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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>Originally published on July 4, 2012.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From holidays like the Fourth of July to victories, fireworks mean celebration. And to me, they’re a celebration of chemistry too. \u003ca href=\"http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/fireworks/fireworks.htm\">Atoms and reactions\u003c/a> power the colors, sounds and smoke of fireworks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first firecracker was discovered in China about 1,000 years ago. Called black powder, this explosive is a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur. You only need the first two ingredients, an oxidizing agent and a fuel, to start the explosion. The oxidizing agent, often a perchlorate or nitrate salt, releases oxygen gas that feeds the fire in a firework. The fuel reacts with the oxidizing agent to create the gas. The sulfur in black powder intensifies and continues the reaction between the other two ingredients. Learn more about the chemistry of fireworks from the \u003ca href=\"https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en.html\" target=\"_blank\">American Chemical Society\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe width=\"640\" height=\"360\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/nPHegSulI_M\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"yes\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pyrotechnicians often add metal salts to make colorful fireworks. Here’s where that color comes from: Heating atoms of sodium, barium or strontium pumps energy into the electrons whizzing around each nucleus. Those energized electrons shoot up to higher locations in the atom. As they fall back down to their usual positions, the electrons lose their extra energy as visible light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The amount of energy released during this process – which depends on the element – is related to the color of the light that we see. Higher energy, like that released by copper atoms, corresponds to a shorter wavelength of light towards the blue end of the spectrum. Red light from strontium atoms has a longer wavelength and lower energy. (The same process gives neon lights their color too. Electricity energizes the neon, xenon or argon in the lights.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loud bangs come from confining the explosions in a shell, much like a grenade. Gases expand faster than the speed of sound when the shell bursts, creating a loud sonic boom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An abandoned recipe for crackling fireworks called \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ix8uHBtxxcE\">dragon eggs\u003c/a> shows how chemists control the ingredients in the firework to get sound effects too. The oxidizing agent in this recipe is lead oxide, which becomes lead atoms as the firework burns. These atoms vaporize in the flame. And those vapors create off little crackles as they expand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whistling fireworks are more tricky. Pyrotechnicians need to find the right ingredients so that the mixture burns just enough to push air out of its tube -- but doesn’t detonate with a bang.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The starburst patterns of fireworks depend on how the designers pack explosive pellets into a shell. For a look at the innards of a firework before it explodes, check out \u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fireworks/anat_nf.html\">this diagram\u003c/a> from NOVA Online.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In case you’re worried about the environmental effects of the perchlorate oxidizers or metal colorants, fear not. Chemists are developing recipes for \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/86/8626cover.html\">environmentally-friendly fireworks\u003c/a> too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Enjoy the fireworks this holiday and stay safe! For those looking to host their own fireworks shows, check your local laws first. It’s illegal where I live.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>Originally published on July 4, 2012.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>From holidays like the Fourth of July to victories, fireworks mean celebration. And to me, they’re a celebration of chemistry too. \u003ca href=\"http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/fireworks/fireworks.htm\">Atoms and reactions\u003c/a> power the colors, sounds and smoke of fireworks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The first firecracker was discovered in China about 1,000 years ago. Called black powder, this explosive is a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur. You only need the first two ingredients, an oxidizing agent and a fuel, to start the explosion. The oxidizing agent, often a perchlorate or nitrate salt, releases oxygen gas that feeds the fire in a firework. The fuel reacts with the oxidizing agent to create the gas. The sulfur in black powder intensifies and continues the reaction between the other two ingredients. Learn more about the chemistry of fireworks from the \u003ca href=\"https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en.html\" target=\"_blank\">American Chemical Society\u003c/a>:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c!-- iframe plugin v.4.3 wordpress.org/plugins/iframe/ -->\u003cbr>\n\u003ciframe width=\"640\" height=\"360\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/nPHegSulI_M\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"yes\" class=\"iframe-class\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Pyrotechnicians often add metal salts to make colorful fireworks. Here’s where that color comes from: Heating atoms of sodium, barium or strontium pumps energy into the electrons whizzing around each nucleus. Those energized electrons shoot up to higher locations in the atom. As they fall back down to their usual positions, the electrons lose their extra energy as visible light.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The amount of energy released during this process – which depends on the element – is related to the color of the light that we see. Higher energy, like that released by copper atoms, corresponds to a shorter wavelength of light towards the blue end of the spectrum. Red light from strontium atoms has a longer wavelength and lower energy. (The same process gives neon lights their color too. Electricity energizes the neon, xenon or argon in the lights.)\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Loud bangs come from confining the explosions in a shell, much like a grenade. Gases expand faster than the speed of sound when the shell bursts, creating a loud sonic boom.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>An abandoned recipe for crackling fireworks called \u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ix8uHBtxxcE\">dragon eggs\u003c/a> shows how chemists control the ingredients in the firework to get sound effects too. The oxidizing agent in this recipe is lead oxide, which becomes lead atoms as the firework burns. These atoms vaporize in the flame. And those vapors create off little crackles as they expand.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Whistling fireworks are more tricky. Pyrotechnicians need to find the right ingredients so that the mixture burns just enough to push air out of its tube -- but doesn’t detonate with a bang.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The starburst patterns of fireworks depend on how the designers pack explosive pellets into a shell. For a look at the innards of a firework before it explodes, check out \u003ca href=\"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fireworks/anat_nf.html\">this diagram\u003c/a> from NOVA Online.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In case you’re worried about the environmental effects of the perchlorate oxidizers or metal colorants, fear not. Chemists are developing recipes for \u003ca href=\"http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/86/8626cover.html\">environmentally-friendly fireworks\u003c/a> too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Enjoy the fireworks this holiday and stay safe! For those looking to host their own fireworks shows, check your local laws first. It’s illegal where I live.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>[contextly_auto_sidebar id=\"ngqJALTleeosh2JhvSQygf3ACavDlNee\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to a widely held belief, you can’t squeeze water from a rock. But researchers from UC Berkeley who are trying to better understand where water is stored in nature are challenging that old adage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After nearly ten years of studying a steep, 20-square-mile area near the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Fork_Eel_River\" target=\"_blank\">South Fork Eel River\u003c/a> in coastal Mendocino County, the scientists have shown that for trees and other plants, deep and highly fractured rock formations beneath the Earth’s surface are a much larger water reservoir than was previously known.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94852\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 900px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-94852\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto.jpg\" alt=\"LiDAR image illustrating a deep seated landslide underneath vegetative cover at the South Fork Eel River confluence with Tenmile Creek.\" width=\"900\" height=\"678\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto.jpg 900w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto-400x301.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto-800x603.jpg 800w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">LiDAR image illustrating a deep seated landslide underneath vegetative cover at the South Fork Eel River confluence with Tenmile Creek. \u003ccite>(Credit: Collin Bode, 2010)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The work to understand the role that “rock water” plays in the hydrologic cycle began in 2006 when researchers from UC Berkeley embarked on a multi-year study sponsored by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.wmkeck.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Keck Foundation \u003c/a>called the Hydrowatch project. It was designed to precisely monitor and measure the pathways of water in Mendocino County’s \u003ca href=\"http://angelo.berkeley.edu/\" target=\"_blank\">Angelo Coast Range Reserve \u003c/a>as it cycles from the groundwater table to the tops of trees and into the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We were really interested in learning the fate of precipitation in the land surface,” explains \u003ca href=\"http://nature.berkeley.edu/dawsonlab/people/todd-dawson/\" target=\"_blank\">Todd Dawson\u003c/a>, professor of \u003ca href=\"https://ib.berkeley.edu/\" target=\"_blank\">Integrative Biology at UC Berkeley\u003c/a>. “So really trying to figure out when precipitation arrives at the site, where does it get into the rock, where does it get into the stream, how does is recharge the ground water, how much of it is used by the vegetation, and ultimately, how much of it ends up in the streams and going back out to the Pacific Ocean.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learning more about where water consumed by forests, or flowing through streams actually comes from is important, the scientists say, in better understanding the impact of climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2013, the project expanded to become part of a landmark study sponsored by the National Science Foundation called the \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/national/\" target=\"_blank\">Critical Zone Observatories Program\u003c/a>. Today, the site is called the \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/eel/\" target=\"_blank\">Eel River CZO\u003c/a> and it’s part of a national network of ten similar watershed observation sites across the United States - each with unique climate, geology and vegetation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94854\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94854\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-1440x812.jpg\" alt=\"The ten environmental observatories within the CZO Network study the Earth's outer skin - where water, atmosphere, soil, ecosystems interact.\" width=\"640\" height=\"361\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-1440x812.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-800x451.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-1180x665.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-960x541.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The ten environmental observatories within the CZO Network study the Earth's outer skin - where water, atmosphere, soil, ecosystems interact. \u003ccite>(Credit: National Critical Zone Observatories)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The term “critical zone” is relatively new and is being used by scientists to define the zone that is tectonically, geologically and biologically active across the Earth’s surface. It represents a groundbreaking new approach to studying the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle\" target=\"_blank\">hydrologic cycle\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The critical zone really tries to capture this idea of the zone between bedrock beneath our feet, and the top of the vegetation where the trees are interacting with the atmosphere,” explains Dawson. “So it’s everything in between. It’s rock, it’s soil, it’s the vegetation, and it’s the atmosphere that’s coupled to that vegetation. That’s the critical zone. It’s where life meets rock.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94858\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94858\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-1440x1667.jpg\" alt=\"The critical zone is defined as the zone that is tectonically, geologically and biologically active across the Earth’s surface.\" width=\"640\" height=\"741\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-1440x1667.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-400x463.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-800x926.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-1180x1366.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-960x1112.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The critical zone is defined as the zone that is tectonically, geologically and biologically active across the Earth’s surface. \u003ccite>(Credit: Chorover et al., Catalina Jemez CZO)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists across a broad range of earth, life and computer sciences – from microbiologists to geologists to electrical engineers - are now working together to conduct research and share data within the most comprehensive hydrologic science network in the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ve rarely studied all those things together at one site,” says \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/eel/people/person/dietrich-william/\" target=\"_blank\">William Dietrich\u003c/a>, professor of Earth and Planetary Science at UC Berkeley and lead Investigator at the Eel River CZO. “Geologists rarely work with microbiologists, and now all of us are working together at the same site to merge our information to see how each of the pieces work interdependently and impact the other pieces.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94856\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94856\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-1440x1080.jpg\" alt=\"Researchers collect soil and rock samples at the Eel River CZO.\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-1440x1080.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-400x300.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-800x600.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-960x720.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Researchers collect soil and rock samples at the Eel River CZO. \u003ccite>(Credit: William Dietrich)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To gather information, researchers at the ten national sites scale trees and towers hundreds of feet tall and drill deep into bedrock to place sensors that collect climate information. Their instruments transmit real-time measurements of things like air temperature, rock moisture, soil, air and water content and stream flow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of the sites have so many instruments that the vegetation and landscapes look almost bionic. One tree in UC Merced’s \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/sierra/\" target=\"_blank\">Southern Sierra CZO\u003c/a> on the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Fork_Kings_River\" target=\"_blank\">North Fork Kings River\u003c/a> in Fresno County has been dubbed the “critical zone tree” because it’s adorned with nearly 200 sensors that measure things like humidity, temperature, and water movement through the tree via sap flux.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94860\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94860\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-1440x1080.jpg\" alt='The \"critical zone tree\" in UC Merced’s Southern Sierra CZO has nearly 200 sensors.' width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-1440x1080.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-400x300.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-800x600.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-960x720.