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You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cp>Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, we have been mining and burning coal, oil and natural gas for energy and transportation. These processes release carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) into the atmosphere. It is well established that the rising level of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in our atmosphere is a major cause of global warming. However, the increase in CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is also causing changes to the chemistry of the ocean. The ocean absorbs some of the excess atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, which causes what scientists call \u003cstrong>ocean acidification\u003c/strong>. And ocean acidification could have major impacts on marine life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"Ocean Acidification Video\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/yH3E7Vs1Nj8?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Watch the video to see how ocean acidification is affecting some shelled marine organisms.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What exactly is ocean acidification? Acidity is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) in a given solution. When CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air mixes with ocean water it combines and forms carbonic acid (H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>). The carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) and bicarbonate (HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup>) ions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> (carbon dioxide) + H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O (water) → H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid)\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid) → H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup> (hydrogen ions) + HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup> (bicarbonate) \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This chemical reaction causes an increase in hydrogen ions in the seawater, thus increasing ocean acidity. The acidity of a solution is often reported in terms of pH. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A value below 7 is acidic and a value above 7 is basic. The more acidic a solution, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions and the lower the pH. There are many different ways to measure pH, ranging from litmus paper to sophisticated sensors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last several decades scientists have been measuring the levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and pH throughout the ocean. \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/file/Hawaii+Carbon+Dioxide+Time-Series\">Data\u003c/a> from these types of measurements show that as the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the atmosphere increases, levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the ocean also increase, increasing the levels of hydrogen ions and thus decreasing the pH of the ocean. This suggests that atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is contributing to the acidification of the ocean. It's important to note that the pH of the ocean is still basic (around a pH of 8), but scientists use the term ocean acidification to indicate the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean, which lowers the ocean's pH.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ocean acidification could have major impacts on the health and biodiversity of the ocean. For example, the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean is making it harder for some marine invertebrates like corals, oysters and tiny sea snails to form their shells and grow. This has implications that extend throughout the marine food web.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the term ocean acidification mean?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why is the ocean becoming more acidic?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>If the pH of the ocean is still around 8, why do scientists use the term ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How does a decrease in ocean pH affect the ability of some marine organisms to build their shells?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What do you think are some possible effects of ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n",
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"excerpt": "In this interactive graphic, discover how carbon dioxide from the atmosphere mixes with the ocean making it difficult for shellfish to thrive. ",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s, we have been mining and burning coal, oil and natural gas for energy and transportation. These processes release carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>) into the atmosphere. It is well established that the rising level of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in our atmosphere is a major cause of global warming. However, the increase in CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is also causing changes to the chemistry of the ocean. The ocean absorbs some of the excess atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>, which causes what scientists call \u003cstrong>ocean acidification\u003c/strong>. And ocean acidification could have major impacts on marine life.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ciframe title=\"Ocean Acidification Video\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/yH3E7Vs1Nj8?feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture\" allowfullscreen>\u003c/iframe>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>Watch the video to see how ocean acidification is affecting some shelled marine organisms.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>What exactly is ocean acidification? Acidity is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) in a given solution. When CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> from the air mixes with ocean water it combines and forms carbonic acid (H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>). The carbonic acid then dissociates into hydrogen (H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup>) and bicarbonate (HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup>) ions.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> (carbon dioxide) + H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>O (water) → H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid)\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>H\u003csub>2\u003c/sub>CO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub> (carbonic acid) → H\u003csup>+\u003c/sup> (hydrogen ions) + HCO\u003csub>3\u003c/sub>\u003csup>-\u003c/sup> (bicarbonate) \u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This chemical reaction causes an increase in hydrogen ions in the seawater, thus increasing ocean acidity. The acidity of a solution is often reported in terms of pH. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A value below 7 is acidic and a value above 7 is basic. The more acidic a solution, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions and the lower the pH. There are many different ways to measure pH, ranging from litmus paper to sophisticated sensors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Over the last several decades scientists have been measuring the levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> and pH throughout the ocean. \u003ca href=\"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/file/Hawaii+Carbon+Dioxide+Time-Series\">Data\u003c/a> from these types of measurements show that as the concentration of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the atmosphere increases, levels of CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> in the ocean also increase, increasing the levels of hydrogen ions and thus decreasing the pH of the ocean. This suggests that atmospheric CO\u003csub>2\u003c/sub> is contributing to the acidification of the ocean. It's important to note that the pH of the ocean is still basic (around a pH of 8), but scientists use the term ocean acidification to indicate the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean, which lowers the ocean's pH.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ocean acidification could have major impacts on the health and biodiversity of the ocean. For example, the increase in hydrogen ions in the ocean is making it harder for some marine invertebrates like corals, oysters and tiny sea snails to form their shells and grow. This has implications that extend throughout the marine food web.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>Discussion Questions\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>What does the term ocean acidification mean?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>Why is the ocean becoming more acidic?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>If the pH of the ocean is still around 8, why do scientists use the term ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>How does a decrease in ocean pH affect the ability of some marine organisms to build their shells?\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>What do you think are some possible effects of ocean acidification?\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003chr>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An interactive version of this explainer is featured in our \u003cstrong>Clue into Climate\u003c/strong> e-book series. Click on the tabs below to download our free e-books and subscribe to our iTunes U course. You can also visit our \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/education/e-books/\">e-books page\u003c/a> to view our other offerings.\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-11944\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-1-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 1\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Look into the causes of climate change, and discover how scientists develop and use climate models.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/ee/book/clue-into-climate-causes-change/id927517681?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14724\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-2-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 2 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Learn about how climate change influences precipitation patterns and how it impacts our frozen landscape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id930719116?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14735\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-3-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 3 updated web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Investigate shifts in the distribution of plant and animal species due to climate change, and the effects of increased carbon dioxide emissions on the ocean.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-changing/id932195900?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\n\u003cp>\u003cimg class=\"alignleft size-full wp-image-14737\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Climate-e-book-cover-4-150x194.png\" alt=\"Climate e-book cover 4 web\" width=\"105\" height=\"136\">\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>See how communities are preparing for sea level rise and other impacts of climate change, and ways we can help minimize future climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/clue-into-climate-facing-our/id932658240?mt=13\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-11945\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/Download_on_iTunes_Badge_US-UK_110x40_1004.png\" alt=\"Download on iBooks\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a> \u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg alt=\"\">\u003c/a>\u003ca href=\"https://itunes.apple.com/us/course/clue-into-climate/id944516910\">\u003cimg src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2015/12/E-book-button-for-Web.png\" alt=\"Subscribe on iTunes\" width=\"110\" height=\"40\">\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003c/div>\n\u003cdiv class=\"clearfix\">\u003c/div>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "A Sea Without Stars",
"title": "A Sea Without Stars",
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"content": "\u003cp>In this QUEST video, we travel to the shores of Washington’s Puget Sound and join a group of scientists and volunteer divers as they shimmy into wetsuits and double check their air tanks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They move with the urgency of a group on a mission -- and they are. They’re trying to solve a marine mystery. “We need to collect sick ones as well as individuals that appear healthy,” Ben Miner tells the divers as they head into the water. Miner, a biology professor at Western Washington University, is conducting experiments with hope of figuring out how and why starfish, or sea stars as scientists prefer to call the echinoderms, are wasting away by the millions up and down North America’s Pacific shores.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s called \u003ca href=\"http://www.eeb.ucsc.edu/pacificrockyintertidal/data-products/sea-star-wasting/\">\"sea star wasting syndrome.”\u003c/a> When afflicted, the sick stars begin to look deflated and are unable to hold onto rocks. Sometimes lesions form on their skin, and within a day or two of showing symptoms, they melt into piles of mush. Scientists first started noticing sick and dying sea stars in the summer of 2013 at a place called Starfish Point on Washington’s Olympic Peninsula. \u003ca href=\"http://data.piscoweb.org/marine1/seastardisease.html\">Reports have since surfaced of it along the coasts of Oregon and California and as far north as Alaska\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In all, more than 20 species of sea stars are dying from the disease. “This is the largest disease outbreak that we know of ever in the oceans in terms of the numbers of species affected, in terms of the geographic scale, and in terms of the mortality that’s associate with it,\" said Drew Harvell, a marine epidemiologist at Cornell University who has been leading nationwide efforts to understand these outbreaks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Monday Nov. 17, a team of more than a dozen researchers, including Harvell and Miner, published a paper reporting that the cause of the die-off appears to be a previously unknown virus. \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/2014/11/17/scientists-suspect-a-virus-is-causing-sea-star-die-off/\">Their research\u003c/a>, which was featured in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, found that the apparent culprit, a type of densovirus distantly related to parvovirus, which can infect dogs and cats, actually was present in museum specimens of starfish dating back to 1942. What caused the virus to explode out of control now, and “go rogue” as one scientist said, will be studied further in the months and years ahead. It could be a natural occurrence, such as overpopulation, or a human-caused trigger, like pollution or warming oceans from climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers also found that the virus spreads through the water, as well as via physical contact.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72221\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 341px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_lj_sick_starfish_web7-e1412967628851.png\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72221 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_lj_sick_starfish_web7-341x253.png\" alt=\"Scientists are testing whether shellfish, a top food source for starfish, may transfer the pathogen. Credit: Laura James\" width=\"341\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists are testing whether shellfish, a top food\u003cbr> source for starfish, may transfer the pathogen.