the beans.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Water temperature is another way to control the flavor of coffee. Water warmed to 195-205 degrees Fahrenheit is best, says Lalo Perez-Varona, an independent coffee researcher from San Francisco. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Coffee associations around the world recommend \u003ca href=\"http://vstapps.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/Rao-Everything-cover-mockup4.pdf\"> numerical standards\u003c/a> that label the perfect cup of coffee in terms of the percentage of extracted flavors, but ultimately individual taste preferences determine excellence.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For a tasty cup of joe, pick beans with flavors that you like, use your favorite brewing method, and troubleshoot using this chart, changing one factor at a time.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_33266\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/2012/03/21/brewing-the-perfect-cup-of-coffee/slide1/\" rel=\"attachment wp-att-34343\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Slide1.jpg\" alt=\"Factors influencing coffee flavor\" title=\"Slide1\" width=\"548\" height=\"411\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-34343\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Slide1.jpg 548w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2012/03/Slide1-400x300.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 548px) 100vw, 548px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Image credit: Melissae Fellet\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Brewing method influences the flavor of the coffee too. Completely immersing the coffee in hot water, as in a French press, tend to brew coffee with more sweetness and body, says Perez-Varona. Paper filters trap some of the oils and solids, clarifying the flavors in the coffee. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Brewing with a siphon, also called a vacuum pot, gives you excellent temperature control due to the consistent heat source underneath the pot. This process is beautiful to watch:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutube'>\n \u003cspan class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__embedYoutubeInside'>\n \u003ciframe\n loading='lazy'\n class='utils-parseShortcode-shortcodes-__youtubeShortcode__youtubePlayer'\n type='text/html'\n src='//www.youtube.com/embed/DWduH2DJ7Ms'\n title='//www.youtube.com/embed/DWduH2DJ7Ms'\n allowfullscreen='true'\n style='border:0;'>\u003c/iframe>\n \u003c/span>\n \u003c/span>\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I think a person's preferred brewing method is a chance to infuse their coffee with some personality and flair. Peter Molignano, of Fortnight Coffee Company in Los Angeles, brought his handmade wooden siphon holders to the competition in Santa Cruz. He warmed the upper part of the siphon with halogen lightbulbs mounted in a matching wooden box. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From precision analysis to the ritual of brewing, a cup of coffee is a union of science and art. Because my morning routine doesn’t leave time for experimenting with water temperature, brew time, grind size, and water and bean amounts, I’ll leave the science – and the art -- to the experts at my \u003ca href=\"http://www.vervecoffeeroasters.com/\">favorite local coffee shop\u003c/a>. \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem> UPDATE 4/2/12: The underextraction-overextraction chart has been updated. The original picture had the last entries for the water to coffee mixtures switched.\u003c/em>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem> UPDATE 3/22/12: The optimal water temperature for brewing coffee was originally reported as 192-203 degrees Fahrenheit. It has been changed to 195-205F.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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