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The \"critical zone tree\" in UC Merced’s Southern Sierra CZO has nearly 200 sensors. \u003ccite>(Credit: Southern Sierra CZO)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As a plant physiologist, Dawson’s part in the project is to provide information on the role that plants and trees are playing in how water moves through the Eel River watershed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Seventy-five to eighty percent of the water on this planet is recycled through agriculture, through forests, through the plants,” he explains. “You take those plants away, you remove that straw in the Earth, that conduit for water to move out of the soil and back into the atmosphere, and that eventually can lead to deserts expanding. It changes the climate. We know for example when trees were cut down in the Amazon, there was less precipitation.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the team’s main discoveries was that large amounts of water in the Eel River watershed is stored in the massive network of fractures in the rock that can be tens to hundreds of feet thick. This “rock water reservoir” is hidden deep inside the Earth, away from the influence of evaporation. It sits beneath the soil and above the saturated layer commonly called ground water and occupies the deepest part of what hydrologists call the “unsaturated zone”. Many trees reach their deep roots into this matrix of water-filled rock fissures and use the water stored there when other water sources dry out or become unavailable. Different types of rock store water in different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We are thinking of them as different types of sponges in the subsurface in the way they take up and retain moisture and give back that moisture to the vegetation that is rooted into them,” says Dietrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In additional to discovering the amount of water stored in underground rock fractures, Dawson and his team have learned that different types of trees actually use the “rock water” in very different ways depending on climate conditions. For example, the rock matrix inside slopes of hills is a key water resource for the largest trees in the watershed, like Douglas firs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hardwood trees like tanoak, madrone and live oaks rely largely on precipitation. But when drier times come, they shift to using the more stable groundwater below the surface and then may draw on some \"rock water\" in later summer and fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94861\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 900px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-94861\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto.jpg\" alt=\"Todd Dawson trapping water vapor in the Eel River CZO.\" width=\"900\" height=\"675\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto.jpg 900w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto-400x300.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto-800x600.jpg 800w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Todd Dawson trapping water vapor in the Eel River CZO. \u003ccite>(Credit: Anthony Ambrose)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Conifers play a larger role in moving water out of the subsurface areas in winter and early spring, Dawson says. And hardwoods are playing a larger role in summer and fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As climate and the forest change over time,” he adds, “this will lead to changes in how water enters and leaves these ecosystems because of what the vegetation on the land surface is composed of.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The work being done within the National Critical Zone Observatories Program is timely because of a growing sense of urgency within the scientific community that as climate is changing and lands are changing because of human use of the land surface, we’re permanently disturbing the way the Earth works.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If we don’t put a singular focus on understanding the critical zone,” explains Dawson, “as we march into the future and climate continues to change we’re not going to know how to mitigate for the kinds of impacts that humans and climate are actually having on resource balance on planet Earth.”\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>[contextly_auto_sidebar id=\"ngqJALTleeosh2JhvSQygf3ACavDlNee\"]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>According to a widely held belief, you can’t squeeze water from a rock. But researchers from UC Berkeley who are trying to better understand where water is stored in nature are challenging that old adage.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>After nearly ten years of studying a steep, 20-square-mile area near the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Fork_Eel_River\" target=\"_blank\">South Fork Eel River\u003c/a> in coastal Mendocino County, the scientists have shown that for trees and other plants, deep and highly fractured rock formations beneath the Earth’s surface are a much larger water reservoir than was previously known.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94852\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 900px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-94852\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto.jpg\" alt=\"LiDAR image illustrating a deep seated landslide underneath vegetative cover at the South Fork Eel River confluence with Tenmile Creek.\" width=\"900\" height=\"678\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto.jpg 900w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto-400x301.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/LiDAR3D_Landslide_Tenmile_900_678_80auto-800x603.jpg 800w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">LiDAR image illustrating a deep seated landslide underneath vegetative cover at the South Fork Eel River confluence with Tenmile Creek. \u003ccite>(Credit: Collin Bode, 2010)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The work to understand the role that “rock water” plays in the hydrologic cycle began in 2006 when researchers from UC Berkeley embarked on a multi-year study sponsored by the \u003ca href=\"http://www.wmkeck.org/\" target=\"_blank\">Keck Foundation \u003c/a>called the Hydrowatch project. It was designed to precisely monitor and measure the pathways of water in Mendocino County’s \u003ca href=\"http://angelo.berkeley.edu/\" target=\"_blank\">Angelo Coast Range Reserve \u003c/a>as it cycles from the groundwater table to the tops of trees and into the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We were really interested in learning the fate of precipitation in the land surface,” explains \u003ca href=\"http://nature.berkeley.edu/dawsonlab/people/todd-dawson/\" target=\"_blank\">Todd Dawson\u003c/a>, professor of \u003ca href=\"https://ib.berkeley.edu/\" target=\"_blank\">Integrative Biology at UC Berkeley\u003c/a>. “So really trying to figure out when precipitation arrives at the site, where does it get into the rock, where does it get into the stream, how does is recharge the ground water, how much of it is used by the vegetation, and ultimately, how much of it ends up in the streams and going back out to the Pacific Ocean.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learning more about where water consumed by forests, or flowing through streams actually comes from is important, the scientists say, in better understanding the impact of climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In 2013, the project expanded to become part of a landmark study sponsored by the National Science Foundation called the \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/national/\" target=\"_blank\">Critical Zone Observatories Program\u003c/a>. Today, the site is called the \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/eel/\" target=\"_blank\">Eel River CZO\u003c/a> and it’s part of a national network of ten similar watershed observation sites across the United States - each with unique climate, geology and vegetation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94854\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94854\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-1440x812.jpg\" alt=\"The ten environmental observatories within the CZO Network study the Earth's outer skin - where water, atmosphere, soil, ecosystems interact.\" width=\"640\" height=\"361\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-1440x812.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-400x225.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-800x451.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-1180x665.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/CZONationalMap-960x541.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The ten environmental observatories within the CZO Network study the Earth's outer skin - where water, atmosphere, soil, ecosystems interact. \u003ccite>(Credit: National Critical Zone Observatories)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The term “critical zone” is relatively new and is being used by scientists to define the zone that is tectonically, geologically and biologically active across the Earth’s surface. It represents a groundbreaking new approach to studying the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle\" target=\"_blank\">hydrologic cycle\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The critical zone really tries to capture this idea of the zone between bedrock beneath our feet, and the top of the vegetation where the trees are interacting with the atmosphere,” explains Dawson. “So it’s everything in between. It’s rock, it’s soil, it’s the vegetation, and it’s the atmosphere that’s coupled to that vegetation. That’s the critical zone. It’s where life meets rock.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94858\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94858\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-1440x1667.jpg\" alt=\"The critical zone is defined as the zone that is tectonically, geologically and biologically active across the Earth’s surface.\" width=\"640\" height=\"741\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-1440x1667.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-400x463.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-800x926.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-1180x1366.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/czone_chorover_et_al_catalina_jemez_czo-960x1112.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The critical zone is defined as the zone that is tectonically, geologically and biologically active across the Earth’s surface. \u003ccite>(Credit: Chorover et al., Catalina Jemez CZO)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Scientists across a broad range of earth, life and computer sciences – from microbiologists to geologists to electrical engineers - are now working together to conduct research and share data within the most comprehensive hydrologic science network in the world.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We’ve rarely studied all those things together at one site,” says \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/eel/people/person/dietrich-william/\" target=\"_blank\">William Dietrich\u003c/a>, professor of Earth and Planetary Science at UC Berkeley and lead Investigator at the Eel River CZO. “Geologists rarely work with microbiologists, and now all of us are working together at the same site to merge our information to see how each of the pieces work interdependently and impact the other pieces.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94856\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94856\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-1440x1080.jpg\" alt=\"Researchers collect soil and rock samples at the Eel River CZO.\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-1440x1080.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-400x300.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-800x600.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/IMG_3788-960x720.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Researchers collect soil and rock samples at the Eel River CZO. \u003ccite>(Credit: William Dietrich)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To gather information, researchers at the ten national sites scale trees and towers hundreds of feet tall and drill deep into bedrock to place sensors that collect climate information. Their instruments transmit real-time measurements of things like air temperature, rock moisture, soil, air and water content and stream flow.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some of the sites have so many instruments that the vegetation and landscapes look almost bionic. One tree in UC Merced’s \u003ca href=\"http://criticalzone.org/sierra/\" target=\"_blank\">Southern Sierra CZO\u003c/a> on the \u003ca href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Fork_Kings_River\" target=\"_blank\">North Fork Kings River\u003c/a> in Fresno County has been dubbed the “critical zone tree” because it’s adorned with nearly 200 sensors that measure things like humidity, temperature, and water movement through the tree via sap flux.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94860\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-large wp-image-94860\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-1440x1080.jpg\" alt='The \"critical zone tree\" in UC Merced’s Southern Sierra CZO has nearly 200 sensors.' width=\"640\" height=\"480\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-1440x1080.jpg 1440w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-400x300.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-800x600.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-1180x885.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/critical_zone_tree_1-960x720.jpg 960w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The \"critical zone tree\" in UC Merced’s Southern Sierra CZO has nearly 200 sensors. \u003ccite>(Credit: Southern Sierra CZO)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As a plant physiologist, Dawson’s part in the project is to provide information on the role that plants and trees are playing in how water moves through the Eel River watershed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Seventy-five to eighty percent of the water on this planet is recycled through agriculture, through forests, through the plants,” he explains. “You take those plants away, you remove that straw in the Earth, that conduit for water to move out of the soil and back into the atmosphere, and that eventually can lead to deserts expanding. It changes the climate. We know for example when trees were cut down in the Amazon, there was less precipitation.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One of the team’s main discoveries was that large amounts of water in the Eel River watershed is stored in the massive network of fractures in the rock that can be tens to hundreds of feet thick. This “rock water reservoir” is hidden deep inside the Earth, away from the influence of evaporation. It sits beneath the soil and above the saturated layer commonly called ground water and occupies the deepest part of what hydrologists call the “unsaturated zone”. Many trees reach their deep roots into this matrix of water-filled rock fissures and use the water stored there when other water sources dry out or become unavailable. Different types of rock store water in different ways.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We are thinking of them as different types of sponges in the subsurface in the way they take up and retain moisture and give back that moisture to the vegetation that is rooted into them,” says Dietrich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In additional to discovering the amount of water stored in underground rock fractures, Dawson and his team have learned that different types of trees actually use the “rock water” in very different ways depending on climate conditions. For example, the rock matrix inside slopes of hills is a key water resource for the largest trees in the watershed, like Douglas firs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hardwood trees like tanoak, madrone and live oaks rely largely on precipitation. But when drier times come, they shift to using the more stable groundwater below the surface and then may draw on some \"rock water\" in later summer and fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_94861\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" style=\"max-width: 900px\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-94861\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto.jpg\" alt=\"Todd Dawson trapping water vapor in the Eel River CZO.\" width=\"900\" height=\"675\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto.jpg 900w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto-400x300.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2015/11/todd_dawson_trapping_vapor_900_675_80auto-800x600.jpg 800w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 900px) 100vw, 900px\">\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Todd Dawson trapping water vapor in the Eel River CZO. \u003ccite>(Credit: Anthony Ambrose)\u003c/cite>\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Conifers play a larger role in moving water out of the subsurface areas in winter and early spring, Dawson says. And hardwoods are playing a larger role in summer and fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“As climate and the forest change over time,” he adds, “this will lead to changes in how water enters and leaves these ecosystems because of what the vegetation on the land surface is composed of.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The work being done within the National Critical Zone Observatories Program is timely because of a growing sense of urgency within the scientific community that as climate is changing and lands are changing because of human use of the land surface, we’re permanently disturbing the way the Earth works.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Having trouble viewing the video? Stream or download it on \u003ca href=\"http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/610dd6de-ac50-4be7-9af4-65aac2270180/the-combustion-of-wood/\"> PBS LearningMedia\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Combustion, which is simply the burning of something, is a rather complex chemical process. We rely quite heavily on combustion technologies for energy. For example, we burn gasoline to power our cars; we often burn oil or gas in home heating systems; and power plants usually burn coal, oil or natural gas to generate electricity.