\u003cbr> Credit: Laura James\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Sea stars have few predators in the intertidal zone where they dwell, but are voracious predators themselves. They gobble up mussels, clams, sea cucumbers, crab and even other starfish. That’s why they’re called a keystone species, meaning they have a disproportionate impact on an ecosystem, shaping the biodiversity of the seascape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“These are ecologically important species,” Harvell said. “To remove them changes the entire dynamics of the marine ecosystem. When you lose this many sea stars it will certainly change the seascape underneath our waters.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Harvell’s team used DNA sequencing from samples of sick stars to discover the virus. Now that the virus has been identified, scientists say they will be able to better understand whether West Coast starfish will be able to recover, and if so, how many years it might take.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Standing on the rocky shores of Orcas Island, Harvell picks up a tiny young ochre star and looks carefully for symptoms of the disease. In recent months, young sea stars have been taking hold in record numbers along parts of the California coast such as Big Sur, and scientists say this is an encouraging sign.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72216\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209.png\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72216\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209.png\" alt=\"Scientists inspect young starfish for signs of wasting disease. Credit: Katie Campbell\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209-400x244.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists inspect young starfish for signs of wasting disease. Credit: Katie Campbell\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If these juvenile stars can find a way to resist the virus, Harvell explained, local extinction could be avoided. “We would really love the sign of hope that maybe they’ll pull through,” Harvell said. “We’re going to be watching them very closely.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>*With thousands of miles of Pacific shoreline, scientists can’t be everywhere at once to keep an eye out for sick and dying starfish. To find out how to help, \u003ca href=\"http://earthfix.kcts9.org/water/article/calling-all-citizen-scientists-in-search-for-sicks/\">click here\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more on the plight of West Coast sea stars and the newly published study, visit \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthfix.info/flora-and-fauna/article/scientists-find-out-whats-killing-west-coast-starf/\">EarthFix\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2 style=\"color: #586b73\">\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul style=\"color: #666666\">\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yU7tpi0Qooc\">Watch the full episode of QUEST.\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>In this QUEST video, we travel to the shores of Washington’s Puget Sound and join a group of scientists and volunteer divers as they shimmy into wetsuits and double check their air tanks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>They move with the urgency of a group on a mission -- and they are. They’re trying to solve a marine mystery. “We need to collect sick ones as well as individuals that appear healthy,” Ben Miner tells the divers as they head into the water. Miner, a biology professor at Western Washington University, is conducting experiments with hope of figuring out how and why starfish, or sea stars as scientists prefer to call the echinoderms, are wasting away by the millions up and down North America’s Pacific shores.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>It’s called \u003ca href=\"http://www.eeb.ucsc.edu/pacificrockyintertidal/data-products/sea-star-wasting/\">\"sea star wasting syndrome.”\u003c/a> When afflicted, the sick stars begin to look deflated and are unable to hold onto rocks. Sometimes lesions form on their skin, and within a day or two of showing symptoms, they melt into piles of mush. Scientists first started noticing sick and dying sea stars in the summer of 2013 at a place called Starfish Point on Washington’s Olympic Peninsula. \u003ca href=\"http://data.piscoweb.org/marine1/seastardisease.html\">Reports have since surfaced of it along the coasts of Oregon and California and as far north as Alaska\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In all, more than 20 species of sea stars are dying from the disease. “This is the largest disease outbreak that we know of ever in the oceans in terms of the numbers of species affected, in terms of the geographic scale, and in terms of the mortality that’s associate with it,\" said Drew Harvell, a marine epidemiologist at Cornell University who has been leading nationwide efforts to understand these outbreaks.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On Monday Nov. 17, a team of more than a dozen researchers, including Harvell and Miner, published a paper reporting that the cause of the die-off appears to be a previously unknown virus. \u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/2014/11/17/scientists-suspect-a-virus-is-causing-sea-star-die-off/\">Their research\u003c/a>, which was featured in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, found that the apparent culprit, a type of densovirus distantly related to parvovirus, which can infect dogs and cats, actually was present in museum specimens of starfish dating back to 1942. What caused the virus to explode out of control now, and “go rogue” as one scientist said, will be studied further in the months and years ahead. It could be a natural occurrence, such as overpopulation, or a human-caused trigger, like pollution or warming oceans from climate change.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The researchers also found that the virus spreads through the water, as well as via physical contact.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72221\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 341px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_lj_sick_starfish_web7-e1412967628851.png\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72221 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_lj_sick_starfish_web7-341x253.png\" alt=\"Scientists are testing whether shellfish, a top food source for starfish, may transfer the pathogen. Credit: Laura James\" width=\"341\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists are testing whether shellfish, a top food\u003cbr> source for starfish, may transfer the pathogen.\u003cbr> Credit: Laura James\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Sea stars have few predators in the intertidal zone where they dwell, but are voracious predators themselves. They gobble up mussels, clams, sea cucumbers, crab and even other starfish. That’s why they’re called a keystone species, meaning they have a disproportionate impact on an ecosystem, shaping the biodiversity of the seascape.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“These are ecologically important species,” Harvell said. “To remove them changes the entire dynamics of the marine ecosystem. When you lose this many sea stars it will certainly change the seascape underneath our waters.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Harvell’s team used DNA sequencing from samples of sick stars to discover the virus. Now that the virus has been identified, scientists say they will be able to better understand whether West Coast starfish will be able to recover, and if so, how many years it might take.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Standing on the rocky shores of Orcas Island, Harvell picks up a tiny young ochre star and looks carefully for symptoms of the disease. In recent months, young sea stars have been taking hold in record numbers along parts of the California coast such as Big Sur, and scientists say this is an encouraging sign.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72216\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209.png\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72216\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209.png\" alt=\"Scientists inspect young starfish for signs of wasting disease. Credit: Katie Campbell\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209.png 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/20140612_kc_sick_starfish_web3-e1412967541209-400x244.png 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scientists inspect young starfish for signs of wasting disease. Credit: Katie Campbell\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>If these juvenile stars can find a way to resist the virus, Harvell explained, local extinction could be avoided. “We would really love the sign of hope that maybe they’ll pull through,” Harvell said. “We’re going to be watching them very closely.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>*With thousands of miles of Pacific shoreline, scientists can’t be everywhere at once to keep an eye out for sick and dying starfish. To find out how to help, \u003ca href=\"http://earthfix.kcts9.org/water/article/calling-all-citizen-scientists-in-search-for-sicks/\">click here\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>For more on the plight of West Coast sea stars and the newly published study, visit \u003ca href=\"http://www.earthfix.info/flora-and-fauna/article/scientists-find-out-whats-killing-west-coast-starf/\">EarthFix\u003c/a>.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2 style=\"color: #586b73\">\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul style=\"color: #666666\">\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yU7tpi0Qooc\">Watch the full episode of QUEST.\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Diving Into the Twilight Zone",
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"content": "\u003cp>Through centuries of exploration, humans have climbed the highest peaks and hacked through the densest jungles. From pole to pole, there isn’t a continent left unexplored, and very little land on earth that has not been set foot on by a human being. Yet only 10 percent of the world’s vast oceans have been truly explored. And among the least explored regions of our watery world are the mesophotic reefs, an area that scientists refer to as “the twilight zone.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72795\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Twilight_diver_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72795 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Twilight_diver_800-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Bart Shepherd, the Director of the Steinhart Aquarium, preps his rebreather gear before heading out on a five-hour dive into the twilight zone.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bart Shepherd, the Director of the Steinhart Aquarium, preps his rebreather gear before heading out on a five-hour dive into the twilight zone. Photo:Christopher Bauer\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At 150 to 500 feet deep, this region is too deep to safely reach using conventional scuba, but thought too shallow to justify the use of expensive submersibles.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“To understand what is really down there, you need to actually go there -- you need to witness it and collect,”said Bart Shepherd, the director of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/steinhart-aquarium\">Steinhart Aquarium at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco\u003c/a>. “Exploring the mesophotic zone with a \u003ca href=\"http://www.rov.org/\">Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV)\u003c/a> would be like exploring the rainforest with a remote control helicopter.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But with recent advances in diving methods and technology, such as closed-circuit rebreathers, mixed gases and propelled scooters, trained divers can now venture into these deeper reefs. Recently a team from the California Academy of Sciences made up of Shepherd, diving safety officer Elliott Jessup, and ichthyologist Luiz Rocha, began to explore this mysterious place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The biggest challenge with that depth is just getting there and getting back,” said Shepherd. “It’s not unusual for us to have a dive last five hours long. But that only gives us 45 minutes below 160 feet.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72797\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-diver.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72797 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-diver-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Using a specially designed fish-decompression chamber, Steinhart Aquarium biologist Richard Ross brings live specimens from the twilight zone up to the surface.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Using a specially designed fish-decompression chamber, Steinhart Aquarium biologist Richard Ross brings live specimens from the twilight zone up to the surface. Courtesy California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>According to Shepherd, the divers must slowly ascend from the twilight zone, systematically stopping at depth intervals, to avoid contracting the bends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In order to penetrate down to the depths of the twilight zone and have enough time to work and collect, we need a lot of decompression time,” he said. “But even during that decompression time, we are exploring.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each time they dive, the researchers are seeing and discovering places and things never before seen by human eyes. It’s been estimated that these scientists are discovering nearly a dozen new species per hour in the twilight zone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In May 2014, the twilight zone dive team was part of a large, month-long \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/explore-science/the-2014-philippine-biodiversity-expedition\">expedition to the Philippines\u003c/a>. Researchers from all over the world joined Academy scientists to study the Verde Island Passage. This relatively small area of the ocean south of Manila has been referred to as the “center of the center or marine biodiversity.” In fact, it is thought that more unique species live there than on the entire Great Barrier Reef. The scientists, along with fishery managers in the Philippines, want to better understand why this region is so unique and resilient.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72798\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-creature.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72798 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-creature-450x253.jpg\" alt='The Verde Island Passage in the Philippines is considered the \"Center of the Center\" of marine biodiversity.' width=\"450\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Verde Island Passage in the Philippines is considered the \"Center of the Center\" of marine biodiversity. Courtesy California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Why is it such a biodiverse place?” said Shepherd. “It certainly has to do with the location in the Pacific. It’s in the center of what we call the \u003ca href=\"http://www.worldwildlife.org/places/coral-triangle\">Coral Triangle\u003c/a>. And it probably has to do with the proximity to the deeper water there. There’s a lot of nutrients that come up out of that deep water and sort of feed that marine community. There’s just an incredible amount of diversity. And it’s certainly very interesting to think about why there.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists from the California Academy of Sciences have been studying the Philippine marine environment and documenting their findings for 20 years. They have found huge numbers of reef fishes, corals and other marine species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It just seems like that spot has more types of animals living in these really, really rich and dynamic communities than anywhere else on the planet,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Add that the deeper regions have never been explored there, and the possibilities for new discovery jump to mind-boggling levels. Or as one expedition diver said, “Science is adventure. Science is discovery. There is a lot more science to do here!”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTIDkj9Tn58\">Watch the full episode of QUEST.