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many families, particularly in the developing world, burn wood and other biomass to cook food and heat their homes. However, burning wood and other solid fuels produces a lot of smoke, which is harmful to health and the environment. In fact, the \u003ca href=\"http://www.who.int/indoorair/en/\">World Health Organization\u003c/a> reports that approximately 4 million people die every year from diseases related to smoke inhalation from burning wood and other solid fuels in their homes for cooking and heating. Many of these deaths are young children.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Why does burning wood create so much pollution? The short answer is incomplete combustion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In order to get something to burn you need three things, all in the proper combination: fuel (such as wood, oil or gas), oxygen and heat. These requirements are referred to as the “combustion triangle.” With solid fuels, like wood and other biomass, it’s really difficult to get good mixing of the fuel, oxygen and heat in the proper ratio. For example, wood fires, especially those on the ground, don’t receive enough oxygen for the wood to burn completely. Similarly cool breezes can reduce the heat needed to sustain a flame. As a result, you are often left with unburned fuel, particulates, ash, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. These types of compounds are what make up smoke.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Watch the animation above to learn more about the chemistry of combustion.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This Science Spotlight video is part of our \u003ca href=\"http://learning.kqed.org/ebook/cookstoves/\" target=\"_blank\">Engineering Is: Saving the World with Cookstoves\u003c/a> e-book, and is a companion to our \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/darfur-stoves-project/\">Darfur Stoves Project\u003c/a> video. The e-book tells the story of how Professor Ashok Gadgil and his team at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory designed a cookstove to help internally displaced persons in Darfur. They are now working on designing a new wood-burning stove to reduce indoor air pollution. The e-book includes videos, interactives and media making opportunities that explore the science and engineering principles behind this project.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>Climate change is primarily caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases, or heat-trapping gases, in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are certain molecules in the air that have the ability to trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere. Some greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) and methane (CH\u003csub>4\u003c/sub>), occur naturally and play an important role in Earth's climate. If they didn't exist, the planet would be a much colder place. However, some human activities, such as mining and burning fossil fuels (like coal, oil and natural gas) for energy and transportation, emit molecules of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and other greenhouse gases. These activities cause greenhouse gases to accumulate in the air, and as these molecules build up in the atmosphere they cause an overall warming of the planet. Some greenhouse gases are entirely man-made and are products of certain industrial processes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"Sources of Greenhouse Gases\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/qxWNbHHcPRQ?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #444444\">\u003cem>Play the video to see sources of the main greenhouse gases.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not all greenhouse gases are created equal in terms of contributing to climate change. Their impact varies according to how long they remain in the atmosphere and how efficient they are at trapping heat. For example, methane, the main component in natural gas, remains in the atmosphere for a shorter time than CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, but is far more efficient at trapping heat, making it a more potent greenhouse gas. Nitrous oxide is less abundant than methane, but even more efficient at trapping heat, and it stays in the atmosphere for a long time. Understanding the impacts and sources of the main greenhouse gases can help inform strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more information, check out the \u003ca href=\"http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/\">EPA's resources on greenhouse gases.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the term \"greenhouse gas\" mean?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What role do greenhouse gases play in climate change?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What is the most prevalent greenhouse gas?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What are some of the major sources of greenhouse gases?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Which greenhouse gases do you think are of greatest concern in terms of global warming? Why?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>This video explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Climate change is primarily caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases, or heat-trapping gases, in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are certain molecules in the air that have the ability to trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere. Some greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) and methane (CH\u003csub>4\u003c/sub>), occur naturally and play an important role in Earth's climate. If they didn't exist, the planet would be a much colder place. However, some human activities, such as mining and burning fossil fuels (like coal, oil and natural gas) for energy and transportation, emit molecules of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and other greenhouse gases. These activities cause greenhouse gases to accumulate in the air, and as these molecules build up in the atmosphere they cause an overall warming of the planet. Some greenhouse gases are entirely man-made and are products of certain industrial processes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"Sources of Greenhouse Gases\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/qxWNbHHcPRQ?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #444444\">\u003cem>Play the video to see sources of the main greenhouse gases.\u003c/em>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Not all greenhouse gases are created equal in terms of contributing to climate change. Their impact varies according to how long they remain in the atmosphere and how efficient they are at trapping heat. For example, methane, the main component in natural gas, remains in the atmosphere for a shorter time than CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, but is far more efficient at trapping heat, making it a more potent greenhouse gas. Nitrous oxide is less abundant than methane, but even more efficient at trapping heat, and it stays in the atmosphere for a long time. Understanding the impacts and sources of the main greenhouse gases can help inform strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more information, check out the \u003ca href=\"http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/\">EPA's resources on greenhouse gases.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the term \"greenhouse gas\" mean?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What role do greenhouse gases play in climate change?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What is the most prevalent greenhouse gas?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What are some of the major sources of greenhouse gases?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Which greenhouse gases do you think are of greatest concern in terms of global warming? Why?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>This video explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>The Keeling Curve is one of the most compelling pieces of scientific evidence that shows that carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) is accumulating in our atmosphere. CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and help keep the planet warm. More greenhouse gas molecules in the air means more heat is trapped, leading to an overall warming of the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"The Keeling Curve Explained\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/H5gwH9r7FjQ?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Read the explanations in the video above to learn more about the Keeling Curve, which plots CO\u003csub>2 \u003c/sub>in the Earth’s atmosphere over time.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CO\u003csub>2 \u003c/sub>is a molecule made up of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms, and it moves in and out of the atmosphere through various process known as the carbon cycle. In the carbon cycle, natural processes like human respiration and volcanic activity release CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>. Plants absorb CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> during photosynthesis and the ocean absorbs it when CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air mixes with seawater. However, human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, like coal, oil and natural gas, also release CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> into the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since the start of the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, humans have been emitting more and more CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>. At the same time, forests all over the world are being cleared for agriculture and development. Deforestation not only leaves fewer plants to absorb the increasing amounts of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, but also adds CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> to the air when trees are burned or left to decay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until about the mid-20\u003csup>th\u003c/sup> century many scientists thought that the oceans would easily absorb the excess CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> emitted from fossil fuel burning, so there wasn't a great concern over the possible effects of increased emissions in the atmosphere. However, there wasn't a lot of data on the actual concentrations of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the atmosphere. In 1958, Charles Keeling of the Scripps Institute of Oceanography began measuring CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> levels in the air at a weather station in Hawaii and at the South Pole. After a few years, Keeling observed a steady increase in atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, an indication that fossil-fuel emissions were building up in the atmosphere. Due to funding cuts, Keeling had to stop measurements at the South Pole, but the weather station in Hawaii continues to measure concentrations of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>. The data from these measurements are plotted on a graph known as the Keeling Curve.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keeling's findings were so profound that they prompted the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to start monitoring CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> concentrations in other locations around the world. And, in July 2014, NASA launched the Orbiting Carbon Observatory, a satellite designed to gather the most precise data ever for tracking the carbon cycle on Earth. All of this data indicates that CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is building up in Earth's atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the Keeling Curve show about the concentrations of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the Earth's atmosphere?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why does the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> go up and down throughout the year?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why do you think Keeling chose Mauna Loa and Antarctica to measure atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why does the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> increase over time?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What does an increase in CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> levels in the atmosphere mean for global warming?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books or subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Explore the Keeling Curve, which has measured CO2 levels in the atmosphere since 1958, in this interactive graphic.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The Keeling Curve is one of the most compelling pieces of scientific evidence that shows that carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) is accumulating in our atmosphere. CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is a greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and help keep the planet warm. More greenhouse gas molecules in the air means more heat is trapped, leading to an overall warming of the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"The Keeling Curve Explained\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/H5gwH9r7FjQ?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Read the explanations in the video above to learn more about the Keeling Curve, which plots CO\u003csub>2 \u003c/sub>in the Earth’s atmosphere over time.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>CO\u003csub>2 \u003c/sub>is a molecule made up of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms, and it moves in and out of the atmosphere through various process known as the carbon cycle. In the carbon cycle, natural processes like human respiration and volcanic activity release CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>. Plants absorb CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> during photosynthesis and the ocean absorbs it when CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air mixes with seawater. However, human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, like coal, oil and natural gas, also release CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> into the atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Since the start of the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, humans have been emitting more and more CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>. At the same time, forests all over the world are being cleared for agriculture and development. Deforestation not only leaves fewer plants to absorb the increasing amounts of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, but also adds CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> to the air when trees are burned or left to decay.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Until about the mid-20\u003csup>th\u003c/sup> century many scientists thought that the oceans would easily absorb the excess CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> emitted from fossil fuel burning, so there wasn't a great concern over the possible effects of increased emissions in the atmosphere. However, there wasn't a lot of data on the actual concentrations of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the atmosphere. In 1958, Charles Keeling of the Scripps Institute of Oceanography began measuring CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> levels in the air at a weather station in Hawaii and at the South Pole. After a few years, Keeling observed a steady increase in atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, an indication that fossil-fuel emissions were building up in the atmosphere. Due to funding cuts, Keeling had to stop measurements at the South Pole, but the weather station in Hawaii continues to measure concentrations of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>. The data from these measurements are plotted on a graph known as the Keeling Curve.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Keeling's findings were so profound that they prompted the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to start monitoring CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> concentrations in other locations around the world. And, in July 2014, NASA launched the Orbiting Carbon Observatory, a satellite designed to gather the most precise data ever for tracking the carbon cycle on Earth. All of this data indicates that CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is building up in Earth's atmosphere.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the Keeling Curve show about the concentrations of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the Earth's atmosphere?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why does the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> go up and down throughout the year?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why do you think Keeling chose Mauna Loa and Antarctica to measure atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why does the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> increase over time?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What does an increase in CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> levels in the atmosphere mean for global warming?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books or subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "How Do Greenhouse Gases Work?",
"title": "How Do Greenhouse Gases Work?",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>Climate change is primarily caused by the accumulation of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere. In the mid-1800s, physicist John Tyndall conducted experiments and found that some molecules present in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>), actually trap heat from the sun and help keep the planet warm. Molecules that have the ability to trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"embed-youtube\" style=\"text-align:center; display: block;\">\u003ciframe class=\"youtube-player\" type=\"text/html\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/EB_S_9BKcmo?version=3&rel=1&fs=1&autohide=2&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&wmode=transparent\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" style=\"border:0;\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #444444\"> \u003c/span>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Click on the video above to explore how greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Major greenhouse gases, like CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and methane (CH\u003csub>4\u003c/sub>), occur naturally and play an important role in Earth's climate. If they didn't exist, Earth would be a much colder planet. However, some human activities like mining and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) for energy and transportation emit molecules of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and other greenhouse gases into the air. As we burn and mine more fossil fuels, greenhouse gases build up in the atmosphere and cause an overall warming of the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Click on the above video to learn how greenhouse gases trap radiation from the sun and warm the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Where does infrared radiation (IR) come from?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What can greenhouse gas molecules do when they encounter infrared radiation (IR)?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Describe how greenhouse gas molecules trap heat in the atmosphere.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Explain how the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere warms the planet.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>This video explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Climate change is primarily caused by the accumulation of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere. In the mid-1800s, physicist John Tyndall conducted experiments and found that some molecules present in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>), actually trap heat from the sun and help keep the planet warm. Molecules that have the ability to trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan class=\"embed-youtube\" style=\"text-align:center; display: block;\">\u003ciframe class=\"youtube-player\" type=\"text/html\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/EB_S_9BKcmo?version=3&rel=1&fs=1&autohide=2&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&wmode=transparent\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" style=\"border:0;\">\u003c/iframe>\u003c/span>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cspan style=\"color: #444444\"> \u003c/span>\u003cbr>\n\u003cem>Click on the video above to explore how greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Major greenhouse gases, like CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and methane (CH\u003csub>4\u003c/sub>), occur naturally and play an important role in Earth's climate. If they didn't exist, Earth would be a much colder planet. However, some human activities like mining and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) for energy and transportation emit molecules of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and other greenhouse gases into the air. As we burn and mine more fossil fuels, greenhouse gases build up in the atmosphere and cause an overall warming of the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Click on the above video to learn how greenhouse gases trap radiation from the sun and warm the planet.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Where does infrared radiation (IR) come from?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What can greenhouse gas molecules do when they encounter infrared radiation (IR)?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Describe how greenhouse gas molecules trap heat in the atmosphere.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Explain how the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere warms the planet.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>This video explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"slug": "water-vapors-role-in-climate-change",
"title": "Water Vapor's Role in Climate Change",
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"content": "\u003cp>Water covers nearly three-quarters of Earth. It is continuously moving above, on and below Earth’s surface, cycling among ice, liquid water and vapor. This cycling of water shapes the climate by delivering rain and snow, and it supports life on Earth. Water and climate are deeply interconnected, and as the climate changes so does the distribution and cycling of Earth’s water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Discover how water and climate affect each other by watching the video in the graphic above.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With climate change, Earth is getting warmer as greenhouse gases build up and trap more heat in the atmosphere. These warmer temperatures cause increased evaporation of water from places like oceans, lakes, streams and soil. This leads to higher levels of water vapor in the atmosphere, which means that precipitation events tend to be heavier. Whether the water falls as rain or snow depends on temperature. Therefore, if winter temperatures remain below freezing in areas like the northeastern United States, the increased moisture in the air could mean heavier snow storms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Increased water vapor in the air can also further increase warming. Water vapor is actually a greenhouse gas, which traps heat in the atmosphere and causes temperatures to rise. But unlike other greenhouse gases that can linger in the atmosphere for years, water vapor usually stays in the air for a few days before falling back to Earth as precipitation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, as warm temperatures lead to more water vapor in the air, more water vapor in the air leads to warmer temperatures, which creates a positive feedback loop. A positive feedback loop is called “positive” not because it’s a good thing, but rather because the effects of one process enhance the effects of another, which in turn positively reinforce the effects of the original.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Why is water vapor considered a “greenhouse gas?”\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How does water vapor differ from other greenhouse gases?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Using water vapor as an example, describe what is meant by a “positive feedback loop.”\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How can heavier snow events be explained in terms of climate change?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Learn how water and the Earth's climate directly affect each other in this interactive graphic.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Water covers nearly three-quarters of Earth. It is continuously moving above, on and below Earth’s surface, cycling among ice, liquid water and vapor. This cycling of water shapes the climate by delivering rain and snow, and it supports life on Earth. Water and climate are deeply interconnected, and as the climate changes so does the distribution and cycling of Earth’s water.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp> \u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Discover how water and climate affect each other by watching the video in the graphic above.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With climate change, Earth is getting warmer as greenhouse gases build up and trap more heat in the atmosphere. These warmer temperatures cause increased evaporation of water from places like oceans, lakes, streams and soil. This leads to higher levels of water vapor in the atmosphere, which means that precipitation events tend to be heavier. Whether the water falls as rain or snow depends on temperature. Therefore, if winter temperatures remain below freezing in areas like the northeastern United States, the increased moisture in the air could mean heavier snow storms.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Increased water vapor in the air can also further increase warming. Water vapor is actually a greenhouse gas, which traps heat in the atmosphere and causes temperatures to rise. But unlike other greenhouse gases that can linger in the atmosphere for years, water vapor usually stays in the air for a few days before falling back to Earth as precipitation.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, as warm temperatures lead to more water vapor in the air, more water vapor in the air leads to warmer temperatures, which creates a positive feedback loop. A positive feedback loop is called “positive” not because it’s a good thing, but rather because the effects of one process enhance the effects of another, which in turn positively reinforce the effects of the original.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>Why is water vapor considered a “greenhouse gas?”\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How does water vapor differ from other greenhouse gases?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Using water vapor as an example, describe what is meant by a “positive feedback loop.”\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How can heavier snow events be explained in terms of climate change?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>This video explainer is part of our \u003ca href=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/quest/collections/clue-into-climate/\">Clue into Climate\u003c/a> collection of resources.\u003c/p>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Ocean Acidification and Marine Life",
"title": "Ocean Acidification and Marine Life",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, we have been mining and burning coal, oil and natural gas for energy and transportation. These processes release carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) into the atmosphere. It is well established that the rising level of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in our atmosphere is a major cause of global warming. However, the increase in CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is also causing changes to the chemistry of the ocean. The ocean absorbs some of the excess atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, which causes what scientists call \u003cstrong>ocean acidification\u003c/strong>. And ocean acidification could have major impacts on marine life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"Ocean Acidification Video\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/yH3E7Vs1Nj8?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Watch the video to see how ocean acidification is affecting some shelled marine organisms.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What exactly is ocean acidification? Acidity is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) in a given solution. When CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air mixes with ocean water it combines and forms carbonic acid (H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>). The carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) and bicarbonate (HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup>) ions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> (carbon dioxide) + H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O (water) → H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid)\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid) → H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup> (hydrogen ions) + HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup> (bicarbonate) \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This chemical reaction causes an increase in hydrogen ions in the seawater, thus increasing ocean acidity. The acidity of a solution is often reported in terms of pH. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A value below 7 is acidic and a value above 7 is basic. The more acidic a solution, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions and the lower the pH. There are many different ways to measure pH, ranging from litmus paper to sophisticated sensors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last several decades scientists have been measuring the levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and pH throughout the ocean. \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/file/Hawaii+Carbon+Dioxide+Time-Series\">Data\u003c/a> from these types of measurements show that as the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the atmosphere increases, levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the ocean also increase, increasing the levels of hydrogen ions and thus decreasing the pH of the ocean. This suggests that atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is contributing to the acidification of the ocean. It's important to note that the pH of the ocean is still basic (around a pH of 8), but scientists use the term ocean acidification to indicate the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean, which lowers the ocean's pH.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ocean acidification could have major impacts on the health and biodiversity of the ocean. For example, the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean is making it harder for some marine invertebrates like corals, oysters and tiny sea snails to form their shells and grow. This has implications that extend throughout the marine food web.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the term ocean acidification mean?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why is the ocean becoming more acidic?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>If the pH of the ocean is still around 8, why do scientists use the term ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How does a decrease in ocean pH affect the ability of some marine organisms to build their shells?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What do you think are some possible effects of ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "In this interactive graphic, discover how carbon dioxide from the atmosphere mixes with the ocean making it difficult for shellfish to thrive. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, we have been mining and burning coal, oil and natural gas for energy and transportation. These processes release carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) into the atmosphere. It is well established that the rising level of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in our atmosphere is a major cause of global warming. However, the increase in CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is also causing changes to the chemistry of the ocean. The ocean absorbs some of the excess atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, which causes what scientists call \u003cstrong>ocean acidification\u003c/strong>. And ocean acidification could have major impacts on marine life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"Ocean Acidification Video\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/yH3E7Vs1Nj8?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Watch the video to see how ocean acidification is affecting some shelled marine organisms.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What exactly is ocean acidification? Acidity is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) in a given solution. When CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air mixes with ocean water it combines and forms carbonic acid (H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>). The carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) and bicarbonate (HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup>) ions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> (carbon dioxide) + H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O (water) → H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid)\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid) → H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup> (hydrogen ions) + HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup> (bicarbonate) \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This chemical reaction causes an increase in hydrogen ions in the seawater, thus increasing ocean acidity. The acidity of a solution is often reported in terms of pH. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A value below 7 is acidic and a value above 7 is basic. The more acidic a solution, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions and the lower the pH. There are many different ways to measure pH, ranging from litmus paper to sophisticated sensors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last several decades scientists have been measuring the levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and pH throughout the ocean. \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/file/Hawaii+Carbon+Dioxide+Time-Series\">Data\u003c/a> from these types of measurements show that as the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the atmosphere increases, levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the ocean also increase, increasing the levels of hydrogen ions and thus decreasing the pH of the ocean. This suggests that atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is contributing to the acidification of the ocean. It's important to note that the pH of the ocean is still basic (around a pH of 8), but scientists use the term ocean acidification to indicate the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean, which lowers the ocean's pH.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ocean acidification could have major impacts on the health and biodiversity of the ocean. For example, the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean is making it harder for some marine invertebrates like corals, oysters and tiny sea snails to form their shells and grow. This has implications that extend throughout the marine food web.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the term ocean acidification mean?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why is the ocean becoming more acidic?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>If the pH of the ocean is still around 8, why do scientists use the term ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How does a decrease in ocean pH affect the ability of some marine organisms to build their shells?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What do you think are some possible effects of ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "The Sweet Science of Chocolate",