\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Through centuries of exploration, humans have climbed the highest peaks and hacked through the densest jungles. From pole to pole, there isn’t a continent left unexplored, and very little land on earth that has not been set foot on by a human being. Yet only 10 percent of the world’s vast oceans have been truly explored. And among the least explored regions of our watery world are the mesophotic reefs, an area that scientists refer to as “the twilight zone.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72795\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Twilight_diver_800.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72795 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/Twilight_diver_800-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Bart Shepherd, the Director of the Steinhart Aquarium, preps his rebreather gear before heading out on a five-hour dive into the twilight zone.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bart Shepherd, the Director of the Steinhart Aquarium, preps his rebreather gear before heading out on a five-hour dive into the twilight zone. Photo:Christopher Bauer\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>At 150 to 500 feet deep, this region is too deep to safely reach using conventional scuba, but thought too shallow to justify the use of expensive submersibles.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“To understand what is really down there, you need to actually go there -- you need to witness it and collect,”said Bart Shepherd, the director of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/steinhart-aquarium\">Steinhart Aquarium at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco\u003c/a>. “Exploring the mesophotic zone with a \u003ca href=\"http://www.rov.org/\">Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV)\u003c/a> would be like exploring the rainforest with a remote control helicopter.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But with recent advances in diving methods and technology, such as closed-circuit rebreathers, mixed gases and propelled scooters, trained divers can now venture into these deeper reefs. Recently a team from the California Academy of Sciences made up of Shepherd, diving safety officer Elliott Jessup, and ichthyologist Luiz Rocha, began to explore this mysterious place.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The biggest challenge with that depth is just getting there and getting back,” said Shepherd. “It’s not unusual for us to have a dive last five hours long. But that only gives us 45 minutes below 160 feet.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72797\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 300px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-diver.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72797 size-thumbnail\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-diver-300x169.jpg\" alt=\"Using a specially designed fish-decompression chamber, Steinhart Aquarium biologist Richard Ross brings live specimens from the twilight zone up to the surface.\" width=\"300\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Using a specially designed fish-decompression chamber, Steinhart Aquarium biologist Richard Ross brings live specimens from the twilight zone up to the surface. Courtesy California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>According to Shepherd, the divers must slowly ascend from the twilight zone, systematically stopping at depth intervals, to avoid contracting the bends.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“In order to penetrate down to the depths of the twilight zone and have enough time to work and collect, we need a lot of decompression time,” he said. “But even during that decompression time, we are exploring.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Each time they dive, the researchers are seeing and discovering places and things never before seen by human eyes. It’s been estimated that these scientists are discovering nearly a dozen new species per hour in the twilight zone.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In May 2014, the twilight zone dive team was part of a large, month-long \u003ca href=\"http://www.calacademy.org/explore-science/the-2014-philippine-biodiversity-expedition\">expedition to the Philippines\u003c/a>. Researchers from all over the world joined Academy scientists to study the Verde Island Passage. This relatively small area of the ocean south of Manila has been referred to as the “center of the center or marine biodiversity.” In fact, it is thought that more unique species live there than on the entire Great Barrier Reef. The scientists, along with fishery managers in the Philippines, want to better understand why this region is so unique and resilient.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72798\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 450px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-creature.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-72798 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/twilight-creature-450x253.jpg\" alt='The Verde Island Passage in the Philippines is considered the \"Center of the Center\" of marine biodiversity.' width=\"450\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Verde Island Passage in the Philippines is considered the \"Center of the Center\" of marine biodiversity. Courtesy California Academy of Sciences.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“Why is it such a biodiverse place?” said Shepherd. “It certainly has to do with the location in the Pacific. It’s in the center of what we call the \u003ca href=\"http://www.worldwildlife.org/places/coral-triangle\">Coral Triangle\u003c/a>. And it probably has to do with the proximity to the deeper water there. There’s a lot of nutrients that come up out of that deep water and sort of feed that marine community. There’s just an incredible amount of diversity. And it’s certainly very interesting to think about why there.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Scientists from the California Academy of Sciences have been studying the Philippine marine environment and documenting their findings for 20 years. They have found huge numbers of reef fishes, corals and other marine species.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It just seems like that spot has more types of animals living in these really, really rich and dynamic communities than anywhere else on the planet,” he said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Add that the deeper regions have never been explored there, and the possibilities for new discovery jump to mind-boggling levels. Or as one expedition diver said, “Science is adventure. Science is discovery. There is a lot more science to do here!”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTIDkj9Tn58\">Watch the full episode of QUEST.\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "California Voters to Decide $7.5 Billion Water Bond Measure",
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"content": "\u003cp>At three years and counting, one of the worst droughts in California history shows little sign of abating. So it’s no surprise that water has become a hot issue this election year. In fact,\u003ca title=\"PPIC October poll\" href=\"http://www.ppic.org/content/pubs/survey/S_1014MBS.pdf\">a recent poll \u003c/a>conducted this month by the non-partisan \u003ca title=\"PPIC\" href=\"http://www.ppic.org/main/home.asp\">Public Policy Institute of California\u003c/a> found that water and the drought rank as high as the economy and jobs when voters were asked what they thought is the most important issue facing the state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72374\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72374\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054.jpg\" alt=\"Proposition One, a $7.5 billion water bond measure on the November ballot, would pay for building new water storage facilities. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Proposition One, a $7.5 billion water bond measure on the November ballot, would pay for building new water storage facilities.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On Nov. 4, Californians will be able to exercise their opinion about water at the ballot box when they vote on \u003ca title=\"Prop. 1 ballotbedia entry\" href=\"http://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_1,_Water_Bond_(2014)\">Proposition 1\u003c/a>, a $7.5 billion measure that would authorize the state to issue new bonds to pay for a wide variety of water-related projects. The projects that could be funded include dams to underground storage, along with efforts to improve watersheds and groundwater management, along with increased conservation and water recycling.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nearly $3 billion would be allocated for expanding California’s water storage, which would likely mean the construction of at least one new large reservoir.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The measure is being championed by Gov. Jerry Brown, along with the California Chamber of Commerce, the California Farm Bureau Federation and a variety of environmental groups, including Audubon California and the Nature Conservancy. \u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PL8lhH2qNUE\">A recent campaign ad\u003c/a> features Brown speaking to the camera as he uses the metaphor of a pendulum to describe the swing between wet years and dry years, noting that Propositions 1 will save water “to prepare us for drought.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72375\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72375\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077.jpg\" alt=\"One of the worst droughts in the state's history has made concerns about water a big election issue. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">One of the worst droughts in the state's history has made concerns about water a big election issue.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But the measure also has garnered opponents, including San Francisco Baykeeper and the California Sportfishing Protection Alliance, which has stated that “the bond includes the largest appropriation for new dams in the state’s history.” In addition, opponents question what impact the new funding would have on providing immediate drought relief.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://pacinst.org/about-us/mission-and-vision/\">Pacific Institute\u003c/a>, a non-partisan think tank based in Oakland, issued a \u003ca href=\"http://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2014/10/Insights-into-Prop-1-full-report.pdf\">report this week analyzing the water bond\u003c/a>. It found that only 1 percent of the bond’s funds would go to water conservation and efficiency efforts. Still, according to the report, the funding would help improve the state’s surface and groundwater quality.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ellen Hanak, a senior fellow at the Public Policy Institute of California, based in San Francisco, said the extreme weather patterns that will be produced by climate change have ratcheted up the pressure to better manage California’s water, the bulk of which comes from the Sierra snowpack. In recent years, not only has there been less precipitation, but the snowpack has been melting earlier, making it harder to capture runoff and store it in reservoirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It makes sense to build surface storage to capture that water, and that’s one potential answer, but another one is to manage the existing surface storage in conjunction with our groundwater storage,” said Hanak.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Managing California’s limited water supply with an aging infrastructure to meet the needs of growing cities and a multi-billion dollar farming industry requires a diverse array of efforts, she said, from asking people to cut back on their water usage to boosting the use of recycled water for irrigation and landscaping.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There is no silver bullet when thinking about water policy and how to meet the demands of growing economy and population,” Hanak said. “Conservation, desalination and recycled water and new storage alone won’t do it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meanwhile, Proposition 1 is polling well with likely voters. A poll released this week by the PPIC showed Prop 1 leading 56-32 percent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1zIp5rWfv9w#t=1598\">Watch the full episode of Science at the Ballot Box, a joint KQED Newsroom and QUEST report that examines the science behind some of the key issues on the November ballot\u003c/a>.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>At three years and counting, one of the worst droughts in California history shows little sign of abating. So it’s no surprise that water has become a hot issue this election year. In fact,\u003ca title=\"PPIC October poll\" href=\"http://www.ppic.org/content/pubs/survey/S_1014MBS.pdf\">a recent poll \u003c/a>conducted this month by the non-partisan \u003ca title=\"PPIC\" href=\"http://www.ppic.org/main/home.asp\">Public Policy Institute of California\u003c/a> found that water and the drought rank as high as the economy and jobs when voters were asked what they thought is the most important issue facing the state.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72374\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72374\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054.jpg\" alt=\"Proposition One, a $7.5 billion water bond measure on the November ballot, would pay for building new water storage facilities. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_filter_gallery_C0054-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Proposition One, a $7.5 billion water bond measure on the November ballot, would pay for building new water storage facilities.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>On Nov. 4, Californians will be able to exercise their opinion about water at the ballot box when they vote on \u003ca title=\"Prop. 1 ballotbedia entry\" href=\"http://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_1,_Water_Bond_(2014)\">Proposition 1\u003c/a>, a $7.5 billion measure that would authorize the state to issue new bonds to pay for a wide variety of water-related projects. The projects that could be funded include dams to underground storage, along with efforts to improve watersheds and groundwater management, along with increased conservation and water recycling.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Nearly $3 billion would be allocated for expanding California’s water storage, which would likely mean the construction of at least one new large reservoir.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The measure is being championed by Gov. Jerry Brown, along with the California Chamber of Commerce, the California Farm Bureau Federation and a variety of environmental groups, including Audubon California and the Nature Conservancy. \u003ca href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PL8lhH2qNUE\">A recent campaign ad\u003c/a> features Brown speaking to the camera as he uses the metaphor of a pendulum to describe the swing between wet years and dry years, noting that Propositions 1 will save water “to prepare us for drought.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72375\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72375\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077.jpg\" alt=\"One of the worst droughts in the state's history has made concerns about water a big election issue. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/10/802_water_bond_faucet_C0077-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">One of the worst droughts in the state's history has made concerns about water a big election issue.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>But the measure also has garnered opponents, including San Francisco Baykeeper and the California Sportfishing Protection Alliance, which has stated that “the bond includes the largest appropriation for new dams in the state’s history.” In addition, opponents question what impact the new funding would have on providing immediate drought relief.