"title": "The Sweet Science of Chocolate",
"headTitle": "QUEST | KQED Science",
"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>This video story was originally produced by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennyoh/\">Jenny Oh\u003c/a> and was updated by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/lisalanders/\">Lisa Landers\u003c/a> and Arwen Curry.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Chocolate is the solid gold of sweets, providing a standard of delectability that’s been upheld around the globe for more than 2,000 years. The ancient Mayans and Aztecs even used the pods of the cacao tree, which produces chocolate, as currency. They also used cacao as a tonic to improve overall health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72953\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72953 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript. Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript.\u003cbr> Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today’s scientists agree with the ancients: chocolate, in small doses, is not just delicious -- \u003ca href=\"http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/healthy-chocolate/faq-20058044\">it’s actually good for you\u003c/a>. This is particularly true of dark chocolate, which is rich in compounds called flavanols. Also found in red wine, tea and berries, \u003ca href=\"http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/flavonoids-good-for-3158.html\">flavanols have an antioxidant effect\u003c/a>, reducing cell damage and heart disease. Research also strongly suggests that they support healthy blood pressure and reduce the chances of strokes and heart attacks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re really good at really scavenging or sopping up these free radicals that can damage your cells,” said Mary Engler, a senior clinician and training director at the National Institutes of Health, NINR, in Bethesda, MD. Engler has studied the health effects of chocolate and other flavonols since 2001.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72949\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 282px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-72949\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800-282x169.jpg\" alt=\"Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day. Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\" width=\"282\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day.\u003cbr>Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Pregnant women should take special note: Regular intake of chocolate -- the darker the better -- during pregnancy appears to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901253/\">lower the risk of pre-eclampsia\u003c/a>, a dangerous complication. A 2013 study at the University of Helsinki, Finland also showed that \u003ca href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3604275.stm\">women who eat chocolate every day during pregnancy report calmer, happier babies\u003c/a> six months after giving birth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Milk and white chocolate lovers, you're out of luck: you’ll get all the butter, fat, and sugar, but \u003ca href=\"http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS014067360761873X/fulltext\">no circulation-boosting flavanols\u003c/a>. Even dark chocolate is rich and should be eaten in moderation, and beware: some manufacturers artificially darken their product and remove the bitter cacao solids, which contain the healthy compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72948\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72948 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Scientist hope that advanced genomics will help to minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree. Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists are using advanced genomics to help minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree.\u003cbr> Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As beloved as it is, it’s not surprising that chocolate is an important crop for farmers around the world. Roughly 70 percent of cacao is produced in equatorial Africa, where two million small-scale farms depend on the crop. But cocoa production has long suffered from serious losses due to pests, drought and diseases. A third of the cocoa produced in Africa -- $800 million’s worth -- is lost each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fortunately, there’s relief in sight for cacao farmers and the consumers who depend on them. In 2010, scientists at the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service and universities partnered with IBM and the candy company Mars to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">se\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">quence the genome of cacao\u003c/a>, in order to help identify the markers of a more sustainable crop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72947\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72947 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800-280x169.jpg\" alt=\"A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\" width=\"280\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cacao genome sequence has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.cacaogenomedb.org/\">released for free on the internet\u003c/a>, where it can be accessed by researchers who can use it to improve cacao breeding techniques. Farmers can also use the cacao database to select the breeds that will flourish best under changing local conditions. And that’s sweet news for the future of one of the world’s favorite treats.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Everybody loves chocolate, but did you know that small daily doses of dark chocolate are good for your health? Read the story and watch the video to learn about the precision engineering and chemistry behind the beloved treat. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>This video story was originally produced by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/jennyoh/\">Jenny Oh\u003c/a> and was updated by \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/lisalanders/\">Lisa Landers\u003c/a> and Arwen Curry.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Chocolate is the solid gold of sweets, providing a standard of delectability that’s been upheld around the globe for more than 2,000 years. The ancient Mayans and Aztecs even used the pods of the cacao tree, which produces chocolate, as currency. They also used cacao as a tonic to improve overall health.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72953\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72953 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_McNeil_Guerra_Codex_FM_800-450x253.jpg\" alt=\"Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript. Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\" width=\"450\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Drawing of cacao pods based on the The Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, an ancient Aztec manuscript.\u003cbr> Courtesy Cameron McNeil and Eliud Guerra.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Today’s scientists agree with the ancients: chocolate, in small doses, is not just delicious -- \u003ca href=\"http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/healthy-chocolate/faq-20058044\">it’s actually good for you\u003c/a>. This is particularly true of dark chocolate, which is rich in compounds called flavanols. Also found in red wine, tea and berries, \u003ca href=\"http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/flavonoids-good-for-3158.html\">flavanols have an antioxidant effect\u003c/a>, reducing cell damage and heart disease. Research also strongly suggests that they support healthy blood pressure and reduce the chances of strokes and heart attacks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“They’re really good at really scavenging or sopping up these free radicals that can damage your cells,” said Mary Engler, a senior clinician and training director at the National Institutes of Health, NINR, in Bethesda, MD. Engler has studied the health effects of chocolate and other flavonols since 2001.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72949\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 282px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-72949\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Streeter_Pregnant_800-282x169.jpg\" alt=\"Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day. Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\" width=\"282\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pregnant women and their babies may benefit from eating small amounts of dark chocolate every day.\u003cbr>Artwork by Katherine Streeter.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Pregnant women should take special note: Regular intake of chocolate -- the darker the better -- during pregnancy appears to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901253/\">lower the risk of pre-eclampsia\u003c/a>, a dangerous complication. A 2013 study at the University of Helsinki, Finland also showed that \u003ca href=\"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3604275.stm\">women who eat chocolate every day during pregnancy report calmer, happier babies\u003c/a> six months after giving birth.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Milk and white chocolate lovers, you're out of luck: you’ll get all the butter, fat, and sugar, but \u003ca href=\"http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS014067360761873X/fulltext\">no circulation-boosting flavanols\u003c/a>. Even dark chocolate is rich and should be eaten in moderation, and beware: some manufacturers artificially darken their product and remove the bitter cacao solids, which contain the healthy compounds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72948\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72948 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/USDA_Infected_Cacao_k9542-2_800-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Scientist hope that advanced genomics will help to minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree. Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists are using advanced genomics to help minimize cacao crop loss due to fungal disease, which has afflicted these pods in Costa Rica, causing them to rot on the tree.\u003cbr> Photo by Christopher J. Saunders/USDA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>As beloved as it is, it’s not surprising that chocolate is an important crop for farmers around the world. Roughly 70 percent of cacao is produced in equatorial Africa, where two million small-scale farms depend on the crop. But cocoa production has long suffered from serious losses due to pests, drought and diseases. A third of the cocoa produced in Africa -- $800 million’s worth -- is lost each year.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Fortunately, there’s relief in sight for cacao farmers and the consumers who depend on them. In 2010, scientists at the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service and universities partnered with IBM and the candy company Mars to \u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">se\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100915.htm\">quence the genome of cacao\u003c/a>, in order to help identify the markers of a more sustainable crop.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72947\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 280px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72947 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/11/Chocolate_TCHO_PeruPix-10-08-12_800-280x169.jpg\" alt=\"A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\" width=\"280\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A Peruvian cacao farmer with a batch of beans. Courtesy TCHO.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The cacao genome sequence has been \u003ca href=\"http://www.cacaogenomedb.org/\">released for free on the internet\u003c/a>, where it can be accessed by researchers who can use it to improve cacao breeding techniques. Farmers can also use the cacao database to select the breeds that will flourish best under changing local conditions. And that’s sweet news for the future of one of the world’s favorite treats.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Condors vs. Lead Bullets",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>This video story was originally produced by Christopher Bauer and updated by Sheraz Sadiq.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In October 2013, California Gov. Jerry Brown signed a new law banning the use of lead bullets for hunting anywhere in the state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Supporters of the bill, \u003ca href=\"http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140AB711\">AB 711\u003c/a>, say it was created to protect wildlife, especially the endangered California condor, an iconic native species that was brought back from the brink of extinction in the early 1980s with a captive breeding program that today has resulted in more than 420 condors in a range that encompasses parts of California, Arizona, Utah and Baja, Mexico.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As scavengers, wild condors can be sickened, or killed, by lead poisoning when they eat the carcasses of animals that have been shot with lead bullets, and ingest the bullet fragments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72481\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72481\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310.jpg\" alt=\"Condors can get lead poisoning when ingesting carcasses shot with lead bullets and left by hunters, ranchers or poachers. Image courtesy of Tim Huntington / Ventana Wilderness Society. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Condors can get lead poisoning when ingesting carcasses shot with lead bullets and left by hunters, ranchers or poachers. Image courtesy of Tim Huntington / Ventana Wilderness Society.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“When lead enters the bloodstream, it blocks neurological receptors that control the digestive system,” said Kelly Sorenson, executive director of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ventanaws.org/\">Ventana Wildlife Society\u003c/a>, a non-profit organization that rehabilitates condors along California’s central coast. “So literally what happens is the bird starves to death because it doesn’t know that it’s hungry.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Condors sickened by lead poisoning can be treated with chelation, a medical procedure that removes lead in the birds’ bloodstream by binding it to heavy metals that the birds can then excrete. Scientific labs at the University of California, Santa Cruz and other institutions have matched lead removed from sickened birds to lead used in traditional hunting ammunition.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Environmental and wildlife organizations such as \u003ca href=\"http://ca.audubon.org/banning-lead-ammunition-condor-habitat\">Audubon California\u003c/a> and The Humane Society of the United States supported AB 711, while the\u003ca href=\"http://home.nra.org\"> National Rifle Association\u003c/a> and hunting groups opposed it. Critics noted the extra cost of non-lead ammunition, which can be twice as expensive or more than traditional hunting ammunition. In response to this argument, the bill authorized the California Fish and Game Commission to implement the state-wide lead bullet ban by 2019, which would allow ammunition manufacturers time to ramp up the production of bullets made with non-toxic metal alloys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bill Gaines, a Sacramento-based hunter and lobbyist, said the ban is unnecessary because a 2007 state law already bans the use of lead ammunition in the condors’ California range, which extends roughly from Monterey to Ventura county.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When it comes to the rest of the state where the condors aren’t, there’s really nothing we can do to benefit the condors in those parts of the state, and hunters should be allowed to use lead ammunition in those parts of the state” Gaines said. He also said he believes that “the jury is still out” on the source of the lead poisoning the condors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Supporters of the new law, however, note that condors eat dozens of dead deer, wild pigs and other animals every year, and can be poisoned if just one has lead in it from a poacher, rancher or hunter who ignored the law.