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The \u003ca href=\"http://pacinst.org/about-us/mission-and-vision/\">Pacific Institute\u003c/a>, a non-partisan think tank based in Oakland, issued a \u003ca href=\"http://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2014/10/Insights-into-Prop-1-full-report.pdf\">report this week analyzing the water bond\u003c/a>. It found that only 1 percent of the bond’s funds would go to water conservation and efficiency efforts. Still, according to the report, the funding would help improve the state’s surface and groundwater quality.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ellen Hanak, a senior fellow at the Public Policy Institute of California, based in San Francisco, said the extreme weather patterns that will be produced by climate change have ratcheted up the pressure to better manage California’s water, the bulk of which comes from the Sierra snowpack. In recent years, not only has there been less precipitation, but the snowpack has been melting earlier, making it harder to capture runoff and store it in reservoirs.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It makes sense to build surface storage to capture that water, and that’s one potential answer, but another one is to manage the existing surface storage in conjunction with our groundwater storage,” said Hanak.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Managing California’s limited water supply with an aging infrastructure to meet the needs of growing cities and a multi-billion dollar farming industry requires a diverse array of efforts, she said, from asking people to cut back on their water usage to boosting the use of recycled water for irrigation and landscaping.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“There is no silver bullet when thinking about water policy and how to meet the demands of growing economy and population,” Hanak said. “Conservation, desalination and recycled water and new storage alone won’t do it.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Meanwhile, Proposition 1 is polling well with likely voters. A poll released this week by the PPIC showed Prop 1 leading 56-32 percent.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1zIp5rWfv9w#t=1598\">Watch the full episode of Science at the Ballot Box, a joint KQED Newsroom and QUEST report that examines the science behind some of the key issues on the November ballot\u003c/a>.\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>Video reported by Gabriela Quirós and Lauren Sommer, who narrates.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Update Nov. 6:\u003c/strong> In the Nov. 4 election, San Benito and Mendocino counties passed bans on fracking, while Santa Barbara’s ballot initiative failed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Original post Oct. 27:\u003c/strong> Three California counties – Santa Barbara, Mendocino and San Benito – will decide this November on ballot initiatives that ask voters to ban hydraulic fracturing, the controversial oil- and gas-extraction technique known as “fracking.” San Benito activists were the first to qualify an anti-fracking initiative in the state, in response to Governor Jerry Brown’s decision to allow the technique to move forward.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch2>\u003cstrong>Additional Links\u003c/strong>\u003c/h2>\n\u003cul>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/2014/10/10/anti-fracking-activists-in-california-take-fight-to-county-ballots/\">Anti-Fracking Activists in California Take Fight to County Ballots\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://blogs.kqed.org/science/series/fracking-california/\">KQED Science coverage of fracking\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003cli>\u003ca href=\"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WOJUu3T-EY4\">KQED NEWSROOM Special Edition: The Fracking Debate Heats Up In California\u003c/a>\u003c/li>\n\u003c/ul>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n",
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"content": "\u003cp>We depend on big farms for our food. For crops, that means a lot of fertilizer; for animals, that means a lot of waste. For the lakes near these farms, that means a lot of phosphorus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phosphorus washes into lakes with manure and fertilizer and the erosion of phosphorus-rich, fertilized soil. Cyanobacteria feast on that glut of nutrients and their populations explode, with dramatic consequences for the aquatic life in the lake and the people who depend on it. The toxic bloom of cyanobacteria that made Toledo’s water undrinkable in the summer of 2014 is just one example of what can happen when the biochemistry of a lake drifts out of balance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Steve Carpenter, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the director of its \u003ca href=\"http://limnology.wisc.edu\">Center for Limnology\u003c/a>, describes phosphorus management as the “keystone” issue for healthy lakes. “If we can get phosphorus under control,” he said, “we have a much better shot at dealing with all of the other problems that the lakes have,” like invasive species, which can swoop in when a lake’s nutrient levels are unbalanced. There are ways to slow the gush of phosphorus into nearby lakes, such as contour plowing and winter cover crops, but Carpenter explains that the phosphorus load has \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/writers/jessica_vanegeren/q-a-steve-carpenter-is-optimistic-about-solving-madison-s/article_dcfc6c15-953e-5ca2-b80e-80439dfe194d.html\">gotten so high\u003c/a> that those kinds of strategies “almost don’t matter anymore.” Instead, we have to remove phosphorus from the system entirely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This summer Madison, Wisconsin, \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/local/environment/new-technology-extracts-valuable-fertilizer-from-waste/article_3223b32e-408c-5aea-8680-c06992216e59.html\">unveiled\u003c/a> its new phosphorus recycling facility, the state’s first. It’s part of a strategy by the city’s wastewater-treatment utility to reduce the amount of phosphorus that ends up in the lakes. The recycling program takes most of the phosphorus out of the agricultural fertilizer that the plant produces and puts it in a lake-friendly fertilizer designed to be used on urban lawns and gardens.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72157\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72157\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\" alt=\"A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Steve Reusser, an operations engineer who helped develop the phosphorus harvesting process, explains that it relies on a careful combination of engineering and biology. Certain species of bacteria, which, like plants, also need phosphorus to survive, either absorb or release phosphorus depending on whether there is oxygen present or not. Wastewater is full of phosphorus from human waste. At the treatment facility, it’s stocked with what Reusser characterizes as “a zoo of different kinds of bacteria.” As it wends its way through the facility’s tanks and filters, the oxygen concentration and filtration systems are manipulated in concert to yield two separate products: a sludgy solid that contains a lot of bacteria and not much phosphorus, and water that is phosphorus rich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The liquid is combined with two other chemicals that pull that phosphorus out of the water to form tiny particles of a mineral called struvite. These tiny particles are built up layer by layer, like a pearl. The end product is more than a ton of smooth, cream-colored struvite pellets--a ton and a half of them every day. Struvite contains nitrogen and magnesium as well as phosphorus. All three are important nutrients for plants, so a company called Ostara (which helped develop the recycling process) buys back the pellets from the Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD) and turns them into a special \u003ca href=\"http://www.crystalgreen.com/about-crystal-green\">plant-activated fertilizer\u003c/a> that releases phosphorus only when it is near growing roots. In other words, it won’t feed algae blooms in lakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72159\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72159\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\" alt=\"The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The gray, smelly, sludgy solid left behind at the treatment facility is trucked to farms where it’s used as fertilizer. Despite thoughtfully designed application methods that keep much of it below ground, sooner or later that fertilizer will reach Madison’s lakes. Since the implementation of the phosphorus recovery program, the amount of phosphorus in the fertilizer has been reduced by 85 percent. That means that the thousands of acres where this fertilizer is applied will be sending much less phosphorus into the watershed than before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In addition to cleaning up the water and providing a new income stream, deliberately recycling phosphorus into struvite pellets also keeps the struvite from building up in pipes and tanks, where it had been a perpetual nuisance. MMSD Director Michael Mucha explains that this is becoming a common theme: the environmentally responsible thing to do turns out to be cost-effective, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And Mucha isn’t stopping there. He is also working with farmers to help develop methods that will keep phosphorus out of the lakes. Reducing phosphorus in fertilizer isn’t the only issue: manure is a major piece of the puzzle. Mucha is advocating that farmers use holding tanks and manure digesters. “Our industry is changing,” he said. “As engineers, the way we would always solve a problem is build a bigger treatment plant, [but] actually, the better solution many times is not building at all. It’s working with people to change behavior.” He admits, though, that it typically takes longer, and, he laughs, “There’s no spec book.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, in the meantime, a ton and a half a day of phosphorus pellets is a good place to start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>For more on how water affects communities, and where we might be 50 years from now, check out the QUEST video “\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/picturing-a-future-wrought-by-climate-change/\">Picturing a Future Wrought by Climate Change\u003c/a>.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>We depend on big farms for our food. For crops, that means a lot of fertilizer; for animals, that means a lot of waste. For the lakes near these farms, that means a lot of phosphorus.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Phosphorus washes into lakes with manure and fertilizer and the erosion of phosphorus-rich, fertilized soil. Cyanobacteria feast on that glut of nutrients and their populations explode, with dramatic consequences for the aquatic life in the lake and the people who depend on it. The toxic bloom of cyanobacteria that made Toledo’s water undrinkable in the summer of 2014 is just one example of what can happen when the biochemistry of a lake drifts out of balance.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Steve Carpenter, a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the director of its \u003ca href=\"http://limnology.wisc.edu\">Center for Limnology\u003c/a>, describes phosphorus management as the “keystone” issue for healthy lakes. “If we can get phosphorus under control,” he said, “we have a much better shot at dealing with all of the other problems that the lakes have,” like invasive species, which can swoop in when a lake’s nutrient levels are unbalanced. There are ways to slow the gush of phosphorus into nearby lakes, such as contour plowing and winter cover crops, but Carpenter explains that the phosphorus load has \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/ct/news/local/writers/jessica_vanegeren/q-a-steve-carpenter-is-optimistic-about-solving-madison-s/article_dcfc6c15-953e-5ca2-b80e-80439dfe194d.html\">gotten so high\u003c/a> that those kinds of strategies “almost don’t matter anymore.” Instead, we have to remove phosphorus from the system entirely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>This summer Madison, Wisconsin, \u003ca href=\"http://host.madison.com/wsj/news/local/environment/new-technology-extracts-valuable-fertilizer-from-waste/article_3223b32e-408c-5aea-8680-c06992216e59.html\">unveiled\u003c/a> its new phosphorus recycling facility, the state’s first. It’s part of a strategy by the city’s wastewater-treatment utility to reduce the amount of phosphorus that ends up in the lakes. The recycling program takes most of the phosphorus out of the agricultural fertilizer that the plant produces and puts it in a lake-friendly fertilizer designed to be used on urban lawns and gardens.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72157\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72157\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg\" alt=\"A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/MM-0270-e1412205371231-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A gravity-belt thickener separates a sludgy solid full of plant nutrients from phosphorus-rich water. Image courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Steve Reusser, an operations engineer who helped develop the phosphorus harvesting process, explains that it relies on a careful combination of engineering and biology. Certain species of bacteria, which, like plants, also need phosphorus to survive, either absorb or release phosphorus depending on whether there is oxygen present or not. Wastewater is full of phosphorus from human waste. At the treatment facility, it’s stocked with what Reusser characterizes as “a zoo of different kinds of bacteria.” As it wends its way through the facility’s tanks and filters, the oxygen concentration and filtration systems are manipulated in concert to yield two separate products: a sludgy solid that contains a lot of bacteria and not much phosphorus, and water that is phosphorus rich.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The liquid is combined with two other chemicals that pull that phosphorus out of the water to form tiny particles of a mineral called struvite. These tiny particles are built up layer by layer, like a pearl. The end product is more than a ton of smooth, cream-colored struvite pellets--a ton and a half of them every day. Struvite contains nitrogen and magnesium as well as phosphorus. All three are important nutrients for plants, so a company called Ostara (which helped develop the recycling process) buys back the pellets from the Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD) and turns them into a special \u003ca href=\"http://www.crystalgreen.com/about-crystal-green\">plant-activated fertilizer\u003c/a> that releases phosphorus only when it is near growing roots. In other words, it won’t feed algae blooms in lakes.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_72159\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\" style=\"max-width: 640px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-full wp-image-72159\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg\" alt=\"The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha. \" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736.jpg 640w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/08/Metrogro-application-vehicle-e1412205654736-400x225.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The wastewater-derived fertilizer is applied to thousands of acres in Wisconsin. Photo courtesy of Michael Mucha.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The gray, smelly, sludgy solid left behind at the treatment facility is trucked to farms where it’s used as fertilizer. Despite thoughtfully designed application methods that keep much of it below ground, sooner or later that fertilizer will reach Madison’s lakes. Since the implementation of the phosphorus recovery program, the amount of phosphorus in the fertilizer has been reduced by 85 percent. That means that the thousands of acres where this fertilizer is applied will be sending much less phosphorus into the watershed than before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In addition to cleaning up the water and providing a new income stream, deliberately recycling phosphorus into struvite pellets also keeps the struvite from building up in pipes and tanks, where it had been a perpetual nuisance. MMSD Director Michael Mucha explains that this is becoming a common theme: the environmentally responsible thing to do turns out to be cost-effective, too.