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72480\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72480 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark.jpg\" alt=\"In 2014, officials at Zion National Park in southern Utah recorded the birth of the first condor chick hatched in the wild in Utah. This is an image of one of the parents. Image courtesy of Eric Newmark / National Park Service\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">In 2014, officials at Zion National Park recorded the birth of the first condor chick hatched to a pair of adults in the wild in southern Utah. Image courtesy of Eric Newmark / National Park Service\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Lead poisoning is the leading cause of death among California condors, with more than 50 wild condors dying from it since 1992. For organizations working to save the California condor, conservation efforts are yielding results: the bird’s range today appears to be expanding. In June of 2014, for the first time in more than 100 years, \u003ca href=\"http://www.mercurynews.com/science/ci_25959192/first-california-condor-spotted-san-mateo-county-since\">a wild California condor was spotted in San Mateo county\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Also in 2014, National Park Service officials reported the birth of Utah’s first condor chick in the wild in \u003ca href=\"http://wildlife.utah.gov/wildlife-news/1460-biologists-catch-glimpse-of-utah-condor-chick.html\">Zion National Park\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With a wingspan that can reach nearly 10 feet, the California condor is the largest flying bird in North America. As tagged condors spread their wings and expand their range, their chances for survival in the wild still remain uncertain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTIDkj9Tn58\">Watch the full episode of QUEST.\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>This video story was originally produced by Christopher Bauer and updated by Sheraz Sadiq.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In October 2013, California Gov. Jerry Brown signed a new law banning the use of lead bullets for hunting anywhere in the state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Supporters of the bill, \u003ca href=\"http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140AB711\">AB 711\u003c/a>, say it was created to protect wildlife, especially the endangered California condor, an iconic native species that was brought back from the brink of extinction in the early 1980s with a captive breeding program that today has resulted in more than 420 condors in a range that encompasses parts of California, Arizona, Utah and Baja, Mexico.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>As scavengers, wild condors can be sickened, or killed, by lead poisoning when they eat the carcasses of animals that have been shot with lead bullets, and ingest the bullet fragments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72481\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72481\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310.jpg\" alt=\"Condors can get lead poisoning when ingesting carcasses shot with lead bullets and left by hunters, ranchers or poachers. Image courtesy of Tim Huntington / Ventana Wilderness Society. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/THuntington_VentanaWildernessSociety_2_ffvid_6310-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Condors can get lead poisoning when ingesting carcasses shot with lead bullets and left by hunters, ranchers or poachers. Image courtesy of Tim Huntington / Ventana Wilderness Society.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“When lead enters the bloodstream, it blocks neurological receptors that control the digestive system,” said Kelly Sorenson, executive director of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.ventanaws.org/\">Ventana Wildlife Society\u003c/a>, a non-profit organization that rehabilitates condors along California’s central coast. “So literally what happens is the bird starves to death because it doesn’t know that it’s hungry.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Condors sickened by lead poisoning can be treated with chelation, a medical procedure that removes lead in the birds’ bloodstream by binding it to heavy metals that the birds can then excrete. Scientific labs at the University of California, Santa Cruz and other institutions have matched lead removed from sickened birds to lead used in traditional hunting ammunition.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Environmental and wildlife organizations such as \u003ca href=\"http://ca.audubon.org/banning-lead-ammunition-condor-habitat\">Audubon California\u003c/a> and The Humane Society of the United States supported AB 711, while the\u003ca href=\"http://home.nra.org\"> National Rifle Association\u003c/a> and hunting groups opposed it. Critics noted the extra cost of non-lead ammunition, which can be twice as expensive or more than traditional hunting ammunition. In response to this argument, the bill authorized the California Fish and Game Commission to implement the state-wide lead bullet ban by 2019, which would allow ammunition manufacturers time to ramp up the production of bullets made with non-toxic metal alloys.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Bill Gaines, a Sacramento-based hunter and lobbyist, said the ban is unnecessary because a 2007 state law already bans the use of lead ammunition in the condors’ California range, which extends roughly from Monterey to Ventura county.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“When it comes to the rest of the state where the condors aren’t, there’s really nothing we can do to benefit the condors in those parts of the state, and hunters should be allowed to use lead ammunition in those parts of the state” Gaines said. He also said he believes that “the jury is still out” on the source of the lead poisoning the condors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Supporters of the new law, however, note that condors eat dozens of dead deer, wild pigs and other animals every year, and can be poisoned if just one has lead in it from a poacher, rancher or hunter who ignored the law.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72480\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72480 size-full\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark.jpg\" alt=\"In 2014, officials at Zion National Park in southern Utah recorded the birth of the first condor chick hatched in the wild in Utah. This is an image of one of the parents. Image courtesy of Eric Newmark / National Park Service\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Zion_NationalPark_CU_2_NPSPhoto-EricNewmark-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">In 2014, officials at Zion National Park recorded the birth of the first condor chick hatched to a pair of adults in the wild in southern Utah. Image courtesy of Eric Newmark / National Park Service\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Lead poisoning is the leading cause of death among California condors, with more than 50 wild condors dying from it since 1992. For organizations working to save the California condor, conservation efforts are yielding results: the bird’s range today appears to be expanding. In June of 2014, for the first time in more than 100 years, \u003ca href=\"http://www.mercurynews.com/science/ci_25959192/first-california-condor-spotted-san-mateo-county-since\">a wild California condor was spotted in San Mateo county\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Also in 2014, National Park Service officials reported the birth of Utah’s first condor chick in the wild in \u003ca href=\"http://wildlife.utah.gov/wildlife-news/1460-biologists-catch-glimpse-of-utah-condor-chick.html\">Zion National Park\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>With a wingspan that can reach nearly 10 feet, the California condor is the largest flying bird in North America. As tagged condors spread their wings and expand their range, their chances for survival in the wild still remain uncertain.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTIDkj9Tn58\">Watch the full episode of QUEST.\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Will Recycling Phosphorus Help Stop Algae Blooms?",
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"content": "\u003cp>We depend on big farms for our food. For crops, that means a lot of fertilizer; for animals, that means a lot of waste. For the lakes near these farms, that means a lot of phosphorus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phosphorus washes into lakes with manure and fertilizer and the erosion of phosphorus-rich, fertilized soil. Cyanobacteria feast on that glut of nutrients and their populations explode, with dramatic consequences for the aquatic life in the lake and the people who depend on it. The toxic bloom of cyanobacteria that made Toledo’s water undrinkable in the summer of 2014 is just one example of what can happen when the biochemistry of a lake drifts out of balance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Steve Carpenter, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the director of its \u003ca href=\"http://limnology.wisc.edu\">Center for Limnology\u003c/a>, describes phosphorus management as the “keystone” issue for healthy lakes. “If we can get phosphorus under control,” he said, “we have a much better shot at dealing with all of the other problems that the lakes have,” like invasive species, which can swoop in when a lake’s nutrient levels are unbalanced. There are ways to slow the gush of phosphorus into nearby lakes, such as contour plowing and winter cover crops, but Carpenter explains that the phosphorus load has \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/writers/jessica_vanegeren/q-a-steve-carpenter-is-optimistic-about-solving-madison-s/article_dcfc6c15-953e-5ca2-b80e-80439dfe194d.html\">gotten so high\u003c/a> that those kinds of strategies “almost don’t matter anymore.” Instead, we have to remove phosphorus from the system entirely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This summer Madison, Wisconsin, \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/local/environment/new-technology-extracts-valuable-fertilizer-from-waste/article_3223b32e-408c-5aea-8680-c06992216e59.html\">unveiled\u003c/a> its new phosphorus recycling facility, the state’s first. It’s part of a strategy by the city’s wastewater-treatment utility to reduce the amount of phosphorus that ends up in the lakes. The recycling program takes most of the phosphorus out of the agricultural fertilizer that the plant produces and puts it in a lake-friendly fertilizer designed to be used on urban lawns and gardens.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72157\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72157\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\" alt=\"A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Steve Reusser, an operations engineer who helped develop the phosphorus harvesting process, explains that it relies on a careful combination of engineering and biology. Certain species of bacteria, which, like plants, also need phosphorus to survive, either absorb or release phosphorus depending on whether there is oxygen present or not. Wastewater is full of phosphorus from human waste. At the treatment facility, it’s stocked with what Reusser characterizes as “a zoo of different kinds of bacteria.” As it wends its way through the facility’s tanks and filters, the oxygen concentration and filtration systems are manipulated in concert to yield two separate products: a sludgy solid that contains a lot of bacteria and not much phosphorus, and water that is phosphorus rich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The liquid is combined with two other chemicals that pull that phosphorus out of the water to form tiny particles of a mineral called struvite. These tiny particles are built up layer by layer, like a pearl. The end product is more than a ton of smooth, cream-colored struvite pellets--a ton and a half of them every day. Struvite contains nitrogen and magnesium as well as phosphorus. All three are important nutrients for plants, so a company called Ostara (which helped develop the recycling process) buys back the pellets from the Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD) and turns them into a special \u003ca href=\"http://www.crystalgreen.com/about-crystal-green\">plant-activated fertilizer\u003c/a> that releases phosphorus only when it is near growing roots. In other words, it won’t feed algae blooms in lakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72159\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72159\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\" alt=\"The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The gray, smelly, sludgy solid left behind at the treatment facility is trucked to farms where it’s used as fertilizer. Despite thoughtfully designed application methods that keep much of it below ground, sooner or later that fertilizer will reach Madison’s lakes. Since the implementation of the phosphorus recovery program, the amount of phosphorus in the fertilizer has been reduced by 85 percent. That means that the thousands of acres where this fertilizer is applied will be sending much less phosphorus into the watershed than before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In addition to cleaning up the water and providing a new income stream, deliberately recycling phosphorus into struvite pellets also keeps the struvite from building up in pipes and tanks, where it had been a perpetual nuisance. MMSD Director Michael Mucha explains that this is becoming a common theme: the environmentally responsible thing to do turns out to be cost-effective, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And Mucha isn’t stopping there. He is also working with farmers to help develop methods that will keep phosphorus out of the lakes. Reducing phosphorus in fertilizer isn’t the only issue: manure is a major piece of the puzzle. Mucha is advocating that farmers use holding tanks and manure digesters. “Our industry is changing,” he said. “As engineers, the way we would always solve a problem is build a bigger treatment plant, [but] actually, the better solution many times is not building at all. It’s working with people to change behavior.” He admits, though, that it typically takes longer, and, he laughs, “There’s no spec book.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, in the meantime, a ton and a half a day of phosphorus pellets is a good place to start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>For more on how water affects communities, and where we might be 50 years from now, check out the QUEST video “\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/picturing-a-future-wrought-by-climate-change/\">Picturing a Future Wrought by Climate Change\u003c/a>.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "A new Wisconsin facility aims to clean up algae-plagued lakes by stripping phosphorus out of wastewater.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>We depend on big farms for our food. For crops, that means a lot of fertilizer; for animals, that means a lot of waste. For the lakes near these farms, that means a lot of phosphorus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phosphorus washes into lakes with manure and fertilizer and the erosion of phosphorus-rich, fertilized soil. Cyanobacteria feast on that glut of nutrients and their populations explode, with dramatic consequences for the aquatic life in the lake and the people who depend on it. The toxic bloom of cyanobacteria that made Toledo’s water undrinkable in the summer of 2014 is just one example of what can happen when the biochemistry of a lake drifts out of balance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Steve Carpenter, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the director of its \u003ca href=\"http://limnology.wisc.edu\">Center for Limnology\u003c/a>, describes phosphorus management as the “keystone” issue for healthy lakes. “If we can get phosphorus under control,” he said, “we have a much better shot at dealing with all of the other problems that the lakes have,” like invasive species, which can swoop in when a lake’s nutrient levels are unbalanced. There are ways to slow the gush of phosphorus into nearby lakes, such as contour plowing and winter cover crops, but Carpenter explains that the phosphorus load has \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/writers/jessica_vanegeren/q-a-steve-carpenter-is-optimistic-about-solving-madison-s/article_dcfc6c15-953e-5ca2-b80e-80439dfe194d.html\">gotten so high\u003c/a> that those kinds of strategies “almost don’t matter anymore.” Instead, we have to remove phosphorus from the system entirely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This summer Madison, Wisconsin, \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/local/environment/new-technology-extracts-valuable-fertilizer-from-waste/article_3223b32e-408c-5aea-8680-c06992216e59.html\">unveiled\u003c/a> its new phosphorus recycling facility, the state’s first. It’s part of a strategy by the city’s wastewater-treatment utility to reduce the amount of phosphorus that ends up in the lakes. The recycling program takes most of the phosphorus out of the agricultural fertilizer that the plant produces and puts it in a lake-friendly fertilizer designed to be used on urban lawns and gardens.