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And Mucha isn’t stopping there. He is also working with farmers to help develop methods that will keep phosphorus out of the lakes. Reducing phosphorus in fertilizer isn’t the only issue: manure is a major piece of the puzzle. Mucha is advocating that farmers use holding tanks and manure digesters. “Our industry is changing,” he said. “As engineers, the way we would always solve a problem is build a bigger treatment plant, [but] actually, the better solution many times is not building at all. It’s working with people to change behavior.” He admits, though, that it typically takes longer, and, he laughs, “There’s no spec book.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>So, in the meantime, a ton and a half a day of phosphorus pellets is a good place to start.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>For more on how water affects communities, and where we might be 50 years from now, check out the QUEST video “\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/video/picturing-a-future-wrought-by-climate-change/\">Picturing a Future Wrought by Climate Change\u003c/a>.”\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An Expert Opinion: Dr. Cindy Lee Van Dover\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71789\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 189px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71789\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b-189x253.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\" width=\"189\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Dr. Cindy Van Dover is the director of the \u003ca href=\"http://nicholas.duke.edu/marinelab\" target=\"_blank\">Duke University Marine Laboratory\u003c/a>. She has spent the last 30 years exploring the deep sea. Her research has led her to hydrothermal vent fields thousands of meters below the ocean surface, as well as to conference tables around the world, where she is now helping to develop regulations around deep-sea mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.whoi.edu/main/topic/seafloor-mining\" target=\"_blank\">Deep-sea mining\u003c/a> is the process of extracting mineral-rich deposits from hydrothermal vents and other deep seafloor settings. The upside is more copper, manganese, and rare earth minerals to power things like wind turbines, cell phones, and computers. The downside is … unknown. Dr. Van Dover is working with an international community of governments and industry to mitigate the collateral environmental damage that will result from seafloor mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71784\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 175px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71784\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend-175x253.jpg\" alt=\"Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\" width=\"175\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An example of a deep-sea mining operation. Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do you reconcile your passion for the deep sea with your work with the mining community?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhen I first started thinking about deep-sea mining in the mid-2000s, I thought I would be long retired before mining really became an issue. I also thought, “I’ve helped explore the deep sea and love it; it hurts to think we will willingly damage this extraordinary environment.” But from conversations with the Secretary General of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.isa.org.jm/en/home\" target=\"_blank\">International Seabed Authority\u003c/a> and with others, seabed mining of some form or other seems inevitable. If this is so, if mining does proceed, then my role as a scientist is to use my knowledge to help minimize the environmental impacts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I think that my generation of deep-sea scientists will be judged a century from now by the quality of environmental regulations we help to put in place. How important are the right regulations? If we don’t get it right, if we degrade the seabed, we can’t fix it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The deep sea is not on most people’s radar. Why should we care? \u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nAs we have learned the hard way more than once, the biosphere of Earth is interconnected – what happens in one place, affects what happens elsewhere. The seafloor seems so remote to us, yet so did the ozone layer. Humans have a tremendous capacity to modify the global environment, in ways we often don’t anticipate and in ways that are very detrimental to our quality of life. Can we avoid making mistakes in the deep sea? We have to try.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71808\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 238px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-71808\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\" width=\"238\" height=\"179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it a free-for-all on the sea floor, or is there a governing body making sure companies and countries act responsibly?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThe mineral resources of the seabed in international waters are governed by a very interesting regime. \u003ca href=\"http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea\u003c/a> came into force in 1994 and as part of this Convention, seabed minerals in the area beyond national jurisdictions became the common heritage of mankind, with equitable access and benefit sharing for all nations. The intent is that developing countries, land-locked countries, and geographically disadvantaged countries should have access to seabed minerals, not just the developed countries.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where are these mineral deposits located?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are three different kinds of mineral resources of interest to the mining industry. Hydrothermal vents associated with volcanic systems on the seafloor are copper-rich and sometimes gold- and silver-rich. Fossil vent deposits of economic interest form over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. Manganese nodules are a second kind of mineral resource, found lying on top of sediments of the abyssal plain, typically beneath 5,000 meters of water. These nodules take millennia -- millions of years -- to form. The third major mineral resource is cobalt crusts. These crusts typically are found on seamounts and are often colonized by ancient, slow-growing corals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71806\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71806\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The sea is vast. Can you help put the size of potential mining sites in perspective?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nIt IS hard to comprehend dimensions as big as the deep sea. A single mining event at a hydrothermal deposit might cover an area the size of a dozen or fewer football fields. For manganese nodules, the scale of a mining area is much, much greater. Exploration lease sites for manganese nodules in international waters are extensive, the size of small countries.\u003cbr>\nWe don’t yet understand what the direct, indirect, or cumulative environmental impacts might be of mining in the deep sea on such a scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is there a baseline for the ecosystem services provided by the deep sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are very few quantitative numbers about ecosystem services in the deep sea. This is an area of research that is critical if we are to understand how deep-sea industrialization may affect ecosystem health and ecosystem services. How can we know what is at risk, if we do not have validated quantitative models of deep-sea processes?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71807\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71807\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it difficult to separate your passion from the science?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nI have learned to do this, to recognize that there are valid perspectives of and interests in the deep sea that are different from mine as an ecologist. As a scientist, I am obliged to give as unbiased an answer as I possibly can when asked for information about deep-sea ecosystems. The questions that I am asked by those interested in mining and environmental management of mining activities are always intellectually engaging and often difficult to answer precisely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about being at sea when you’re on land?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhat I love is the focus that comes with being at sea with colleagues. We are together on a ship, working toward common goals, with very few distractions. I miss that focus, the time to just do science, 24/7.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about land when you’re at sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nGreen. There is very little green at sea, not even on the ship. Everything is blue water, blue sky, white clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad floatright]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cem>*This interview has been condensed and edited.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cstrong>An Expert Opinion: Dr. Cindy Lee Van Dover\u003c/strong>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71789\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 189px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71789\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/VanD39b-189x253.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\" width=\"189\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover has been exploring the deep sea for over 30 years as a researcher and submarine pilot.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Dr. Cindy Van Dover is the director of the \u003ca href=\"http://nicholas.duke.edu/marinelab\" target=\"_blank\">Duke University Marine Laboratory\u003c/a>. She has spent the last 30 years exploring the deep sea. Her research has led her to hydrothermal vent fields thousands of meters below the ocean surface, as well as to conference tables around the world, where she is now helping to develop regulations around deep-sea mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://www.whoi.edu/main/topic/seafloor-mining\" target=\"_blank\">Deep-sea mining\u003c/a> is the process of extracting mineral-rich deposits from hydrothermal vents and other deep seafloor settings. The upside is more copper, manganese, and rare earth minerals to power things like wind turbines, cell phones, and computers. The downside is … unknown. Dr. Van Dover is working with an international community of governments and industry to mitigate the collateral environmental damage that will result from seafloor mining.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71784\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 175px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-medium wp-image-71784\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/0000039716-Nautilus-AR-2012_internals_with_legend-175x253.jpg\" alt=\"Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\" width=\"175\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An example of a deep-sea mining operation. Click to enlarge. Image Courtesy Nautilus Minerals\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>How do you reconcile your passion for the deep sea with your work with the mining community?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhen I first started thinking about deep-sea mining in the mid-2000s, I thought I would be long retired before mining really became an issue. I also thought, “I’ve helped explore the deep sea and love it; it hurts to think we will willingly damage this extraordinary environment.” But from conversations with the Secretary General of the \u003ca href=\"http://www.isa.org.jm/en/home\" target=\"_blank\">International Seabed Authority\u003c/a> and with others, seabed mining of some form or other seems inevitable. If this is so, if mining does proceed, then my role as a scientist is to use my knowledge to help minimize the environmental impacts.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>I think that my generation of deep-sea scientists will be judged a century from now by the quality of environmental regulations we help to put in place. How important are the right regulations? If we don’t get it right, if we degrade the seabed, we can’t fix it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The deep sea is not on most people’s radar. Why should we care? \u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nAs we have learned the hard way more than once, the biosphere of Earth is interconnected – what happens in one place, affects what happens elsewhere. The seafloor seems so remote to us, yet so did the ozone layer. Humans have a tremendous capacity to modify the global environment, in ways we often don’t anticipate and in ways that are very detrimental to our quality of life. Can we avoid making mistakes in the deep sea? We have to try.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71808\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 238px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\" wp-image-71808\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/R852_DSC_092004_070004_037721-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\" width=\"238\" height=\"179\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">A bed of tube worms cover the base of the black smoker in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, NE Pacific. Courtesy NOAA PMEL EOI\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it a free-for-all on the sea floor, or is there a governing body making sure companies and countries act responsibly?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThe mineral resources of the seabed in international waters are governed by a very interesting regime. \u003ca href=\"http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea\u003c/a> came into force in 1994 and as part of this Convention, seabed minerals in the area beyond national jurisdictions became the common heritage of mankind, with equitable access and benefit sharing for all nations. The intent is that developing countries, land-locked countries, and geographically disadvantaged countries should have access to seabed minerals, not just the developed countries.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Where are these mineral deposits located?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are three different kinds of mineral resources of interest to the mining industry. Hydrothermal vents associated with volcanic systems on the seafloor are copper-rich and sometimes gold- and silver-rich. Fossil vent deposits of economic interest form over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years. Manganese nodules are a second kind of mineral resource, found lying on top of sediments of the abyssal plain, typically beneath 5,000 meters of water. These nodules take millennia -- millions of years -- to form. The third major mineral resource is cobalt crusts. These crusts typically are found on seamounts and are often colonized by ancient, slow-growing corals.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71806\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 253px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71806\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl0510-253x169.jpg\" alt=\"Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\" width=\"253\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Van Dover says mining leases range in size from a few football fields, to the size of small countries. Image courtesy NOAA.\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The sea is vast. Can you help put the size of potential mining sites in perspective?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nIt IS hard to comprehend dimensions as big as the deep sea. A single mining event at a hydrothermal deposit might cover an area the size of a dozen or fewer football fields. For manganese nodules, the scale of a mining area is much, much greater. Exploration lease sites for manganese nodules in international waters are extensive, the size of small countries.