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72157\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72157\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\" alt=\"A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Steve Reusser, an operations engineer who helped develop the phosphorus harvesting process, explains that it relies on a careful combination of engineering and biology. Certain species of bacteria, which, like plants, also need phosphorus to survive, either absorb or release phosphorus depending on whether there is oxygen present or not. Wastewater is full of phosphorus from human waste. At the treatment facility, it’s stocked with what Reusser characterizes as “a zoo of different kinds of bacteria.” As it wends its way through the facility’s tanks and filters, the oxygen concentration and filtration systems are manipulated in concert to yield two separate products: a sludgy solid that contains a lot of bacteria and not much phosphorus, and water that is phosphorus rich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The liquid is combined with two other chemicals that pull that phosphorus out of the water to form tiny particles of a mineral called struvite. These tiny particles are built up layer by layer, like a pearl. The end product is more than a ton of smooth, cream-colored struvite pellets--a ton and a half of them every day. Struvite contains nitrogen and magnesium as well as phosphorus. All three are important nutrients for plants, so a company called Ostara (which helped develop the recycling process) buys back the pellets from the Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD) and turns them into a special \u003ca href=\"http://www.crystalgreen.com/about-crystal-green\">plant-activated fertilizer\u003c/a> that releases phosphorus only when it is near growing roots. In other words, it won’t feed algae blooms in lakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72159\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72159\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\" alt=\"The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The gray, smelly, sludgy solid left behind at the treatment facility is trucked to farms where it’s used as fertilizer. Despite thoughtfully designed application methods that keep much of it below ground, sooner or later that fertilizer will reach Madison’s lakes. Since the implementation of the phosphorus recovery program, the amount of phosphorus in the fertilizer has been reduced by 85 percent. That means that the thousands of acres where this fertilizer is applied will be sending much less phosphorus into the watershed than before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In addition to cleaning up the water and providing a new income stream, deliberately recycling phosphorus into struvite pellets also keeps the struvite from building up in pipes and tanks, where it had been a perpetual nuisance. MMSD Director Michael Mucha explains that this is becoming a common theme: the environmentally responsible thing to do turns out to be cost-effective, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And Mucha isn’t stopping there. He is also working with farmers to help develop methods that will keep phosphorus out of the lakes. Reducing phosphorus in fertilizer isn’t the only issue: manure is a major piece of the puzzle. Mucha is advocating that farmers use holding tanks and manure digesters. “Our industry is changing,” he said. “As engineers, the way we would always solve a problem is build a bigger treatment plant, [but] actually, the better solution many times is not building at all. It’s working with people to change behavior.” He admits, though, that it typically takes longer, and, he laughs, “There’s no spec book.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, in the meantime, a ton and a half a day of phosphorus pellets is a good place to start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>For more on how water affects communities, and where we might be 50 years from now, check out the QUEST video “\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/picturing-a-future-wrought-by-climate-change/\">Picturing a Future Wrought by Climate Change\u003c/a>.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>The next time you drop a bottle marketed as biodegradable into your reusable grocery bag, pause. \u003ca href=\"http://cfaes.osu.edu/news/articles/bio-plastics-not-so-good-biodegrading-ohio-state-study\" target=\"_blank\">New research\u003c/a> shows that not all of these plastics are made equal: some don’t actually biodegrade.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plastic pollution is a global issue. Long-lasting plastics \u003ca href=\"http://www.theoec.org/campaign/recycling-landfills\" target=\"_blank\">cramp landfills\u003c/a>, pile up in city streets, and create toxic problems in rivers, oceans, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.epa.ohio.gov/Portals/34/document/newspdfs/n_cdd_leachate_evaluation.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">drinking water\u003c/a>. Americans generate over 30 million tons of plastic waste each year, and only 8 percent of that is recycled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Ohio, plastics are the largest component going into the waste stream, according to recycling expert \u003ca href=\"http://epa.ohio.gov/dmwm/home/recycle.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Terrie Termeer with the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. \u003c/a>Concerns about this influx throughout the U.S. have given rise to a new kind of “biodegradable” plastic, which Termeer says is gaining in popularity. Companies are actively designing products that degrade quickly and that are sometimes made from plant feedstocks, appealing to consumers who don’t want to leave behind piles of waste or use materials that are “bad” for the environment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers picked up on the trend, too, some of whom felt it was cause for concern.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I was always curious about, you know, do they actually biodegrade?” said \u003ca href=\"http://fabe.osu.edu/our-people/frederick-michel-jr\" target=\"_blank\">Fred Michel\u003c/a>, a waste-management expert and professor at Ohio State University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Biodegradability, a measure of how well something breaks down in compost, soil, or landfills, is an ambiguous term at best. Everything biodegrades completely over time, but your car might take a few thousand years longer to fall apart than, say, a tissue. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has attempted to clarify the term to prevent misleading advertising, but the definition is complex. According to the FTC, a product is biodegradable if it breaks down in certain environments, like compost bins, within a \"reasonable\" amount of time. But each environment dictates different interpretations of “reasonable.” Ultimately, the FTC notes that no matter where something breaks down, it needs to be completely returned to nature within a one-year timeframe in order to be marketed as “degradable.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_70919\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 364px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/examples-of-exp.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-70919\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/examples-of-exp-431x360.jpg\" alt=\"Michel and his team tested materials like coconut hull, asphalt-covered plastic, and additive-boosted polypropylene.\" width=\"364\" height=\"304\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michel and his team tested materials like coconut hull, asphalt-covered plastic, and additive-boosted polypropylene. Photo courtesy of Fred Michel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To make a plastic biodegradable, manufacturers have started putting in additives that supposedly allow even the sturdiest plastics to degrade in a backyard compost pile. To Michel, this seemed like an example of \u003ca href=\"http://hbr.org/product/the-drivers-of-greenwashing/an/CMR494-PDF-ENG?N=4294958507&Ntt=+&Nao=1540\" target=\"_blank\">greenwashing\u003c/a>-- a term that refers to misleading marketing tactics that appeal to the Captain Planet in each of us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I was skeptical about it from the beginning because those materials don’t usually biodegrade,” Michel said. “It’s difficult to imagine a material you could add to them that would magically make them biodegradable.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In theory, biodegradable additives work by \u003ca href=\"http://www.goecopure.com/technology/\" target=\"_blank\">attracting microbes that in turn attract more microbes\u003c/a>, increasing the rate of degradation. Some manufacturers also claim the additives are organic and nontoxic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Michel reviewed the research but was unable to find evidence to support manufacturers’ claims, so he ran his own experiment. Michel and his team rounded up all sorts of plastics to test their biodegradability: a motley collection of natural fibers, petroleum-based materials with the biodegradability additives, and plastics that shouldn’t biodegrade.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141391013003066\" target=\"_blank\">results of the research\u003c/a>, published in December 2013, were disconcerting. Traditional plastics with the “biodegradable” additives didn’t break down any more quickly than those without.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I wasn’t surprised,” Michel said, “but it’s just interesting that there are materials in the market like that, that have claims that don’t seem to be justified in our testing.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The FTC soon caught wind of the results and began investigating ECM BioFilms, an Ohio-based manufacturer that makes a plastic additive analyzed in Michel’s experiment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ECM investigation, which remains tied up in court, represents the first time the FTC has ever pursued plastic biodegradability claims. Meanwhile, the FTC has also begun a closed \u003ca href=\"http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2014/05/ftc-approves-final-order-settling-charges-company-made-misleading\" target=\"_blank\">investigation into plastic bag manufacturer American Plastic Manufacturing, Inc.\u003c/a> for misleading claims, which might set precedent for future interactions with plastic manufacturers. Manufacturers of other materials have been charged \u003ca href=\"http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2013/10/ftc-cracks-down-misleading-unsubstantiated-environmental\" target=\"_blank\">hundreds of thousands of dollars in civil penalties\u003c/a> for misleading marketing, but as a first-time offender, \u003ca href=\"http://www.science20.com/advertising_science/blog/plastic_companys_unscientific_biodegradability_claims_barred_by_ftc-135566\" target=\"_blank\">APM was not fined but simply ordered to stop making false claims. \u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Unfortunately, the marketplace is full of these misleading claims,” said \u003ca href=\"https://www.msu.edu/user/narayan/\" target=\"_blank\">Ramani Narayan\u003c/a>, a biochemical engineering professor at Michigan State University and chairman of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.astm.org/\" target=\"_blank\">ASTM Subcommittee\u003c/a> at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.bpiworld.org/BPI-Public\" target=\"_blank\">Biodegradable Products Institute\u003c/a>, a nonprofit that helped develop international biodegradability standards. He says it’s often difficult to come across strong research about plastics, but he is pleased with Michel’s paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It has given very clear scientific data,” he said. “It’s shown that nothing happens [when these additives are used].”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But greenwashing isn’t always deliberate. The language surrounding “bio-friendliness” is so complex that many are just plain confused, said Michel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In addition to there being confusion among consumers about how these materials may be recycled or composted -- or where they end up -- there's also a certain amount of confusion among industries that are trying to become more sustainable and develop more sustainable products, about the end of life of these materials and products, and how they can best address their sustainability goals with these materials,” Michel said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some companies have their products tested and certified by the Biodegradability Products Institute. Those confused about particulars can look to the FTC’s \u003cstrong>Green Guides\u003c/strong>, documents that outline what the agency might perceive as deceptive practices. \u003ca href=\"http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2012/10/ftc-issues-revised-green-guides\" target=\"_blank\">The FTC revised the guides in 2012\u003c/a> based on input from consumers who wanted to buy “green” products more intelligently, and enhanced its investigations accordingly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_70923\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 414px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/plastic-graph.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-70923\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/plastic-graph-508x360.jpg\" alt=\"The results of the soil experiment. See how poorly the additive-amended materials did?\" width=\"414\" height=\"293\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The results of the soil experiment. See how poorly the additive-amended materials did? Photo courtesy of Fred Michel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Being certified by the Institute isn’t mandated, and the \u003cstrong>Green Guides\u003c/strong> aren’t rules. You can market any product as biodegradable even if it’s not. There is, however, risk of civil lawsuits. If your product seems fishy, the FTC will investigate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Michel isn’t content to simply police eco-friendly claims. He hopes his team’s work gets consumers to consider whether they know how to use plastics correctly, or what these “green” terms even mean. Words like “bioplastic” and “biodegradable” are often used interchangeably, when in fact each implies a very specific method of creation or disposal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you know that something is a bioplastic, all you really know is that it is something made from plant feedstocks. On the other hand, if you know that something is biodegradable, you may not know what it’s made from, but you do have insight into what might happen to it in certain environments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We don’t have much information about the lifecycles of new biodegradable plastics, and what we do know isn’t widely understood by the public. For instance, not all bioplastics are biodegradable, and leaving one in your compost pile would be a bad move. Worse, if people think biodegradable products can biodegrade anywhere, they might send them to landfills. Biodegradable products usually release carbon dioxide, but if they land in an anaerobic landfill environment, they release methane as they very slowly break down -- a greenhouse gas 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide. The bottom line is that you can’t count on something breaking down in your compost bin just because it’s made of coconut fiber, for example. Plastics don’t break down quickly because of what they’re made of but because of how engineers structure the molecules within them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If I were to draw the chemical structure of polyethylene (PET), derived from plants…or derived from petroleum fossils, [they’d be] identical,” said Narayan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way to handle this might be to change package labeling.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“A way to improve things would be to have some sort of lifecycle information on the container rather than just the word 'biodegradable,'” Michel said. “How much carbon went into making that material? What are the other impacts? And then, what should be done with it to have the least environmental impact?”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I mean that's a lot for a label,” he added, “but those are the things you really need to think about.”\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Deciphering Plastic Labels\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>Plant-based\u003c/strong> or \u003cstrong>Bio-based\u003c/strong> or \u003cstrong>Bioplastic\u003c/strong>: Plastics that are made from one or more plant starches, including feedstocks like corn, coconut, sugarcane, and wood cellulose. Not to be confused with biodegradable. This term describes the content of the material, not how it operates. Many bioplastics biodegrade in a timely way, but not all.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>Biodegradable\u003c/strong>: This term does not indicate source material. Rather, it implies that the plastic can be broken down and eaten by microbes in environments like compost piles. All things biodegrade, but some things biodegrade more quickly than others. Biodegradable materials are those that break down in certain environments like compost bins within a reasonable amount of time, as determined by the FTC.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>Compostable\u003c/strong>: \u003ca href=\"http://worldcentric.org/biocompostables/bioplastics\" target=\"_blank\">Compostable products\u003c/a> are biodegradable, but even more so. When compostable products biodegrade, they often do so at a quicker pace and leave behind only \u003ca href=\"http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/humus/?ar_a=1\" target=\"_blank\">humus -- the essential component of soil\u003c/a>.\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003cstrong>Recyclable\u003c/strong>: As with biodegradable and compostable products, recyclable products can come from any number of feedstocks, but the term refers to their end-of-life situation. Recyclable products are those whose materials can be reused, either in a similar form or as part of another product. Plastics are recycled \u003ca href=\"http://www.nationofchange.org/numbers-plastic-bottles-what-do-plastic-recycling-symbols-mean-1360168347\" target=\"_blank\">according to their recycling symbol\u003c/a> -- a number 1 through 7 surrounded by three arrows in the shape of a triangle. These symbols correspond with types and structures of plastic, like vinyl (3) or polypropylene (PP).\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more information about green vocabulary, \u003ca href=\"http://www.consumer.ftc.gov/articles/0226-shopping-green#recyclable\" target=\"_blank\">visit the FTC\u003cstrong> Green Guides\u003c/strong>\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "Products advertised as “green” aren't always what they appear to be. New research from Ohio State University adds supposedly biodegradable plastics to that list.",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>The next time you drop a bottle marketed as biodegradable into your reusable grocery bag, pause. \u003ca href=\"http://cfaes.osu.edu/news/articles/bio-plastics-not-so-good-biodegrading-ohio-state-study\" target=\"_blank\">New research\u003c/a> shows that not all of these plastics are made equal: some don’t actually biodegrade.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Plastic pollution is a global issue. Long-lasting plastics \u003ca href=\"http://www.theoec.org/campaign/recycling-landfills\" target=\"_blank\">cramp landfills\u003c/a>, pile up in city streets, and create toxic problems in rivers, oceans, and \u003ca href=\"http://www.epa.ohio.gov/Portals/34/document/newspdfs/n_cdd_leachate_evaluation.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">drinking water\u003c/a>. Americans generate over 30 million tons of plastic waste each year, and only 8 percent of that is recycled.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In Ohio, plastics are the largest component going into the waste stream, according to recycling expert \u003ca href=\"http://epa.ohio.gov/dmwm/home/recycle.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Terrie Termeer with the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. \u003c/a>Concerns about this influx throughout the U.S. have given rise to a new kind of “biodegradable” plastic, which Termeer says is gaining in popularity. Companies are actively designing products that degrade quickly and that are sometimes made from plant feedstocks, appealing to consumers who don’t want to leave behind piles of waste or use materials that are “bad” for the environment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Researchers picked up on the trend, too, some of whom felt it was cause for concern.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I was always curious about, you know, do they actually biodegrade?” said \u003ca href=\"http://fabe.osu.edu/our-people/frederick-michel-jr\" target=\"_blank\">Fred Michel\u003c/a>, a waste-management expert and professor at Ohio State University.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Biodegradability, a measure of how well something breaks down in compost, soil, or landfills, is an ambiguous term at best. Everything biodegrades completely over time, but your car might take a few thousand years longer to fall apart than, say, a tissue. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has attempted to clarify the term to prevent misleading advertising, but the definition is complex. According to the FTC, a product is biodegradable if it breaks down in certain environments, like compost bins, within a \"reasonable\" amount of time. But each environment dictates different interpretations of “reasonable.” Ultimately, the FTC notes that no matter where something breaks down, it needs to be completely returned to nature within a one-year timeframe in order to be marketed as “degradable.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_70919\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 364px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/examples-of-exp.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-70919\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/examples-of-exp-431x360.jpg\" alt=\"Michel and his team tested materials like coconut hull, asphalt-covered plastic, and additive-boosted polypropylene.\" width=\"364\" height=\"304\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michel and his team tested materials like coconut hull, asphalt-covered plastic, and additive-boosted polypropylene. Photo courtesy of Fred Michel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>To make a plastic biodegradable, manufacturers have started putting in additives that supposedly allow even the sturdiest plastics to degrade in a backyard compost pile. To Michel, this seemed like an example of \u003ca href=\"http://hbr.org/product/the-drivers-of-greenwashing/an/CMR494-PDF-ENG?N=4294958507&Ntt=+&Nao=1540\" target=\"_blank\">greenwashing\u003c/a>-- a term that refers to misleading marketing tactics that appeal to the Captain Planet in each of us.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I was skeptical about it from the beginning because those materials don’t usually biodegrade,” Michel said. “It’s difficult to imagine a material you could add to them that would magically make them biodegradable.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In theory, biodegradable additives work by \u003ca href=\"http://www.goecopure.com/technology/\" target=\"_blank\">attracting microbes that in turn attract more microbes\u003c/a>, increasing the rate of degradation. Some manufacturers also claim the additives are organic and nontoxic.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Michel reviewed the research but was unable to find evidence to support manufacturers’ claims, so he ran his own experiment. Michel and his team rounded up all sorts of plastics to test their biodegradability: a motley collection of natural fibers, petroleum-based materials with the biodegradability additives, and plastics that shouldn’t biodegrade.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0141391013003066\" target=\"_blank\">results of the research\u003c/a>, published in December 2013, were disconcerting. Traditional plastics with the “biodegradable” additives didn’t break down any more quickly than those without.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I wasn’t surprised,” Michel said, “but it’s just interesting that there are materials in the market like that, that have claims that don’t seem to be justified in our testing.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The FTC soon caught wind of the results and began investigating ECM BioFilms, an Ohio-based manufacturer that makes a plastic additive analyzed in Michel’s experiment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The ECM investigation, which remains tied up in court, represents the first time the FTC has ever pursued plastic biodegradability claims. Meanwhile, the FTC has also begun a closed \u003ca href=\"http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2014/05/ftc-approves-final-order-settling-charges-company-made-misleading\" target=\"_blank\">investigation into plastic bag manufacturer American Plastic Manufacturing, Inc.\u003c/a> for misleading claims, which might set precedent for future interactions with plastic manufacturers. Manufacturers of other materials have been charged \u003ca href=\"http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2013/10/ftc-cracks-down-misleading-unsubstantiated-environmental\" target=\"_blank\">hundreds of thousands of dollars in civil penalties\u003c/a> for misleading marketing, but as a first-time offender, \u003ca href=\"http://www.science20.com/advertising_science/blog/plastic_companys_unscientific_biodegradability_claims_barred_by_ftc-135566\" target=\"_blank\">APM was not fined but simply ordered to stop making false claims. \u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Unfortunately, the marketplace is full of these misleading claims,” said \u003ca href=\"https://www.msu.edu/user/narayan/\" target=\"_blank\">Ramani Narayan\u003c/a>, a biochemical engineering professor at Michigan State University and chairman of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.astm.org/\" target=\"_blank\">ASTM Subcommittee\u003c/a> at the \u003ca href=\"http://www.bpiworld.org/BPI-Public\" target=\"_blank\">Biodegradable Products Institute\u003c/a>, a nonprofit that helped develop international biodegradability standards. He says it’s often difficult to come across strong research about plastics, but he is pleased with Michel’s paper.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It has given very clear scientific data,” he said. “It’s shown that nothing happens [when these additives are used].”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But greenwashing isn’t always deliberate. The language surrounding “bio-friendliness” is so complex that many are just plain confused, said Michel.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In addition to there being confusion among consumers about how these materials may be recycled or composted -- or where they end up -- there's also a certain amount of confusion among industries that are trying to become more sustainable and develop more sustainable products, about the end of life of these materials and products, and how they can best address their sustainability goals with these materials,” Michel said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Some companies have their products tested and certified by the Biodegradability Products Institute. Those confused about particulars can look to the FTC’s \u003cstrong>Green Guides\u003c/strong>, documents that outline what the agency might perceive as deceptive practices. \u003ca href=\"http://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2012/10/ftc-issues-revised-green-guides\" target=\"_blank\">The FTC revised the guides in 2012\u003c/a> based on input from consumers who wanted to buy “green” products more intelligently, and enhanced its investigations accordingly.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_70923\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 414px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/plastic-graph.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-70923\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/02/plastic-graph-508x360.jpg\" alt=\"The results of the soil experiment. See how poorly the additive-amended materials did?\" width=\"414\" height=\"293\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The results of the soil experiment. See how poorly the additive-amended materials did? Photo courtesy of Fred Michel.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Being certified by the Institute isn’t mandated, and the \u003cstrong>Green Guides\u003c/strong> aren’t rules. You can market any product as biodegradable even if it’s not. There is, however, risk of civil lawsuits. If your product seems fishy, the FTC will investigate.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But Michel isn’t content to simply police eco-friendly claims. He hopes his team’s work gets consumers to consider whether they know how to use plastics correctly, or what these “green” terms even mean. Words like “bioplastic” and “biodegradable” are often used interchangeably, when in fact each implies a very specific method of creation or disposal.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>If you know that something is a bioplastic, all you really know is that it is something made from plant feedstocks. On the other hand, if you know that something is biodegradable, you may not know what it’s made from, but you do have insight into what might happen to it in certain environments.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>We don’t have much information about the lifecycles of new biodegradable plastics, and what we do know isn’t widely understood by the public. For instance, not all bioplastics are biodegradable, and leaving one in your compost pile would be a bad move. Worse, if people think biodegradable products can biodegrade anywhere, they might send them to landfills. Biodegradable products usually release carbon dioxide, but if they land in an anaerobic landfill environment, they release methane as they very slowly break down -- a greenhouse gas 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide. The bottom line is that you can’t count on something breaking down in your compost bin just because it’s made of coconut fiber, for example. Plastics don’t break down quickly because of what they’re made of but because of how engineers structure the molecules within them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If I were to draw the chemical structure of polyethylene (PET), derived from plants…or derived from petroleum fossils, [they’d be] identical,” said Narayan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>One way to handle this might be to change package labeling.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“A way to improve things would be to have some sort of lifecycle information on the container rather than just the word 'biodegradable,'” Michel said. “How much carbon went into making that material? What are the other impacts? 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Plastics are recycled \u003ca href=\"http://www.nationofchange.org/numbers-plastic-bottles-what-do-plastic-recycling-symbols-mean-1360168347\" target=\"_blank\">according to their recycling symbol\u003c/a> -- a number 1 through 7 surrounded by three arrows in the shape of a triangle. These symbols correspond with types and structures of plastic, like vinyl (3) or polypropylene (PP).\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"info": "What kind of no sabo word is Hyphenación? For us, it’s about living within a hyphenation. Like being a third-gen Mexican-American from the Texas border now living that Bay Area Chicano life. Like Xorje! Each week we bring together a couple of hyphenated Latinos to talk all about personal life choices: family, careers, relationships, belonging … everything is on the table. ",
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"info": "The Political Mind of Jerry Brown brings listeners the wisdom of the former Governor, Mayor, and presidential candidate. Scott Shafer interviewed Brown for more than 40 hours, covering the former governor's life and half-century in the political game – and Brown has some lessons he'd like to share. ",
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"info": "The MindShift podcast explores the innovations in education that are shaping how kids learn. Hosts Ki Sung and Katrina Schwartz introduce listeners to educators, researchers, parents and students who are developing effective ways to improve how kids learn. We cover topics like how fed-up administrators are developing surprising tactics to deal with classroom disruptions; how listening to podcasts are helping kids develop reading skills; the consequences of overparenting; and why interdisciplinary learning can engage students on all ends of the traditional achievement spectrum. This podcast is part of the MindShift education site, a division of KQED News. KQED is an NPR/PBS member station based in San Francisco. You can also visit the MindShift website for episodes and supplemental blog posts or tweet us \u003ca href=\"https://twitter.com/MindShiftKQED\">@MindShiftKQED\u003c/a> or visit us at \u003ca href=\"/mindshift\">MindShift.KQED.org\u003c/a>",
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"info": "For decades, the process for how police police themselves has been inconsistent – if not opaque. In some states, like California, these proceedings were completely hidden. After a new police transparency law unsealed scores of internal affairs files, our reporters set out to examine these cases and the shadow world of police discipline. On Our Watch brings listeners into the rooms where officers are questioned and witnesses are interrogated to find out who this system is really protecting. Is it the officers, or the public they've sworn to serve?",
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"info": "Political Breakdown is a new series that explores the political intersection of California and the nation. Each week hosts Scott Shafer and Marisa Lagos are joined with a new special guest to unpack politics -- with personality — and offer an insider’s glimpse at how politics happens.",
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"possible": {
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"info": "Possible is hosted by entrepreneur Reid Hoffman and writer Aria Finger. Together in Possible, Hoffman and Finger lead enlightening discussions about building a brighter collective future. The show features interviews with visionary guests like Trevor Noah, Sam Altman and Janette Sadik-Khan. Possible paints an optimistic portrait of the world we can create through science, policy, business, art and our shared humanity. It asks: What if everything goes right for once? How can we get there? Each episode also includes a short fiction story generated by advanced AI GPT-4, serving as a thought-provoking springboard to speculate how humanity could leverage technology for good.",
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"radiolab": {
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},
"rightnowish": {
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"title": "Rightnowish",
"tagline": "Art is where you find it",
"info": "Rightnowish digs into life in the Bay Area right now… ish. Journalist Pendarvis Harshaw takes us to galleries painted on the sides of liquor stores in West Oakland. We'll dance in warehouses in the Bayview, make smoothies with kids in South Berkeley, and listen to classical music in a 1984 Cutlass Supreme in Richmond. Every week, Pen talks to movers and shakers about how the Bay Area shapes what they create, and how they shape the place we call home.",
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"info": "The Snap Judgment radio show and podcast mixes real stories with killer beats to produce cinematic, dramatic radio. Snap's musical brand of storytelling dares listeners to see the world through the eyes of another. This is storytelling... with a BEAT!! Snap first aired on public radio stations nationwide in July 2010. Today, Snap Judgment airs on over 450 public radio stations and is brought to the airwaves by KQED & PRX.",
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"soldout": {
"id": "soldout",
"title": "SOLD OUT: Rethinking Housing in America",
"tagline": "A new future for housing",
"info": "Sold Out: Rethinking Housing in America",
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