\u003cbr>\nWe don’t yet understand what the direct, indirect, or cumulative environmental impacts might be of mining in the deep sea on such a scale.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is there a baseline for the ecosystem services provided by the deep sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nThere are very few quantitative numbers about ecosystem services in the deep sea. This is an area of research that is critical if we are to understand how deep-sea industrialization may affect ecosystem health and ecosystem services. How can we know what is at risk, if we do not have validated quantitative models of deep-sea processes?\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71807\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 225px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71807\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2013/04/expl1190-225x169.jpg\" alt=\"The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\" width=\"225\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin is launched from the R/V Atlantis for the first dive to Manning seamount. Courtesy Mountains in the Sea Research Team; the IFE Crew; and NOAA/OAR/OER\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>Is it difficult to separate your passion from the science?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nI have learned to do this, to recognize that there are valid perspectives of and interests in the deep sea that are different from mine as an ecologist. As a scientist, I am obliged to give as unbiased an answer as I possibly can when asked for information about deep-sea ecosystems. The questions that I am asked by those interested in mining and environmental management of mining activities are always intellectually engaging and often difficult to answer precisely.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about being at sea when you’re on land?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhat I love is the focus that comes with being at sea with colleagues. We are together on a ship, working toward common goals, with very few distractions. I miss that focus, the time to just do science, 24/7.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What do you miss most about land when you’re at sea?\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nGreen. There is very little green at sea, not even on the ship. Everything is blue water, blue sky, white clouds.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"disqusTitle": "Drought Re-shaping the Cattle Map",
"title": "Drought Re-shaping the Cattle Map",
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"content": "\u003cp>Drought is reshaping the beef map and raising the price of steak. Ranchers are moving herds \u003ca href=\"http://www.denverpost.com/business/ci_25773718/california-cattle-short-food-finding-way-colorado\">from California to Colorado\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://lubbockonline.com/agriculture/2014-03-02/texas-trails-nebraska-number-cattle-feeding#.U5dGJPmwJcQ\">from Texas to Nebraska\u003c/a> seeking refuge from dry weather. And cattle producers in the Midwest are making the most of it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The U.S. may be on the front end of a significant geographic shakeout of the beef industry. Herd numbers have been sliding nationwide for more than a decade. Now, as drought grips major beef and dairy producing areas, a cattle migration is emerging and it’s altering where cattle are raised, fed, and slaughtered.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Drought devastating cattle herds\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Prime cattle producing areas can’t hold the same number of animals without adequate supplies of feed and water. Oklahoma State University livestock marketing specialist Derrell Peel says ponds and pastures are drying up across large parts of Oklahoma and Texas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Western Oklahoma -- the panhandle, the panhandle of Texas, and, in fact, much of West Texas and much of western New Mexico are still in extremely severe drought,” Peel said. “There’s been very little relief really since the fall of 2010.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Texas, the country’s leading beef state, lost 24 percent of its total beef herd from 2010 to 2014. Oklahoma saw a 13 percent cut. As a result of shrinking herds, \u003ca href=\"http://www.startribune.com/business/258725451.html\">some feedlots and even a meat-packing plant\u003c/a> have closed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A packing plant \u003ca href=\"http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/31/usa-beef-national-idUSL2N0L51GW20140131\">also closed in Southern California\u003c/a> earlier this year, where more than 80 percent the state is currently experiencing extreme drought (as of August 7). Hay and alfalfa are expensive and in short supply for feeding cattle. For the time being, dairy producers appear to be absorbing the increased costs, but beef ranchers are having a harder time managing the expense.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many ranchers have cut beef herds in half in the northern Sierra foothills where Jeremy James is director of a University of California \u003ca href=\"http://sfrec.ucanr.edu/\">agriculture and natural resources research center.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“But if you go farther south in San Luis Obispo County, Santa Barbara, ranchers have culled basically their entire herd or 80 to 90 percent of their herd,” James said. “They’ve received some of the lowest rainfall over the last three years of almost anywhere on the coastal range of California.”\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Smallest herd in decades\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>“The drought the last three years has been the last straw,” said Oklahoma State’s Derrell Peel. The U.S. beef herd has fallen by 1.8 million head, or 6 percent, since 2011. But it comes after years of overall decline in cattle numbers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The U.S. beef cow herd has been downsizing for 16 of the last 18 years,” Peel said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, national herd numbers are the smallest they’ve been since the 1950s. That’s why \u003ca href=\"http://www.harvestpublicmedia.org/article/beef-herd-may-be-poised-growth-and-cheaper-steak\">shoppers are paying more than ever for beef\u003c/a> at the grocery store. Beef prices are up 10 percent in the last 12 months.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not all beef states are experiencing equal declines. Northern states like Montana, Nebraska, Iowa, and the Dakotas have held steady or have even seen some growth in their cattle herds, even though many pastures have been \u003ca href=\"http://www.harvestpublicmedia.org/article/farmers-plowing-more-and-more-prairie\">plowed up to raise corn.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71815\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 241px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_truck-e1408567960506.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71815\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_truck-241x169.jpg\" alt=\"A feed truck drives along a concrete bunk in a cattle feedlot.\" width=\"241\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Van Housen Feed Yard in Stromsburg, Nebraska mixes 22 loads of feed every day, adding up to nearly 200 tons food for 8,000 cattle. (Photo by Grant Gerlock)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch3>Following the feed\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Many of those cattle have moved to Midwestern feedlots. This year, for the first time, Nebraska passed Texas as the top cattle-feeding state in the country. That is, Nebraska houses the most cattle in feedlots, which are generally the final step before they head to the slaughterhouse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The main reason is a difference in feed prices. Feed costs are up in Texas, stoked by drought. But they’re relatively low in the Midwest, thanks to a byproduct of the region’s large ethanol industry -- distillers’ grains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Distillers’ grains are the leftovers of corn ethanol production. Nebraska is second in the country in ethanol production, behind Iowa. When the starch is removed from the corn kernel to be fermented into fuel, the protein-rich fiber is left behind. But it can be used as an inexpensive ingredient in livestock feed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71814\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 241px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_terry-e1408568049274.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71814\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_terry-241x169.jpg\" alt=\"Cattle feeder, Terry Van Housen, holds a handful of yellow cattle feed in his hand.\" width=\"241\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Terry Van Housen takes a handful of feed from the bunk at his feedlot. Lower feed costs give Nebraska an advantage in the cattle-feeding industry. (Photo by Grant Gerlock)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Cattle feeder Terry Van Housen calls Nebraska the “garden spot for raising cattle.” At his feedlot near the small town of Stromsburg, 8,000 animals line up along two miles of concrete bunks to pile on the pounds. He has replaced 30 percent of his regular feed ration with distillers’ grains, the corn ethanol byproduct.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Van Housen gets the moist, yellow, sweet-smelling stuff fresh from an ethanol plant just 18 miles away. He says the cheap source of feed gives Midwestern feeders an edge over southern competitors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So that’s a big deal,” Van Housen says. “A lot of this stuff, if you fed in Texas, it would have to come from here.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And as Van Housen says, it’s cheaper to haul the cattle to the feed than haul the feed to the cattle.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Waiting for rain\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Rebuilding herds in the areas of cattle country hit hardest by drought could take years, and that’s only once the grass is green again. For now, ranchers in Texas and California are watching and waiting for rain. Jeremy James of the University of California says producers want to see what will happen this fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That will tip the scale in either a good or bad trajectory,” James said. “If we had a fourth year of drought here, it would probably tax most of these ag systems beyond any sort of reasonable capacity.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When rain does come, cattle will return to the areas where they were forced out by drought. The question is how many? Those ranchers will be competing with areas that have gained from their climatic misfortune. And wherever those cattle start, when it’s time for them to bulk up before slaughter, states like Nebraska, with easy access to cheap feed, are likely to attract a larger share of the market.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>Drought is reshaping the beef map and raising the price of steak. Ranchers are moving herds \u003ca href=\"http://www.denverpost.com/business/ci_25773718/california-cattle-short-food-finding-way-colorado\">from California to Colorado\u003c/a> and \u003ca href=\"http://lubbockonline.com/agriculture/2014-03-02/texas-trails-nebraska-number-cattle-feeding#.U5dGJPmwJcQ\">from Texas to Nebraska\u003c/a> seeking refuge from dry weather. And cattle producers in the Midwest are making the most of it.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The U.S. may be on the front end of a significant geographic shakeout of the beef industry. Herd numbers have been sliding nationwide for more than a decade. Now, as drought grips major beef and dairy producing areas, a cattle migration is emerging and it’s altering where cattle are raised, fed, and slaughtered.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Drought devastating cattle herds\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Prime cattle producing areas can’t hold the same number of animals without adequate supplies of feed and water. Oklahoma State University livestock marketing specialist Derrell Peel says ponds and pastures are drying up across large parts of Oklahoma and Texas.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“Western Oklahoma -- the panhandle, the panhandle of Texas, and, in fact, much of West Texas and much of western New Mexico are still in extremely severe drought,” Peel said. “There’s been very little relief really since the fall of 2010.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Texas, the country’s leading beef state, lost 24 percent of its total beef herd from 2010 to 2014. Oklahoma saw a 13 percent cut. As a result of shrinking herds, \u003ca href=\"http://www.startribune.com/business/258725451.html\">some feedlots and even a meat-packing plant\u003c/a> have closed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>A packing plant \u003ca href=\"http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/31/usa-beef-national-idUSL2N0L51GW20140131\">also closed in Southern California\u003c/a> earlier this year, where more than 80 percent the state is currently experiencing extreme drought (as of August 7). Hay and alfalfa are expensive and in short supply for feeding cattle. For the time being, dairy producers appear to be absorbing the increased costs, but beef ranchers are having a harder time managing the expense.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Many ranchers have cut beef herds in half in the northern Sierra foothills where Jeremy James is director of a University of California \u003ca href=\"http://sfrec.ucanr.edu/\">agriculture and natural resources research center.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“But if you go farther south in San Luis Obispo County, Santa Barbara, ranchers have culled basically their entire herd or 80 to 90 percent of their herd,” James said. “They’ve received some of the lowest rainfall over the last three years of almost anywhere on the coastal range of California.”\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Smallest herd in decades\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>“The drought the last three years has been the last straw,” said Oklahoma State’s Derrell Peel. The U.S. beef herd has fallen by 1.8 million head, or 6 percent, since 2011. But it comes after years of overall decline in cattle numbers.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“The U.S. beef cow herd has been downsizing for 16 of the last 18 years,” Peel said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>In fact, national herd numbers are the smallest they’ve been since the 1950s. That’s why \u003ca href=\"http://www.harvestpublicmedia.org/article/beef-herd-may-be-poised-growth-and-cheaper-steak\">shoppers are paying more than ever for beef\u003c/a> at the grocery store. Beef prices are up 10 percent in the last 12 months.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>But not all beef states are experiencing equal declines. Northern states like Montana, Nebraska, Iowa, and the Dakotas have held steady or have even seen some growth in their cattle herds, even though many pastures have been \u003ca href=\"http://www.harvestpublicmedia.org/article/farmers-plowing-more-and-more-prairie\">plowed up to raise corn.\u003c/a>\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71815\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 241px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_truck-e1408567960506.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71815\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_truck-241x169.jpg\" alt=\"A feed truck drives along a concrete bunk in a cattle feedlot.\" width=\"241\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Van Housen Feed Yard in Stromsburg, Nebraska mixes 22 loads of feed every day, adding up to nearly 200 tons food for 8,000 cattle. (Photo by Grant Gerlock)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003ch3>Following the feed\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Many of those cattle have moved to Midwestern feedlots. This year, for the first time, Nebraska passed Texas as the top cattle-feeding state in the country. That is, Nebraska houses the most cattle in feedlots, which are generally the final step before they head to the slaughterhouse.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The main reason is a difference in feed prices. Feed costs are up in Texas, stoked by drought. But they’re relatively low in the Midwest, thanks to a byproduct of the region’s large ethanol industry -- distillers’ grains.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Distillers’ grains are the leftovers of corn ethanol production. Nebraska is second in the country in ethanol production, behind Iowa. When the starch is removed from the corn kernel to be fermented into fuel, the protein-rich fiber is left behind. But it can be used as an inexpensive ingredient in livestock feed.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71814\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 241px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_terry-e1408568049274.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"size-thumbnail wp-image-71814\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Cattle_terry-241x169.jpg\" alt=\"Cattle feeder, Terry Van Housen, holds a handful of yellow cattle feed in his hand.\" width=\"241\" height=\"169\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Terry Van Housen takes a handful of feed from the bunk at his feedlot. Lower feed costs give Nebraska an advantage in the cattle-feeding industry. (Photo by Grant Gerlock)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Cattle feeder Terry Van Housen calls Nebraska the “garden spot for raising cattle.” At his feedlot near the small town of Stromsburg, 8,000 animals line up along two miles of concrete bunks to pile on the pounds. He has replaced 30 percent of his regular feed ration with distillers’ grains, the corn ethanol byproduct.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Van Housen gets the moist, yellow, sweet-smelling stuff fresh from an ethanol plant just 18 miles away. He says the cheap source of feed gives Midwestern feeders an edge over southern competitors.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So that’s a big deal,” Van Housen says. “A lot of this stuff, if you fed in Texas, it would have to come from here.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And as Van Housen says, it’s cheaper to haul the cattle to the feed than haul the feed to the cattle.\u003c/p>\n\u003ch3>Waiting for rain\u003c/h3>\n\u003cp>Rebuilding herds in the areas of cattle country hit hardest by drought could take years, and that’s only once the grass is green again. For now, ranchers in Texas and California are watching and waiting for rain. Jeremy James of the University of California says producers want to see what will happen this fall.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“That will tip the scale in either a good or bad trajectory,” James said. “If we had a fourth year of drought here, it would probably tax most of these ag systems beyond any sort of reasonable capacity.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>When rain does come, cattle will return to the areas where they were forced out by drought. The question is how many? Those ranchers will be competing with areas that have gained from their climatic misfortune. And wherever those cattle start, when it’s time for them to bulk up before slaughter, states like Nebraska, with easy access to cheap feed, are likely to attract a larger share of the market.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Dating Drought in the Nebraska Sandhills",
"title": "Dating Drought in the Nebraska Sandhills",
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"content": "\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/SandhillsDrought2014web.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Plains have experienced prolonged, and in some places severe, drought during the last several years. But could drought ever make Nebraska’s Sandhills resemble the Sahara? Yes—and it has, several times before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71930\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71930 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands that support a robust ranching economy. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands, but in the last century they've been rolling bare dunes. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Sandhills are a lush and complex grassland ecosystem sitting atop the massive Oglalla aquifer, supporting many cattle ranches and species of wildlife. So it’s quite a contrast to visit the research sites of David Wedin, an ecology professor at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. On a warm summer day, Wedin lead the way to one circular plot plot he’s put through what he calls the “death and destruction” treatment, killed once every three years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We actually herbicide it with Roundup, glyphosate,” Wedin said. “So we’re simulating a severe disturbance of some kind.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wedin’s \u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/sandhills-biocomplexity/gdex.htm\">Grassland Destabilization Experiment\u003c/a> has been going on for about a decade on university property in north-central Nebraska. Several test plots hold only patchy vegetation and lots of bare sand. In addition to herbicides, he’s used an agricultural disk to scrape off the grass in some places.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71928\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71928 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We’re trying to understand what happens when the system goes past its point of resilience and loses its stability, and kinda how the Sandhills fall apart,” Wedin said, “What happens ecologically in that process.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During the last 10,000 years, data point to four periods of “mega-drought”— one lasting nearly 3,000 years. That drought, possibly exacerbated by strong winds, wiped out vegetation across the Sandhills. Wedin said during the most recent mega-drought 800 years ago, “you would have been standing at this point and looking at the largest set of moving sand dunes in the western hemisphere.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>UNL scientists have spent the last 15 years dating the Sandhills through a process called optically stimulated luminescence, which measures the electrical charge of sand grains. UNL Professor Paul Hanson, a geologist with the\u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/csd/surveyareas/geology.asp\"> Nebraska Geologic Survey\u003c/a>, uses this technique to study how and when the sand dunes last moved.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson said to think of each sand grain as an individual rechargeable battery. “The sand grains are exposed to sunlight, they lose their electrical charge. And when those sand grains are buried in the ground they’re gaining that electrical charge again. So the length of time they’re buried dictates how full that battery is,” Hanson said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson and his colleagues drill down 60 to 80 feet to take core samples of the dunes, then return to their lab to study them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the UNL campus, Hanson leads the way through a rotating door of darkness to enter the lab lit by red and amber lights. Inside, Hanson and his students remove the outer edges of the core sample to work with the unexposed sand grains in the middle. After sifting the sand down to the right grain size, they treat it in several different acids to concentrate the quartz. Then they load the individual grains of sand onto disks into a machine that reads the luminescence—like what you see from fireflies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So if your eyes were more sensitive and could actually see smaller quantities of light, you could actually see the sand grains give off the light under the right conditions,” Hanson said. But since our eyes aren’t that sensitive, this machine runs 24/7, dating sand one individual grain at a time. By averaging the useful data from enough grains of sand, “you can use that as a clock to tell how long the grains have been buried,” said Hanson, and thus the last time the dune was bare and moving.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The geologic history Paul Hanson constructs provides context for the ecological research Dave Wedin is doing: trying to understand what conditions are necessary to make a healthy grassland destabilize and fall apart, and how long it takes to recover. Wedin said he’s been quite surprised by the plots killed every three years, particularly given the extreme drought in 2012.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I never would have thought you could completely kill the vegetation out here and it could go another four years before you started to see erosion. And by saying there wasn’t significant erosion I mean less than an inch,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71929\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71929 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Even with surface vegetation killed, the stressed grasslands proved far more resilient than Wedin imagined, retaining their root systems, sand, and organic matter for years. He’s now trying to revegetate the plots, which he said has been even harder:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a situation where the professors come out and learn something that everybody that lives out here already knew, \" said Wedin, \"that it’s easier to destroy the stability out here in the Sandhills than it is to restore it once it’s lost. And that was humbling.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ultimately, Wedin and Hanson agree droughts capable of making the Sandhills resemble the Sahara are very long, probably on the order of decades or a couple hundred years. They’d have to be far more severe than what we’ve seen in the last two hundred years, but not in the last millennium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If we know that in the last 1000 years this landscape produced droughts that destabilized the whole landscape, it seems prudent to think that can do that again. And that discussion is without human-caused climate change. But we don’t even need to invoke human-caused climate change to say, it’s a reasonable prediction [that] sometime in the next couple hundred years we’re going to see droughts out here that the whole thing falls apart,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And long before things reach that point, he noted that a few hard years with no grass could be devastating for the Sandhills ranching economy.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"headline": "Dating Drought in the Nebraska Sandhills",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/qbl-int-usw2/QUEST+Nebraska/Radio/Stream/SandhillsDrought2014web.mp3\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Plains have experienced prolonged, and in some places severe, drought during the last several years. But could drought ever make Nebraska’s Sandhills resemble the Sahara? Yes—and it has, several times before.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71930\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71930 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/Sandhills-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands that support a robust ranching economy. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Today Nebraska's Sandhills are lush grasslands, but in the last century they've been rolling bare dunes. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>The Sandhills are a lush and complex grassland ecosystem sitting atop the massive Oglalla aquifer, supporting many cattle ranches and species of wildlife. So it’s quite a contrast to visit the research sites of David Wedin, an ecology professor at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. On a warm summer day, Wedin lead the way to one circular plot plot he’s put through what he calls the “death and destruction” treatment, killed once every three years.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“We actually herbicide it with Roundup, glyphosate,” Wedin said. “So we’re simulating a severe disturbance of some kind.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Wedin’s \u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/sandhills-biocomplexity/gdex.htm\">Grassland Destabilization Experiment\u003c/a> has been going on for about a decade on university property in north-central Nebraska. Several test plots hold only patchy vegetation and lots of bare sand. In addition to herbicides, he’s used an agricultural disk to scrape off the grass in some places.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71928\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71928 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0568-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dave Wedin shows how much sand has been lost on one of his test plots recently. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>“We’re trying to understand what happens when the system goes past its point of resilience and loses its stability, and kinda how the Sandhills fall apart,” Wedin said, “What happens ecologically in that process.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>During the last 10,000 years, data point to four periods of “mega-drought”— one lasting nearly 3,000 years. That drought, possibly exacerbated by strong winds, wiped out vegetation across the Sandhills. Wedin said during the most recent mega-drought 800 years ago, “you would have been standing at this point and looking at the largest set of moving sand dunes in the western hemisphere.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>UNL scientists have spent the last 15 years dating the Sandhills through a process called optically stimulated luminescence, which measures the electrical charge of sand grains. UNL Professor Paul Hanson, a geologist with the\u003ca href=\"http://snr.unl.edu/csd/surveyareas/geology.asp\"> Nebraska Geologic Survey\u003c/a>, uses this technique to study how and when the sand dunes last moved.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson said to think of each sand grain as an individual rechargeable battery. “The sand grains are exposed to sunlight, they lose their electrical charge. And when those sand grains are buried in the ground they’re gaining that electrical charge again. So the length of time they’re buried dictates how full that battery is,” Hanson said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Hanson and his colleagues drill down 60 to 80 feet to take core samples of the dunes, then return to their lab to study them.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On the UNL campus, Hanson leads the way through a rotating door of darkness to enter the lab lit by red and amber lights. Inside, Hanson and his students remove the outer edges of the core sample to work with the unexposed sand grains in the middle. After sifting the sand down to the right grain size, they treat it in several different acids to concentrate the quartz. Then they load the individual grains of sand onto disks into a machine that reads the luminescence—like what you see from fireflies.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“So if your eyes were more sensitive and could actually see smaller quantities of light, you could actually see the sand grains give off the light under the right conditions,” Hanson said. But since our eyes aren’t that sensitive, this machine runs 24/7, dating sand one individual grain at a time. By averaging the useful data from enough grains of sand, “you can use that as a clock to tell how long the grains have been buried,” said Hanson, and thus the last time the dune was bare and moving.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The geologic history Paul Hanson constructs provides context for the ecological research Dave Wedin is doing: trying to understand what conditions are necessary to make a healthy grassland destabilize and fall apart, and how long it takes to recover. Wedin said he’s been quite surprised by the plots killed every three years, particularly given the extreme drought in 2012.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“I never would have thought you could completely kill the vegetation out here and it could go another four years before you started to see erosion. And by saying there wasn’t significant erosion I mean less than an inch,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71929\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 380px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71929 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/07/DSC_0570-380x253.jpg\" alt=\"Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated.\" width=\"380\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Paul Hanson and David Wedin walk through a test plot being revegetated. (Photo by Ariana Brocious)\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>Even with surface vegetation killed, the stressed grasslands proved far more resilient than Wedin imagined, retaining their root systems, sand, and organic matter for years. He’s now trying to revegetate the plots, which he said has been even harder:\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“It’s a situation where the professors come out and learn something that everybody that lives out here already knew, \" said Wedin, \"that it’s easier to destroy the stability out here in the Sandhills than it is to restore it once it’s lost. And that was humbling.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Ultimately, Wedin and Hanson agree droughts capable of making the Sandhills resemble the Sahara are very long, probably on the order of decades or a couple hundred years. They’d have to be far more severe than what we’ve seen in the last two hundred years, but not in the last millennium.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>“If we know that in the last 1000 years this landscape produced droughts that destabilized the whole landscape, it seems prudent to think that can do that again. And that discussion is without human-caused climate change. But we don’t even need to invoke human-caused climate change to say, it’s a reasonable prediction [that] sometime in the next couple hundred years we’re going to see droughts out here that the whole thing falls apart,” Wedin said.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>And long before things reach that point, he noted that a few hard years with no grass could be devastating for the Sandhills ranching economy.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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"disqusTitle": "Coal Ash Conundrum",
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"content": "\u003cp>\u003cem>QUEST North Carolina’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/dlane/\">Daniel Lane\u003c/a> contributed to this article.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a Sunday in February in Eden, North Carolina, a sinkhole formed in the middle of a pond of coal ash slurry next to the retired Dan River Steam Station. A stormwater pipe underneath the ash pond cracked and was sucking in ash and shuttling it to the nearby river. Duke Energy, owner of the facility, sent emergency crews to the site, but it was a complicated fix. By the time they got it securely sealed on Thursday, the 48-inch pipe had belched more than 39,000 tons of coal ash into the Dan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Dan, a major tributary of one of the largest and least disturbed ecosystems on the East Coast, ran gray. From Danville, Virginia, whose 42,000 residents draw their water from the river, to Kerr Lake, home to seven recreation areas with 800 miles of trails, a gray ribbon of coal ash was visible along 70 miles of prime sport-fishing territory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71432\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 326px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71432 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation-326x253.jpg\" alt=\" \" width=\"326\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Coal ash can have 24 times the concentration of selenium compared to native soil. Click to enlarge. Courtesy: EPA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Is Coal Ash?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Coal ash is a byproduct of burning coal to make electricity. For every nine million tons of coal burned in the U.S., approximately \u003ca href=\"http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/coal/coalmyb01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">one ton of coal ash is produced\u003c/a>. Coal ash is a highly concentrated source of the mineral content that is left after the carbon is burned. It is similar to soil in terms of grain size and texture but contains high concentrations of toxic elements like selenium and arsenic. Coal ash is typically stored wet behind earthen dams adjacent to the power plant. The security of these impoundments is currently under review. The EPA is assessing the hazard potential of the 676 impoundments around the country. As of March 2014, 52 surface impoundments were given a “high” hazard potential rating by the EPA, meaning a failure of the impoundment is “probable, one or more expected.”\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nWhy This Matters\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Water tests at the Danville water treatment plant showed a spike in arsenic in the first days of the contamination, but arsenic levels returned to normal a week later. The ash, however, was not gone. It was just gone from view, merged with the most fertile zone in a river -- the nutrient-rich and life-giving layer of sediment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most species of aquatic insects live in the sediment, collecting, filtering, and grazing upon minute particles of food. Nothing goes to waste down there, not even the arsenic and selenium from coal ash. Heavy metals get lodged into the tissues of any insect that eats them. When minnows eat the insects, they consume the toxins. Larger fish get toxins from every minnow they eat. As you climb higher in the food chain, the amount of arsenic or selenium you find multiplies progressively. This process is called \u003ca href=\"http://sustainablenano.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/3-bioaccumulation-vs-biomagnification.png\" target=\"_blank\">biomagnification\u003c/a> and it has impacts on a food web from bottom to top.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>[ad fullwidth]\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://media.news.wfu.edu/experts/dennis-lemly/\" target=\"_blank\">Dr. Dennis Lemly\u003c/a>, research fish biologist and professor of biology at Wake Forest University, calls selenium an “invisible” toxin because it doesn’t directly harm the fish that eats it. “Instead, it migrates to the ovaries and enters growing embryos, causing defects in major organs and physical deformities in the head, spine, mouth, and fins (see effects of selenium poisoning in North Carolina \u003ca href=\"http://appvoices.org/2013/12/05/effects-of-selenium-poisoning-deformed-and-dying-fish-at-sutton-lake/\" target=\"_blank\">here\u003c/a>). A lot of them die shortly after birth,” Lemly said. “So over a period of two or three years, the older fish die off and there’s no young ones to replace them and repopulate. They just die off.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71431\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 367px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71431\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg\" alt=\"Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\" width=\"367\" height=\"232\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-800x505.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-1180x746.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-960x607.jpg 960w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg 1396w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 367px) 100vw, 367px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Click to enlarge. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Future of Coal Ash Disposal\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhile the long-term effects of the Dan River coal ash spill won't be known for a while, the short-term effects may be influencing regulation. In 2008, the catastrophic 1.1 billion gallon spill in Kingston, Tennessee, galvanized public debate about coal ash storage. In 2010, the EPA proposed the nation’s first-ever rules to ensure the safe disposal of coal ash. According to the EPA, “these rules would ensure stronger oversight of the structural integrity of impoundments in order to prevent future accidents.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Lemly is in favor of more regulation, “I have been on record many times recommending a complete banning of the surface disposal in impoundments. I continue to do that. I’m hopeful that the EPA ruling on coal ash that is supposed to come out in December will provide a complete ban on surface impoundment disposal.” The EPA is expected to finalize their rules for coal ash on December 19.\u003c/p>\n\n",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003cp>\u003cem>QUEST North Carolina’s \u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/author/dlane/\">Daniel Lane\u003c/a> contributed to this article.\u003c/em>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>On a Sunday in February in Eden, North Carolina, a sinkhole formed in the middle of a pond of coal ash slurry next to the retired Dan River Steam Station. A stormwater pipe underneath the ash pond cracked and was sucking in ash and shuttling it to the nearby river. Duke Energy, owner of the facility, sent emergency crews to the site, but it was a complicated fix. By the time they got it securely sealed on Thursday, the 48-inch pipe had belched more than 39,000 tons of coal ash into the Dan.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>The Dan, a major tributary of one of the largest and least disturbed ecosystems on the East Coast, ran gray. From Danville, Virginia, whose 42,000 residents draw their water from the river, to Kerr Lake, home to seven recreation areas with 800 miles of trails, a gray ribbon of coal ash was visible along 70 miles of prime sport-fishing territory.\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71432\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 326px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71432 size-medium\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/coal-ash-generation-326x253.jpg\" alt=\" \" width=\"326\" height=\"253\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Coal ash can have 24 times the concentration of selenium compared to native soil. Click to enlarge. Courtesy: EPA\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>What Is Coal Ash?\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Coal ash is a byproduct of burning coal to make electricity. For every nine million tons of coal burned in the U.S., approximately \u003ca href=\"http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/coal/coalmyb01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">one ton of coal ash is produced\u003c/a>. Coal ash is a highly concentrated source of the mineral content that is left after the carbon is burned. It is similar to soil in terms of grain size and texture but contains high concentrations of toxic elements like selenium and arsenic. Coal ash is typically stored wet behind earthen dams adjacent to the power plant. The security of these impoundments is currently under review. The EPA is assessing the hazard potential of the 676 impoundments around the country. As of March 2014, 52 surface impoundments were given a “high” hazard potential rating by the EPA, meaning a failure of the impoundment is “probable, one or more expected.”\u003cbr>\n\u003cstrong>\u003cbr>\nWhy This Matters\u003cbr>\n\u003c/strong>Water tests at the Danville water treatment plant showed a spike in arsenic in the first days of the contamination, but arsenic levels returned to normal a week later. The ash, however, was not gone. It was just gone from view, merged with the most fertile zone in a river -- the nutrient-rich and life-giving layer of sediment.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Most species of aquatic insects live in the sediment, collecting, filtering, and grazing upon minute particles of food. Nothing goes to waste down there, not even the arsenic and selenium from coal ash. Heavy metals get lodged into the tissues of any insect that eats them. When minnows eat the insects, they consume the toxins. Larger fish get toxins from every minnow they eat. As you climb higher in the food chain, the amount of arsenic or selenium you find multiplies progressively. This process is called \u003ca href=\"http://sustainablenano.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/3-bioaccumulation-vs-biomagnification.png\" target=\"_blank\">biomagnification\u003c/a> and it has impacts on a food web from bottom to top.\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\u003c/div>",
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"content": "\u003cdiv class=\"post-body\">\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003ca href=\"http://media.news.wfu.edu/experts/dennis-lemly/\" target=\"_blank\">Dr. Dennis Lemly\u003c/a>, research fish biologist and professor of biology at Wake Forest University, calls selenium an “invisible” toxin because it doesn’t directly harm the fish that eats it. “Instead, it migrates to the ovaries and enters growing embryos, causing defects in major organs and physical deformities in the head, spine, mouth, and fins (see effects of selenium poisoning in North Carolina \u003ca href=\"http://appvoices.org/2013/12/05/effects-of-selenium-poisoning-deformed-and-dying-fish-at-sutton-lake/\" target=\"_blank\">here\u003c/a>). A lot of them die shortly after birth,” Lemly said. “So over a period of two or three years, the older fish die off and there’s no young ones to replace them and repopulate. They just die off.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cfigure id=\"attachment_71431\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\" style=\"max-width: 367px\">\u003ca href=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg\">\u003cimg class=\"wp-image-71431\" src=\"http://ww2.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg\" alt=\"Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\" width=\"367\" height=\"232\" srcset=\"https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-400x253.jpg 400w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-800x505.jpg 800w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-1180x746.jpg 1180w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites-960x607.jpg 960w, https://ww2.kqed.org/app/uploads/sites/39/2014/03/4.-location-of-coal-ash-sites.jpg 1396w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 367px) 100vw, 367px\">\u003c/a>\u003cfigcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Location of coal ash contamination sites as of Feb, 2014. Red denotes a coal ash contaminated site. Green denotes a coal ash spill. Black denotes both a contaminated site and a spill. Click to enlarge. Source: EPA Coal Ash Damage Cases. Map courtesy Arc-GIS\u003c/figcaption>\u003c/figure>\n\u003cp>\u003cstrong>The Future of Coal Ash Disposal\u003c/strong>\u003cbr>\nWhile the long-term effects of the Dan River coal ash spill won't be known for a while, the short-term effects may be influencing regulation. In 2008, the catastrophic 1.1 billion gallon spill in Kingston, Tennessee, galvanized public debate about coal ash storage. In 2010, the EPA proposed the nation’s first-ever rules to ensure the safe disposal of coal ash. According to the EPA, “these rules would ensure stronger oversight of the structural integrity of impoundments in order to prevent future accidents.”\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>\u003c/p>\n\u003cp>Dr. Lemly is in favor of more regulation, “I have been on record many times recommending a complete banning of the surface disposal in impoundments. I continue to do that. I’m hopeful that the EPA ruling on coal ash that is supposed to come out in December will provide a complete ban on surface impoundment disposal.” The EPA is expected to finalize their rules for coal ash on December 19.\u003c/p>\n\n\u003c/div>\u003c/p>",
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